BLOCK-2 INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

UNIT 1 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (G AND S

FACTORS
AND THE MODEL OF JP DAS)

INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of human civilization, people have always been curious about why
individuals differ in their abilities. Some people are quick learners, some are highly
creative, while others may struggle in academics but excel in practical skills.
The term intelligence is commonly used in everyday life to describe qualities like:
 Alertness
 Quick thinking
 Academic success
 Problem-solving ability
 Success in career or life
However, intelligence is not easy to define. Even psychologists do not fully agree on one
single definition. This shows that intelligence is a complex and broad concept.
To understand intelligence better, psychologists have:
 Studied individual differences
 Developed various theories and models
In this unit, we study:
 Meaning and nature of intelligence
 Historical background of intelligence
 Important theories like:
o Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory (G and S)
o Thorndike’s Theory
o PASS Theory by J.P. Das
In short:
The introduction explains that intelligence is complex, varies from person to person, and
needs scientific theories to understand it properly.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
1. Define Intelligence
 Understand what intelligence means from a psychological perspective

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2. Understand Individual Differences
 Learn how and why people differ in their abilities

3. Explain Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory

 Understand G (general) and S (specific) factors

4. Critically Evaluate Spearman’s Theory

 Learn its advantages and limitations

5. Describe PASS Theory (J.P. Das Model)

 Understand the four processes:
o Planning
o Attention
o Simultaneous
o Successive

6. Analyse PASS Theory

 Understand how this theory explains intelligence in real-life learning

THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

 Intelligence is very difficult to define clearly.
 In Indian thought, buddhi (intellect) means the ability to take decisions and includes
wisdom, emotions, and values.
 People think they understand intelligence, but everyone has a different meaning.
 Some believe intelligence means quick answers, while others think it means success
in life.
 Even psychologists do not agree on one definition.
 So, we understand what intelligence is, but it is hard to explain it in exact words.
Theoretical Definitions of Intelligence Meaning
Theoretical definitions are the ideas given by psychologists to explain what intelligence
actually is.
Intelligence has been described as:
 Total knowledge a person has
 Ability to learn from experience
 Ability to solve problems

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  Ability to adjust to environment
All these are correct, but no single definition explains everything.

Why is there no single definition?

 Intelligence includes many abilities like thinking, memory, reasoning, learning, etc.
 Because of this, it is used as a general term for many mental abilities
 So, it becomes difficult to define it in one sentence
Important Historical Observation
1921 Symposium
 13 psychologists gave 13 different definitions
Shows disagreement among experts
1986 Study
 24 experts gave 24 different definitions
Even after many years, no common definition
Definitions by Famous Psychologists
1. Alfred Binet
Intelligence includes:
 Reasoning
 Memory
 Judgment
 Abstract thinking
Focus: mental abilities

2. William Stern
Intelligence = Ability to adjust thinking to new situations
Focus: adjustment
3. Lewis Terman
Intelligence = Ability to think abstractly
Focus: abstract thinking

4. Charles Spearman
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Intelligence = Ability to adapt to environment
Focus: adaptation

5. David Wechsler
Intelligence = Ability to:
 Think rationally
 Act purposefully
 Deal effectively with environment
Focus: overall functioning

6. Howard Gardner
Intelligence includes:
 Problem-solving
 Creating new ideas
 Producing useful outcomes
Focus: real-life abilities

7. Robert Sternberg
Intelligence = Ability to:
 Adapt
 Shape
 Select environment
Focus: interaction with environment

Common Elements in All Definitions

Even though definitions differ, most psychologists agree on some key elements:
Table: Core Elements of Intelligence
Element Meaning Example
🧠 Abstract Thinking Thinking using logic and ideas Solving maths problems
📚 Learning Ability Gaining knowledge from experience Learning from mistakes
🔧 Problem Solving Handling new situations Fixing a real-life issue
🌍 Adaptation Adjusting to environment Adjusting in new city

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🧩 Memory Storing information Remembering concepts
⚡ Mental Speed Quick thinking Fast decision-making
Language Ability Understanding and using language Communication skills
🎨 Creativity Producing new ideas Writing, designing

Research Findings (Very Important)

Study by Snyderman & Rothman (1987):
 Experts agreed most on:
o Abstract thinking
o Problem-solving
o Learning ability
These are considered the most important parts of intelligence
Final Understanding
From all definitions, 3 main ideas are most important:
1. Learning ability
2. Thinking (especially abstract reasoning)
3. Adaptation to environment
Conclusion
 Intelligence is a complex and multi-dimensional concept
 Many psychologists have defined it differently
 No single definition is complete
 The search for a perfect definition is still ongoing

Operational Definition Of Intelligence

What is Operational Definition?
Given by: Edwin Boring
He said:
“Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure.”

Meaning in Simple Words

 Instead of explaining what intelligence is,
 We measure it using tests (IQ tests)

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Example:
 If a person scores high in an IQ test → considered intelligent
 If score is low → considered less intelligent
So, intelligence = test score

Why was this definition given?

 Earlier (1921), many psychologists gave different definitions
 There was confusion about the true meaning of intelligence
So, Boring avoided this confusion and said:
“Let’s define intelligence based on what we can measure.”

Importance
 Makes intelligence easy to study scientifically
 Helps in:
o Comparing individuals
o Educational assessment
o Job selection

Limitation (Very Important)

 It does not explain the real nature of intelligence
 Only tells how to measure it, not what it actually is
 Assumes intelligence is a single general ability, which modern theories disagree with

Conclusion
Operational definition is practical but incomplete
It helps in testing, but does not fully explain intelligence

Historical Perspective on Intelligence

Early Situation
 Before the 19th century, people did not study intelligence scientifically
 Even though maths and science developed, human abilities were ignored

Influence of Charles Darwin

 His theory of evolution inspired scientists to study human differences

Francis Galton (Very Important)

Contributions:
 First person to study intelligence scientifically
 Gave the term “mental test”
 Opened first testing lab in London (1882)
What he measured:
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  Height, weight
 Strength
 Hearing, vision
He believed:
 Intelligence is inherited (genetic)
Contribution in Statistics:
 Developed correlation method
 Later improved by Karl Pearson
Known as:
Father of psychological testing & individual differences

Alfred Binet (Most Important)

