Detailed Notes: Lesson 2 - Logic and Meaning
Lesson Overview
Language is a structured system of symbols (words, sounds, gestures) used to communicate
feelings, thoughts, and information. This lesson focuses on how language functions, central to
the study of logic. We will explore the meanings of words and their roles in arguments.
Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Identify the functions of language relevant to logic.
Distinguish between cognitive and emotive meanings of words.
Understand how emotive language is used in arguments.
Identify problems in cognitive meaning: vagueness and ambiguity.
Recognize the difference between verbal and factual disputes.
Understand the intensional and extensional meanings of terms.
2.1 The Functions of Language: Cognitive and Emotive Meanings
Language has numerous functions (asking questions, telling jokes, singing, etc.), but for logic,
two are paramount:
1. To convey information.
2. To express or evoke feelings.
Cognitive Meaning
Definition: The literal, factual, and informative content of words or statements.
Purpose: To convey data that can be true or false.
Example: "Addis Ababa University was founded in 1950." This statement provides a
verifiable fact.
Additional Example: "The Great Rift Valley stretches from Syria to Mozambique." It
offers a geographical fact.
Emotive Meaning
Definition: The emotional charge or feeling that words or statements express or evoke.
Purpose: To influence the listener's emotions (anger, joy, sadness, pride).
Example: "The heartless bureaucrats are destroying our beloved, historic campus." This
statement is laden with emotion (heartless, beloved, destroying).
Additional Example: "The vibrant streets of Addis are filled with the laughter of happy
children." The words "vibrant" and "happy" evoke positive emotions.
Key Point: Most emotive statements have a cognitive core. For instance, the earlier example
contains the claim that "the new construction is detrimental"—a factual claim needing separation
from emotional language for evaluation.
2.1.1 Emotive Terminology in Arguments
Emotive language in arguments can be manipulative, making a value claim without evidence and
diverting critical thinking.
Original Argument (Emotive):
"While our government wastes billions on pointless prestige projects like the new
Science Museum, our brilliant students are forced to study in dilapidated classrooms with
broken chairs. Shouldn't we invest in our future, not in concrete monuments?"
Restructured Argument (Cognitive/Neutral):
o P1: The government is spending money on the new Science Museum.
o P2: Many university classrooms are in poor condition.
o P3: Investing in classroom infrastructure is more crucial than building the Science
Museum.
o C: Thus, funds for the Science Museum should be redirected to renovating
classrooms.
This restructuring reveals that P3 is a value claim needing support and invites questioning of the
term "wasteful."
2.1.2 Deficiency of Cognitive Meanings: Vagueness and Ambiguity
Sometimes, cognitive meaning may be defective, creating confusion in arguments.
1. Vagueness
Definition: A word or phrase lacks a clear boundary between its application and non-
application. The meaning is hazy and imprecise.
Ethiopian Examples:
o "He is a gobez student." How do we measure "gobez"? By GPA? Participatory
skills? Practical skills?
o "The cafeteria food is expensive." What is the precise limit for "expensive"?
o "She comes from a rich family." What defines "rich"? Is it wealth, land, cattle,
or social status?
o "The instructor gave a clear explanation." What makes an explanation
"clear"? It's subjective and can vary.
Additional Example: "The water is cold." What temperature defines "cold"?
Preferences may differ among individuals.
2. Ambiguity
Definition: A word or phrase has two or more distinct meanings in a given context.
Ethiopian Examples:
o "The bank is crowded."
Meaning 1: A financial institution (e.g., Commercial Bank of Ethiopia).
Meaning 2: The side of a river (e.g., the bank of the Awash River).
o "You need light for the ceremony."
Meaning 1: Not heavy (e.g., a light tent).
Meaning 2: Illumination (e.g., a light bulb or candle).
o "He is a critical member of the team."
Meaning 1: He is essential.
Meaning 2: He often finds fault.
Additional Example: "She took a trip last weekend."
o Meaning 1: A journey (e.g., vacation in Lalibela).
o Meaning 2: She stumbled or fell.
Difference: Vagueness is a blur of meaning (a spectrum), while ambiguity is a mix-up of clear,
distinct meanings.
2.1.3 Forms of Disputes in Logic
1. Verbal Disputes
Cause: A disagreement based on the meaning of language (vagueness or ambiguity).
Solution: Resolve the dispute by agreeing on definitions.
Ethiopian Example:
o Student A: "Our new Dean is very conservative." (Meaning: He resists
change).
o Student B: "No, I think he's quite progressive." (Meaning: He manages the
budget prudently).
Additional Example:
o Student A: "That event was huge." (Meaning: Very popular).
o Student B: "No, it was just okay." (Meaning: Not significant).
2. Factual Disputes
Cause: A disagreement about facts or what is true.
Solution: The dispute can be resolved by investigating evidence.
Ethiopian Example:
o Student A: "The library has a copy of 'Oromay' by Haddis Alemayehu."
o Student B: "No, it doesn't; I checked yesterday."
Additional Example:
o Student A: "The football team won the championship."
o Student B: "I thought they lost in the semifinals."
Many real-world disputes are a combination of verbal and factual elements.
2.2 The Intension and Extension of Terms
A term is any word or arrangement of words that can serve as the subject of a statement.
Examples of Terms: Abebe, university, the tallest building in Addis Ababa,
student who scored highest on the entrance exam, Ethiopian coffee.
Non-Examples: runs quickly (verb phrase), very (adverb), and (conjunction).
Every term has two types of meaning:
1. Intensional Meaning (Intension/Connotation)
Definition: The set of attributes, qualities, or characteristics the term evokes. It is the
concept or sense of the term.
Think of it as: The definition of the term.
Ethiopian Examples:
o Term: Injera
Intension: A sourdough-risen flatbread, spongy in texture, made from teff
flour, staple food of Ethiopia.
o Term: University Freshman (Arata Mazoria in Amharic slang)
Intension: A first-year student at a university, new to campus life, often
around 18-19 years of age.
o Term: Ethiopian Coffee
Intension: A coffee with rich flavors and origins in the highlands of
Ethiopia, often prepared traditionally.
2. Extensional Meaning (Extension/Denotation)
Definition: The set of all actual objects or individuals in the world to which the term
applies. It is the reference of the term.
Think of it as: The list of things the term refers to.
Ethiopian Examples:
o Term: Injera
Extension: Every single piece of injera that exists, has existed, or will
exist in Ethiopia and beyond.
o