Why he created the test?
 French government asked him to identify weak students

First Intelligence Test (1905)

 Made with Theodore Simon
 Included 30 questions
 Tested:
o Understanding
o Reasoning ability

Mental Age Concept

 Child’s intelligence = level they can perform
Example:
 10-year-old child performs like 8-year-old
→ Mental age = 8

William Stern
Gave IQ Formula:
IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100
Example:
 Mental age = 10
 Real age = 10
→ IQ = 100 (average)

Importance of Binet’s Work

 First practical intelligence test
 Helped in education system

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  All modern IQ tests are based on his ideas

Final Conclusion
Operational Definition:
 Intelligence = what tests measure
 Useful but not complete
Historical Development:
 Francis Galton → Started measurement
 Alfred Binet → Developed first real test
 William Stern → Introduced IQ

SPEARMAN’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Introduction
Charles Spearman (1904) proposed one of the earliest scientific theories of intelligence.
He used correlation and factor analysis to study how different intelligence tests are related.
He found that people who perform well in one test often perform well in others.
This led him to conclude that intelligence is not separate abilities, but has a common base.

2. Basic Idea of the Theory

Spearman said that every intellectual activity involves two factors:
(A) General Factor (g)
 Present in all mental activities
 Represents overall mental ability
 Helps in:
o Reasoning
o Problem-solving
o Understanding
It is called “mental energy”
Key point:
 People differ in intelligence because of how much “g” they have

(B) Specific Factor (s)

 Unique to particular tasks
 Each activity has its own “s”
Example:
 Solving math → math-specific ability
 Writing essay → language-specific ability
So, each task needs its own skill apart from general intelligence
3. Formula of Intelligence
Spearman’s idea can be written as:
Performance in any task = g + s
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 Example:
If a student solves a reasoning question:
 “g” → general thinking ability
 “s” → reasoning-specific skill

4. Correlation Between Tests

Spearman observed that:
 Different intelligence tests are positively correlated
 This is because they all share common factor “g”
Important point:
 More correlation = more involvement of “g”

5. Concept of Tetrad Difference (Simple Idea)

 Spearman used a mathematical method called tetrad difference
 It helped him prove that:
o A single general factor (g) exists
In simple words:
This method showed that intelligence is not random, but has a common base

6. Group Factors (Later Development)

Later, researchers found:
 Some abilities are shared by a group of tasks
These are called Group Factors
Examples:
 Verbal ability
 Numerical ability
 Mechanical ability
So now structure becomes:
 g (general)
 group factors
 s (specific)

7. Diagram Idea (Conceptual Understanding)

 “g” = big central circle
 “s” = small circles for each task
 Tests overlap depending on how much “g” they use

8. Importance of the Theory

(1) Scientific Contribution
 First theory to use factor analysis

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  Made intelligence measurable and scientific
(2) Foundation for Future Theories
 Helped development of:
o Multi-factor theories
o Modern intelligence testing

9. Criticism of the Theory

(1) Too Simple
 Intelligence cannot be explained by just g and s
(2) Ignores Multiple Abilities
 Critics like Edward Thorndike said:
o Intelligence is made of many independent abilities
(3) Not Cognitive Enough
 Focuses more on statistics than actual thinking process

10. Conclusion
Spearman’s theory explains that:
All mental activities depend on a common general ability (g) along with specific skills
(s).
Even though later theories improved it,
it remains a foundation in understanding intelligence.

Critical Appraisal of Two-Factor Theory

1. Meaning of Critical Appraisal
Critical appraisal means:
Evaluating the theory by discussing its weaknesses (criticisms) and strengths (support)

2. Major Criticism
(A) Too Much Focus on Statistics
 The theory is based on factor analysis (mathematics & correlations)
 Critics said it is purely psychometric (number-based)
 It does not clearly explain:
o How thinking actually happens
o Mental processes inside the brain
In simple words:
It measures intelligence but does not fully explain it

3. Response to Criticism
(A) Not Just Statistical
Robert Sternberg and Peter Frensch (1990) argued that:
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This criticism is wrong (misplaced)
Because Spearman also gave cognitive ideas, not just numbers

4. Spearman’s Cognitive Explanation

(A) Qualitative Principle
Charles Spearman (1923) said:
When we understand one thing and its relation,
we can quickly understand related things
Example:
If you know:
 “Dog is to Puppy”
You can understand:
 “Cat is to Kitten”
This shows intelligence involves understanding relationships
(B) Quantitative Principles
According to Hans Eysenck (1990), Spearman also explained 5 mental factors:
1. Conative Control → Ability to focus and control actions
2. Fatigue → Tiredness affects intelligence performance
3. Mental Energy → Overall brain power (same as “g”)
4. Primordial Potencies → Inborn mental abilities
5. Retentivity → Ability to remember things
So, intelligence is not just test scores, but also involves these mental processes

5. Support from Later Psychologists

(A) Support for “g” Factor
Arthur Jensen (1998):
 Confirmed existence of general intelligence (g) using modern methods

(B) Hierarchical Model Support

John B. Carroll (1993):
 Placed “g” at the top (Stratum III) in his intelligence model
This proves:
 Spearman’s idea of “g” is still important today

6. Overall Evaluation
Strengths
 Introduced scientific study of intelligence

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 Concept of “g” is still valid
 Supported by modern research
Weaknesses
 Too simple (only g and s)
 Ignores multiple independent abilities
 Focuses more on measurement than thinking process

7. Conclusion
Spearman’s theory was criticized for being too statistical,
but later psychologists showed that:
It also includes cognitive aspects
The concept of “g” is strongly supported even today
Therefore, it is a very important foundation for modern intelligence theories

Thorndike’s Theory of Intelligence (Criticism of Spearman)

1. Introduction
Edward L. Thorndike (1926) was one of the strongest critics of Spearman’s two-factor
theory.
He disagreed with the idea of one general intelligence (g).

2. Main Idea of Thorndike

Rejection of “g” Factor
 Thorndike said:
There is no single general intelligence
 Instead, intelligence is made up of:
Many small, independent abilities

3. Intelligence as Multiple Abilities

According to Thorndike:
 Intelligence = collection of different skills/talents
 Each task requires a separate ability
Example:
 Solving math → one ability
 Speaking well → another ability
 Understanding people → another ability

4. Explanation of Correlation
Spearman said:
Tests are related because of “g”
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But Thorndike said:
Tests are related because they have similar features
Example:
 Two language tests may be related
→ not because of “g”
→ but because both need language skill

5. Nature of Intelligence
Focus on Tasks, Not Person
 Thorndike believed:
Intelligence depends on the nature of tasks, not a general ability
People differ in:
 Difficulty level they can handle
 Number of tasks they can perform

6. Types of Intelligence (Thorndike)

Thorndike divided intelligence into 3 types:
(i) Social Intelligence
 Ability to understand and deal with people
(ii) Concrete Intelligence
 Ability to handle objects and things
(iii) Abstract Intelligence
 Ability to deal with ideas, symbols, words

7. Criticism of Thorndike’s View

Weakness
 Completely rejecting “g” is not correct
Because:
 Many tasks share common elements
 So grouping abilities (like verbal, numerical) is useful
This supports Spearman’s idea to some extent

8. Key Difference: Spearman vs Thorndike

Spearman Thorndike
One general factor (g) No general factor
Intelligence = g + s Intelligence = many separate abilities
Focus on common Focus on specific tasks
ability

Thomson’s Sampling Theory of Intelligence

1. Introduction

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Godfrey H. Thomson (1939) was another critic of Spearman’s theory.
He did not fully accept Spearman’s “g” factor, but also did not completely reject it.
2. Main Idea of Thomson
Rejection of Single “g” Factor
 Thomson said:
There is no single general intelligence (g) as a fixed entity
 Instead:
Intelligence is made up of many small independent abilities (elements)
3. Sampling Theory (Core Concept)
Thomson proposed Sampling Theory:
 Every test samples (uses) some small mental abilities
 These abilities are called elements
Important point:
 Different tests may use some of the same elements

4. Explanation of Correlation
Spearman said:
Correlation between tests = because of “g”
But Thomson said:
Correlation happens because tests share common elements
Example:
 Test A uses abilities: 1, 2, 3, 4
 Test B uses abilities: 3, 4, 5
Since both share (3, 4), they will be correlated

5. Range of Abilities in Tests

 Some tests use:
Wide range of abilities (many elements)
 Some tests use:
Narrow range of abilities (few elements)
More common elements = higher correlation

6. View on “g” Factor

 Thomson accepted something like “g”
 But said:
“g” is not a real single ability
Instead:
 It is a combination of many small abilities that appear together
7. Group Factors and Specific Factors
According to Thomson:
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Group Factors
 Formed by combination of some common elements
 Shared by a group of tests
Specific Factors
 Abilities used in only one test

8. Comparison with Spearman

Spearman Thomson
One real “g” factor No real “g”, only combination
Intelligence = g + s Intelligence = many small
elements
Correlation due to Correlation due to shared elements
“g”

9. Criticism of Thomson
J. P. Guilford (1953) criticized Thomson:
Said:
 These small “elements” cannot be clearly proven in experiments
So, theory lacks strong scientific proof

10. Conclusion
Thomson explained intelligence as:
 A collection of many small abilities
 Tests correlate because they share common elements
His theory is important because:
 It gives an alternative explanation of intelligence
 But lacks strong experimental support

Thurstone’s Theory of Intelligence

1. Introduction
Louis L. Thurstone (1935) gave a new theory of intelligence using advanced statistical
methods.
He disagreed with Spearman’s single “g” factor.

2. Main Idea of Thurstone

Rejection of “g”
 Thurstone said:
Intelligence is not one general ability
 Instead:
It consists of several independent abilities
3. Primary Mental Abilities (Core Concept)
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Thurstone identified 7 Primary Mental Abilities (PMAs):
1. Verbal Ability → understanding words
2. Word Fluency → speaking/writing easily
3. Number Ability → working with numbers
4. Spatial Ability → understanding shapes/space
5. Memory → remembering information
6. Perceptual Speed → quick observation
7. Reasoning → logical thinking
These abilities are independent, not controlled by one “g”

4. Research Method
 Used 57 different tests
 Applied matrix algebra & factor analysis
 Found that 7 abilities explain intelligence better than “g”

5. Why His Results Were Different?

Hans Eysenck (1972) gave 2 reasons:
(A) Difference in Sample
 Spearman → general population (children)
 Thurstone → only students
Results may differ because of different groups

(B) Choice of Tests

 Spearman → used different types of tests
 Thurstone → used very similar tests
Similar tests → create extra correlations
→ appear as separate abilities (not “g”)

[Link] Modification by Thurstone

Later, Thurstone accepted that:
 These 7 abilities are not fully independent
 They are somewhat related
So he proposed a hierarchical model:
 Top level → “g” (general intelligence)
 Middle → Primary Mental Abilities
 Bottom → specific test skills

7. Comparison with Spearman

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 Spearman Thurstone
One “g” factor Multiple abilities
Intelligence = g + s Intelligence = 7 PMAs
Emphasis on general Emphasis on specific abilities
ability

8. Importance of Thurstone’s Theory

Strengths
 Explained intelligence in a detailed way
 Recognized different abilities
 Improved statistical methods
Weakness
 Initially ignored “g”
 Later had to accept it

9. Conclusion
Thurstone showed that intelligence is made of multiple abilities,
but later accepted that:
These abilities are connected and supported by a general factor (g)

PASS THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Introduction
The PASS theory was developed by:
 J. P. Das
 Jack Naglieri
 John R. Kirby (1994)
This theory explains how the brain processes information, not just test scores.
It is based on the work of:
Alexander Luria

2. Basic Idea of PASS

PASS = 4 mental processes:
 P → Planning
 A → Attention-Arousal
 S → Simultaneous Processing
 S → Successive Processing
Intelligence = how well these 4 processes work together

3. Understanding the Diagram (Step-by-Step)

The diagram shows how input → processing → output happens in the brain.

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(A) Input (Top of Diagram)
 Information enters the brain in two ways:
o Serial (step-by-step)
o Concurrent (together at once)
Example:
 Reading sentence → Serial
 Seeing picture → Concurrent

(B) First Functional Unit → Attention / Arousal

Location: Brain stem
Function:
 Keeps you alert and focused
 Helps in selective attention
Example:
 Ignoring noise while studying
Without attention, no learning happens

(C) Second Functional Unit → Processing

Location: Occipital, Parietal, Temporal lobes
This unit does actual thinking work:

(1) Simultaneous Processing

 Process everything at once
 Understand relationships
Example:
 Understanding a diagram
 Solving puzzles
All parts are connected together

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(2) Successive Processing
 Process step-by-step (order)
Example:
 Reading a sentence
 Learning a poem
One step follows another

(D) Third Functional Unit → Planning

Location: Frontal lobe
Function:
 Controls and manages thinking
 Helps in:
o Problem solving
o Decision making
o Self-monitoring
Example:
 Writing an essay (plan → write → check)

(E) Interaction Between Units

The diagram arrows show:
 All 3 units work together continuously
Flow:
1. Attention → focuses mind
2. Processing → understands information
3. Planning → decides action

(F) Knowledge Base (Side of Diagram)

 Your past learning & experience
 Affects all processes
Example:
 Language knowledge helps understanding

(G) Output (Top Right)

 Final result:
Action / response / behavior
Example:
 Answering a question
 Solving a problem

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4. Summary of 3 Brain Units (Luria)
Unit Function
1st Attention & alertness
2nd Processing information
3rd Planning & control

5. Importance of PASS Theory

Focuses on Process
 Explains how intelligence works, not just score
Practical Use
 Helps in:
o Learning problems
o Teaching methods
o Cognitive assessment

6. Key Idea in One Line

Intelligence = Planning + Attention + Simultaneous + Successive processes working
together

Critical Appraisal of PASS Theory

1. Meaning
Critical appraisal means evaluating the theory by looking at its strengths, usefulness, and
limitations.

2. Strengths of PASS Theory

(A) New and Modern Approach
 PASS theory gives a new way to understand intelligence
 It focuses on:
how the brain processes information, not just scores
Unlike old theories (Spearman etc.), it is process-based

(B) Cognitive in Nature

 The theory is based on cognitive processes:
o Planning
o Attention
o Simultaneous
o Successive
So, it explains:
 how thinking happens inside the brain

(C) Based on Brain Research

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  PASS is based on the work of:
Alexander Luria
This makes it:
 More scientific and realistic
 Connected to neuropsychology

(D) Multidimensional View of Intelligence

 Intelligence is not one ability
 It has multiple dimensions (PASS processes)
This gives a complete understanding of intelligence

(E) Practical Utility

 Very useful in real life:
o Education
o Learning difficulties
o Child assessment
Helps teachers understand:
 Where the student is weak (attention, memory, planning, etc.)

3. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)

What is CAS?
 A test developed by:
J. P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and John R. Kirby
It is based on PASS theory

Features of CAS
 Has 4 subscales:
1. Planning
2. Attention
3. Simultaneous
4. Successive
Each subscale:
 Measures a specific cognitive process

Importance of CAS
 Helps to:
o Identify strengths and weaknesses in thinking
o Understand how a person processes information
o Improve learning strategies

Unlike traditional IQ tests:

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  It focuses on process, not just final score

4. Comparison with Traditional Tests

Traditional IQ Tests PASS Theory (CAS)
Measure final score Measure thinking process
Focus on “how much Focus on “how intelligence works”
intelligence”
Limited explanation Detailed cognitive understanding

5. Limitation (Indirect)
The text hints that:
 Other intelligence tests also try to measure cognition
 But they only approximate (indirectly measure) mental processes
PASS tries to improve this, but:
 Complete understanding of brain processes is still complex

6. Conclusion
PASS theory is important because:
 It gives a modern, brain-based explanation of intelligence
 Provides a practical tool (CAS) for assessment
It moves intelligence testing from:
“measuring scores” → to → “understanding thinking

UNIT 2 MULTIPLE THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (GUILFORD, GARDNER

AND STERNBERG)
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 INTRODUCTION
In earlier theories (like Spearman, Thorndike), intelligence was seen as:
Either one ability (g) or few factors
But now, modern psychologists believe:
Intelligence is not single, it is made up of many abilities

2. Meaning of Intelligence (Modern View)

Intelligence includes many cognitive activities, such as:
 Learning from experience
 Solving problems
 Reasoning
 Thinking abstractly
 Adapting to new situations
So, intelligence = combination of different mental abilities

3. Shift in Thinking (Important Concept)

Earlier View:
 Intelligence = single factor (g)
Modern View:
 Intelligence = multiple abilities
This change happened because:
 Human thinking is complex and diverse
 One factor cannot explain everything

4. Role of Factor Analysis

 In the early 20th century, factor analysis became popular
 It helped psychologists study:
How different mental abilities are related
But the debate continued:
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  Is intelligence one (unitary) or many (multiple)?

5. Contemporary Approach
Today, intelligence is understood as:
Multidimensional (many-sided)
Includes different types of abilities

6. Theories Covered in This Unit

This unit focuses on three important modern theories:
(A) J. P. Guilford – Structure of Intellect Theory
 Intelligence has many components (120+ abilities)
 Based on:
o Operations
o Contents
o Products

(B) Howard Gardner – Multiple Intelligences

 Intelligence is of different types, like:
o Linguistic
o Logical
o Musical
o Social, etc.
Everyone has different strengths

(C) Robert Sternberg – Triarchic Theory

 Intelligence has 3 parts:
1. Analytical
2. Creative
3. Practical

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Focus on real-life intelligence

7. Objectives of the Unit (Simple Explanation)

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

(1) Understand Modern Intelligence

Know how intelligence is viewed today (multiple abilities)

(2) Explain Guilford’s Theory

Understand structure of intellect (many abilities)

(3) Explain Gardner’s Theory

Learn different types of intelligence

(4) Compare Guilford & Gardner

Difference between:
 Structure model vs types of intelligence

(5) Understand Sternberg’s Theory

Learn 3 types:
 Analytical, Creative, Practical
(6) Compare Gardner & Sternberg
Difference between:
 Multiple intelligences vs triarchic model

GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE-OF-INTELLECT (SOI) THEORY

1. Introduction
J. P. Guilford proposed that:
Intelligence is not one single ability,
but a combination of many independent abilities
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He rejected:
 Charles Spearman’s “g” factor
 Even broad abilities of Louis L. Thurstone

2. Basic Idea of the Theory

Intelligence = many separate mental abilities
 These abilities are:
Independent
Different from each other
So, each person has a unique combination of abilities

3. Need for SOI Model

Guilford believed:
 New mental abilities were being discovered
 There was a need for a proper classification system
So, he created the Structure-of-Intellect (SOI) Model

4. Structure of Intellect Model (Cube Model)

Guilford explained intelligence in 3 dimensions:
(A) Operations (What the brain does)
(B) Contents (Type of information)
(C) Products (Form of information)
These 3 dimensions combine to form a cube model

5. Three Dimensions Explained

(A) Operations (5 Types)
Mental processes used to think:
1. Cognition → Understanding information
2. Memory → Storing and recalling
3. Evaluation → Judging correctness
4. Convergent Production → Finding one correct answer
5. Divergent Production → Generating many ideas (creativity)

(B) Contents (Types of Information)

Original (4 types):
1. Figural → Images, shapes
2. Symbolic → Numbers, signs
3. Semantic → Meaning, language
4. Behavioural → Social behaviour
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Modified Version (5 types):
 Figural divided into:
o Visual
o Auditory
So total = 5 contents

(C) Products (6 Types)

Form in which information is organised:
1. Units → Single items
2. Classes → Groups
3. Relations → Connections
4. Systems → Organized structures
5. Transformations → Changes
6. Implications → Predictions/conclusions

6. Total Number of Abilities

Original Model:
 4 Contents × 5 Operations × 6 Products
= 120 abilities

Modified Model:
 5 Contents × 5 Operations × 6 Products
= 150 abilities

7. Cube Representation
Imagine a 3D cube:
 One side → Operations
 One side → Contents
 One side → Products
Each cell in cube = one specific mental ability

8. Important Features
(1) Multidimensional
 Intelligence has many abilities
(2) Focus on Creativity
 Introduced divergent thinking (creativity)
(3) Flexible Model
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  Allows discovery of new abilities

9. Criticism of the Theory

(1) Too Complex
 120–150 abilities → difficult to study
(2) Lack of Practical Use
 Hard to apply in real-life testing
(3) Not Fully Proven
 All abilities are not clearly supported by research

10. Conclusion
Guilford’s theory shows that:
Intelligence is a structure of many abilities,
not just one general factor
It gave a detailed and modern understanding of intelligence

1 Contents Dimension
This dimension tells us:
“What kind of information the brain is dealing with”
It has 5 types:
1. Visual
 Information we see (images, shapes)
Example: Diagram, picture
2. Auditory
 Information we hear (sounds)
Example: Music, spoken words
3. Symbolic
 Symbols that don’t have meaning by themselves
Example: Numbers (1, 2, 3), letters (A, B, C)
4. Semantic
 Information with meaning (language)
Example: Words, sentences
5. Behavioural
 Information about people’s actions and behaviour
Example: Understanding emotions, gestures
In one line:
Contents = type of information (what we are thinking about)

2 Operations Dimension
This dimension tells us:
“What mental process is being used”
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It has 5 operations:

1. Cognition
 Understanding and learning
Example: Recognising a concept
2. Memory
 Storing and recalling information
Example: Remembering a poem
3. Divergent Production
 Producing many answers (creativity)
Example: Giving many uses of a brick
4. Convergent Production
 Finding one correct answer
Example: Solving a math problem
5. Evaluation
 Judging correctness
Example: Checking if answer is right
In one line:
Operations = how we think/process information

3 Products Dimension
This dimension tells us:
“What form the final information takes”
It has 6 products:

1. Unit
 Single piece of information
Example: One word
2. Class
 Group of similar items
Example: Fruits, animals
3. Relation
 Connection between items
Example: Big–small, cause–effect
4. System
 Organized structure
Example: Family tree
5. Transformation
 Change or modification
Example: Rearranging letters
6. Implication
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  Prediction or conclusion
Example: Guessing future outcome
In one line:
Products = final form of processed information

Example (Very Important for Exam)

Task: Remember a list of words
 Content → Semantic (words)
 Operation → Memory
 Product → Units (individual words)

4 Evaluation of Guilford’s Theory

Strengths
(1) Detailed Explanation
 Explains intelligence in many parts (120–150 abilities)
(2) Supports Modern View
 Intelligence = multiple abilities, not one
(3) Useful in Research
 Helped develop new intelligence tests

Criticism
(1) Too Complex
 Too many factors → difficult to understand
(2) Limited Practical Use
 Hard to apply in:
o Education
o Career guidance
(3) Weak Role of “g”
Hans Eysenck said:
 Guilford ignored general intelligence (g)
(4) Narrow Factors
 Abilities are too small and specific
 Not very useful for prediction
Important Technical Criticism
 Used orthogonal method (ignores relationships between factors)
 If another method was used → “g” might appear

Conclusion
Guilford’s theory:
 Gives a detailed structure of intelligence
 But is too complex and less practical
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Still, it played an important role in:
Developing modern intelligence theories

GUILFORD’S MODEL
A. Contents Dimension (What type of information?)
This tells us what kind of information the brain is dealing with
Types of Contents:
1. Visual
 Information we see (images, shapes)
Example: Diagram, picture
2. Auditory
 Information we hear (sounds)
Example: Music, spoken words
3. Symbolic
 Signs or symbols without meaning by themselves
Example: Numbers (1,2,3), alphabets
4. Semantic
 Meaningful words and sentences
Example: Language, concepts
5. Behavioural
 Information about people’s actions
Example: Facial expressions, gestures

B. Operations Dimension (What the brain does?)

These are mental processes
Types of Operations:
1. Cognition
 Understanding and learning
Example: Reading and understanding
2. Memory
 Storing and recalling information
Example: Remembering answers

3. Divergent Production
 Producing many ideas (creativity)
Example: Writing different uses of a brick
4. Convergent Production
 Finding one correct answer
Example: Solving math problem
5. Evaluation

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  Judging correctness
Example: Checking if answer is right

C. Products Dimension
This tells us how information is organised
Types of Products:
1. Unit → Single item
2. Class → Group of items
3. Relation → Connection between items
4. System → Organized structure
5. Transformation → Change or modification
6. Implication → Prediction or conclusion

Example (Very Important for Exam)

If you memorize words:
 Content → Semantic (words)
 Operation → Memory
 Product → Units (individual words)

Evaluation (Criticism & Importance)

Criticism
 Too complex (120–150 abilities)
 Factors are too narrow
 Not very useful for prediction
Hans Eysenck criticized it

Importance
 Introduced multiple abilities idea
 Helped develop modern intelligence tests

GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

1. Introduction
Howard Gardner (1983) proposed:
Intelligence is not one (IQ)
It is multiple intelligences

2. Basic Idea
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Intelligence =
Ability to solve problems
Ability to create useful products
It depends on culture and environment

3. Criticism of Old Theories

Gardner said:
 IQ tests are too narrow
 They measure only:
o Language
o Logical skills
Ignore other talents like:
 Music
 Art
 Social skills

4. Definition of Intelligence
Intelligence is:
“A bio-psychological potential to process information
and solve problems or create products valued in culture”

5. Criteria for Intelligence (8 Points – Simple Idea)

Gardner said something is intelligence only if it:
 Has brain basis
 Has evolutionary importance
 Has core skills
 Develops over time
 Seen in gifted people
 Supported by research
So, intelligence is scientifically validated

6. Types of Multiple Intelligences

Initially 7 → later 8 (and possible 9)

(A) Linguistic Intelligence

 Skill in language
Example: Writer, lawyer
(B) Logical-Mathematical
 Reasoning and numbers
Example: Scientist
(C) Spatial Intelligence
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  Understanding space and images
Example: Architect
(D) Musical Intelligence
 Sensitivity to sound/music
Example: Singer
(E) Bodily-Kinesthetic
 Control over body
Example: Dancer, athlete
(F) Interpersonal
 Understanding others
Example: Teacher, leader
(G) Intrapersonal
 Understanding oneself
Example: Self-awareness
(H) Naturalistic (added later)
 Understanding nature
Example: Farmer, botanist
(I) Existential (proposed)
 Thinking about life, death, meaning

7. Categories (Easy Trick)

 School-based → Linguistic, Logical
 Arts → Spatial, Musical, Bodily
 Personal → Interpersonal, Intrapersonal
 Nature → Naturalistic

8. Importance of Gardner’s Theory

Strengths
 Broad view of intelligence
 Values all talents
 Useful in education

Criticism
 Too many intelligences
 Difficult to measure
 Less scientific proof

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

1. Introduction
Howard Gardner (1983) said:
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Intelligence is not one (IQ)
It is made up of many different types of intelligences
Each person has a unique combination of these intelligences

2. Types of Multiple Intelligences

1 Linguistic Intelligence
Ability to use language effectively
Skills:
 Reading, writing, speaking
 Storytelling, memorising
Characteristics:
 Good with words
 Learn through reading & discussion
Careers:
 Writer, lawyer, teacher, journalist, politician

2 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Ability to think logically and solve problems
Skills:
 Reasoning
 Pattern recognition
 Scientific thinking
Characteristics:
 Good in maths, logic, analysis
Careers:
 Scientist, engineer, doctor, economist

3 Musical Intelligence
Ability related to music and sound
Skills:
 Recognising rhythm, tone, pitch
 Composing or performing music
Characteristics:
 Sensitive to sound
 Learn through music
Careers:
 Singer, musician, composer, DJ

4 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Ability to use body movements skillfully
Skills:
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  Coordination
 Physical control
Characteristics:
 Learn by doing
 Good in sports, dance
Careers:
 Athlete, dancer, actor, surgeon

.5 Spatial Intelligence
Ability to visualise and understand space
Skills:
 Mental imagery
 Understanding shapes and designs
Characteristics:
 Good with maps, puzzles
Careers:
 Architect, artist, designer

.6 Interpersonal Intelligence
Ability to understand others
Skills:
 Empathy
 Communication
Characteristics:
 Social, cooperative
 Good at teamwork
Careers:
 Teacher, politician, counselor, manager

7 Intrapersonal Intelligence
Ability to understand oneself
Skills:
 Self-awareness
 Emotional understanding
Characteristics:
 Reflective, introspective
Careers:
 Psychologist, philosopher, writer

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8 Naturalistic Intelligence
Ability to understand nature
Skills:
 Identifying plants, animals
 Observing environment
Careers:
 Farmer, botanist, naturalist

.9 Existential Intelligence
Ability to think about:
 Life
 Death
 Meaning of existence
Careers:
 Philosopher, thinker

3. Important Points
(A) Intelligences Work Together
 They do not work separately
 Used together in real life

(B) Categories (Easy Understanding)

Category Types
School-based Linguistic, Logical
Arts-based Musical, Spatial, Bodily
Personal Interpersonal, Intrapersonal
Nature/Philosophy Naturalistic, Existential

4. Educational Importance
Gardner said schools focus too much on:
 Language
 Maths
But ignore:
 Music
 Art
 Social skills
Result:

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  Many talented students are called:
“weak” or “underachievers”

Solution by Gardner
Teaching should include:
 Music
 Role play
 Group work
 Art activities
 Field trips
So all intelligences develop

5. Importance for Adults

 Helps people choose right careers
 Helps rediscover hidden talents
Example:
 A sporty person stuck in desk job may feel unhappy

6. Evaluation of Gardner’s Theory

Strengths
 Broad view of intelligence
 Values all talents
 Useful in education
 Helps identify strengths

Criticism
(1) Too Broad
 Intelligence becomes too wide
(2) Not Scientific Enough
 Difficult to measure
(3) Independence Questioned
 Intelligences are not fully separate
Critics:
 Hans Eysenck
 Robert Sternberg

Final View
Despite criticism:
 Theory is useful to understand different talents
It helps study:
 Musical ability

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  Sports skills
 Social intelligence

7. Conclusion
Gardner changed intelligence concept:
From:
 IQ = intelligence
To:
 Intelligence = multiple abilities in different areas

STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Introduction
Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed this theory.
He believed:
 Earlier theories (Spearman, Gardner) are not wrong,
 But they are incomplete
So, he gave a more complete theory including:
 Mental processes
 Real-life situations
 Experience

2. Basic Idea of the Theory

Intelligence = ability to:
Think logically
Be creative
Deal with real-life situations
That’s why it is called Triarchic (3-part theory)

3. Three Types of Intelligence

Analytical Intelligence
Ability to analyze, evaluate, and solve problems
Features:
 Logical thinking
 Problem-solving
 One correct answer
Example:
 Solving math problems
 IQ tests
Nature:
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  Problems are:
o Clearly defined
o Given by others
o Have one correct solution

Creative Intelligence
Ability to deal with new situations and create ideas
Features:
 Imagination
 Innovation
 Thinking differently
Example:
 Writing stories
 Artistic talent
Special Point:
 Works best in:
o New (novel) situations
o Or when tasks become automatic with practice

Practical Intelligence
Ability to deal with real-life problems
Features:
 Adaptation to environment
 Decision-making
 Common sense
Example:
 Managing people
 Handling daily life situations
Nature:
 Problems are:
o Not clearly defined
o Many possible solutions
o Based on real-life experience

4. Three Subtheories of Sternberg

Componential Subtheory
Focus: Mental processes inside brain
Types of Components:
1. Metacomponents
 Planning, decision making
Example: Choosing strategy
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 2. Performance Components
 Actual execution
Example: Solving problem
3. Knowledge Acquisition
 Learning new information

Experiential Subtheory
Focus: Experience level
Two situations:
1. Novel Tasks
 New problems → need creativity
2. Familiar Tasks (Automation)
 Repeated tasks → become automatic

Contextual Subtheory
Focus: Interaction with environment
Three processes:
1. Adaptation
 Adjusting to environment
2. Selection
 Choosing better environment
3. Shaping
 Changing environment

5. Relationship Between Three Subtheories

All three work together:
 Componential → how we think
 Experiential → role of experience
 Contextual → real-life application
Together = complete intelligence
6. Comparison with Gardner
Gardner Sternberg
Many intelligences 3 main types
Focus on abilities Focus on function
Broad classification Practical + real-life focus

7. Importance of Theory
Strengths
 Includes real-life intelligence
 Covers creativity + practical skills
 More complete than earlier theories

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Criticism
 Difficult to measure
 Overlaps with other theories
 Not as clearly defined as IQ

8. Conclusion
Sternberg explained intelligence as:
A combination of:
 Analytical (thinking)
 Creative (innovation)
 Practical (real life)
All three are important for success in life

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

1. Introduction
Robert Sternberg divided intelligence into three parts:
 Analytical (thinking)
 Creative (innovation)
 Practical (real-life)
These are explained through three subtheories (facets):
1. Componential (Analytical)
2. Experiential (Creative)
3. Contextual (Practical)

1 Componential / Analytical Subtheory

Meaning
This refers to academic intelligence
Ability to solve:
 Problems
 Puzzles
 Logical questions
Same as IQ-based intelligence

Key Idea
It explains how our brain processes information internally

Three Components
1. Metacomponents (Control System)
“Thinking about thinking”
Functions:
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  Planning
 Decision-making
 Choosing strategy
Example:
 Deciding how to solve a math problem

2. Performance Components (Execution)

“Doing the task”
Functions:
 Solving problem
 Comparing information
 Calculating
Example:
 Actually solving the math problem

3. Knowledge Acquisition Components (Learning)

“Learning new things”
Functions:
 Memorising
 Understanding
 Storing knowledge
Example:
 Learning formulas

Summary
Metacomponents = Plan
Performance = Execute
Knowledge = Learn

2 Experiential / Creative Subtheory

Meaning
Ability to:
 Handle new situations
 Think creatively
Key Idea
Intelligence depends on experience level

Two Important Concepts

1. Novelty (New Situations)
When problem is new
Intelligent person:
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  Thinks differently
 Finds new solutions
Example:
 Writing a unique story
2. Automation (Practice)
When task becomes easy after repetition
Intelligent person:
 Performs task quickly
 Without much thinking
Example:
 Driving a car after practice

Important Point
Being good at:
 New tasks ≠ always good at repeated tasks

Summary
Creative intelligence =
 Handling new situations
 Making tasks automatic

3 Contextual / Practical Subtheory

Meaning
Ability to deal with real-life situations
Also called:
“Street smart intelligence”

Key Idea
Intelligence = fit between person and environment

Three Processes
1. Adaptation
Change yourself to fit environment
Example:
 Wearing warm clothes in winter
2. Shaping
Change environment to suit you
Example:
 Teacher making rules in class
3. Selection
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Choose a new environment
Example:
 Moving to another city/country

Summary
Practical intelligence helps you:
 Adjust
 Control
 Choose environment

3. How All Three Work Together

Intelligence = balance of:
 Analytical (thinking)
 Creative (innovation)
 Practical (application)
Example:
 A successful lawyer:
o Analytical → understands law
o Creative → builds arguments
o Practical → handles real cases

4. Concept of “Successful Intelligence”

Sternberg says success depends on:
Using strengths
Improving weaknesses
Adapting to environment

Example:
 Strong in logic but weak in creativity
Can improve creativity or choose suitable career

5. Evaluation of Triarchic Theory

Strengths
1. More Complete
 Includes real-life + creativity
2. Practical Use
 Helps in education & career
3. Realistic
 Focus on success in life

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 Criticisms
1. Lack of Scientific Measurement
Hard to measure practically
2. Overlap with IQ
Critics say:
 Practical intelligence = learned skills
3. Creativity Doubt
Some studies say:
 Creativity = part of general intelligence
4. Criticism by Scholars
 Linda Gottfredson → said theory lacks evidence
 J. P. Das → said difficult to measure

6. Final Conclusion
Sternberg’s theory explains intelligence as:
A balance of:
 Thinking (Analytical)
 Creativity (Experiential)
 Real-life action (Contextual)
Main idea:
Intelligence is not just IQ
It is how well you adapt and succeed in life

UNIT 3 MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

INTRODUCTION
Why do we measure intelligence?
Intelligence is measured to understand individual differences
(i.e., why some people perform better than others)

Main Purposes of Measuring Intelligence

1. Academic Classification
 To group students based on ability
 Example:
o Slow learners
o Average students
o Gifted students
2. Occupational Guidance
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  Helps in choosing right career
 Example:
o Logical person → Engineering
o Creative person → Arts
3. Personnel Selection
 Used in:
o Job recruitment
o Interviews
o Promotions
Helps employers select suitable candidates

What is an Intelligence Test?

Definition:
An intelligence test is a test used to measure:
 Cognitive abilities
 Mental capacity
 Intellectual functioning
What does it measure?
 Thinking ability
 Reasoning
 Problem-solving
 Memory
 Understanding
In simple words:
It tells “how well a person can think and solve problems”
2. Objectives of the Unit
After studying this unit, you will understand:

2.1 Definition of Intelligence Tests

What intelligence tests are and what they measure

2.2 Concept of IQ & Deviation IQ

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)
 A score that represents intelligence level
Deviation IQ
 Compares a person’s score with others of same age

2.3Theoretical Background
How intelligence testing developed from:
 Psychological theories
 Scientific research

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2.4 History of Intelligence Tests
Evolution of intelligence testing:
 Early tests
 Modern developments

2.5 Types of Intelligence Tests

Different types like:
 Individual tests
 Group tests
 Verbal tests
 Non-verbal tests

2.6 Widely Used Intelligence Tests

Study of famous tests like:
 Binet-Simon Test
 Stanford-Binet Test
 Wechsler Scales

2.7 Issues in Intelligence Testing

Problems like:
 Bias
 Reliability
 Validity
 Misuse of tests
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Introduction
Intelligence tests are different because:
 They measure different abilities
 They are based on different theories of intelligence
So before understanding tests, we must understand:
The theories behind them

2. Types of Theoretical Approaches

There are mainly two approaches:
1. General Factor Theories (Single Intelligence)
2. Multi-Factor Theories (Multiple Intelligences)

General Factor Theories

Basic Idea
Intelligence = one general ability (g-factor)

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Spearman’s Theory
Charles Spearman (1904)
Key Points:
 Intelligence has:
o g-factor (general ability)
o s-factors (specific abilities)
Explanation:
 g-factor = common in all tasks
 s-factor = specific to particular tasks
Example:
 Maths + English both need g
 But maths also needs specific s (numerical ability)

Jensen’s View
Arthur Jensen
Key Points:
 g-factor can be measured using many tests
 Believed intelligence is mostly inherited
Criticism:
 Ignored environmental factors

Binet-Simon’s View
Alfred Binet & Théodore Simon
Key Points:
 Intelligence = general ability
 Measured using multiple tasks
Abilities included:
 Reasoning
 Comprehension
 Direction of thought
 Judgment
Output = IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

Multi-Factor Theories
Basic Idea
Intelligence is not one ability
It is made up of many abilities

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

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Louis Thurstone
Key Idea
Intelligence = group of abilities (not one g)

7 Primary Mental Abilities:

1. Number (N) – calculation ability
2. Verbal (V) – language understanding
3. Space (S) – visualizing objects
4. Memory (M) – remembering
5. Word Fluency (W) – fast word generation
6. Reasoning (R) – logical thinking
7. Perceptual Speed (P) – quick observation
He developed:
Primary Mental Abilities Test (PMA)

Guilford’s Structure of Intellect Model

J. P. Guilford
Key Idea
Intelligence = combination of 3 dimensions
Three Dimensions:
1. Content (What we think about)
 Visual
 Auditory
 Symbolic
 Semantic
 Behavioural

2. Operations (How we think)

 Cognition
 Memory
 Divergent thinking
 Convergent thinking
 Evaluation

3. Products (Result of thinking)

 Units
 Classes
 Relations
 Systems
 Transformations
 Implications

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Total abilities = 150 combinations

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner
Key Idea
Intelligence = 8 types of intelligences

Types:
 Linguistic
 Logical
 Spatial
 Musical
 Bodily
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
 Naturalistic
Focus:
Different people have different strengths

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Robert Sternberg
Key Idea
Intelligence = 3 types
Types:
1. Analytical → problem solving
2. Creative → new ideas
3. Practical → real-life skills
Focus:
Success in real life

Vernon’s Hierarchical Theory

Philip Vernon
Key Idea
Intelligence is hierarchical (levels)

Levels:
1. Top Level
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g-factor (general intelligence)

2. Second Level
Major group factors:
 Verbal-Educational ([Link])
 Practical-Mechanical (k.m.)

3. Third Level
Minor group abilities

4. Bottom Level
Specific abilities (s-factor)

Additional View:
 Intelligence = 60% genetic
 Also influenced by environment

4. Comparison (Simple Understanding)

Theory Type Idea
General One intelligence (g)
Factor
Multi-Factor Many intelligences

HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

1. Early Stage
In the beginning:
 Psychologists focused on general behaviour
 Not on individual differences
Later (19th century):
 Interest started in measuring intelligence differences

.1 Galton and Cattell

Francis Galton
First person to try measuring intelligence
What he did:
 Used simple sensory tests
o Vision (seeing)
o Hearing
o Pain sensitivity
His belief:
Better senses = more intelligent
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Problem:
 This idea was not accurate

James McKeen Cattell

Introduced the term “mental test” (1890)
Tests included:
 Reaction time
 Memory
 Strength
 Speed
But:
These tests also failed to measure true intelligence

.2 Contribution of Binet
Alfred Binet & Théodore Simon
First successful intelligence test (1905)

Purpose:
 Identify children with learning difficulties

Binet-Simon Scale (1905)

Features:
 30 simple questions
 Measured:
o Memory
o Attention
o Reasoning
o Imagination

Important Contribution:
1. Mental Age Concept
Age level at which a child thinks
Example:
 10-year-old child performing like 8-year-old
Mental age = 8

2. Age-Graded Tests
Questions based on age level

3. More Realistic Testing

Focus on thinking ability, not physical ability
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Later Developments
1908 & 1911 Revisions:
 Improved test
 Included adults

🇺🇸 Stanford-Binet Test (1916)

Developed by Lewis Terman
Improvements:
 Better standardization
 Detailed manual
 More accurate

3 Concept of IQ
William Stern
Introduced IQ concept

Formula:
IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100
Example:
 Mental Age = 10
 Real Age = 10
IQ = 100 (average)

Meaning:
 IQ > 100 → above average
 IQ < 100 → below average

4 World War I Contribution

Robert Yerkes
Developed intelligence tests for army selection (1917)

Two Tests:
1. Army Alpha
For:
 Literate people
 Language-based

2. Army Beta
For:
 Illiterate people

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  Non-verbal (pictures, symbols)

Purpose:
 Quick selection of soldiers
 Assign suitable roles

Conclusion
Intelligence testing developed from:
 Simple sensory tests → complex mental tests
Key contributions:
 Galton → early attempt
 Cattell → mental tests
 Binet → real intelligence testing
 Stern → IQ
 Yerkes → group testing

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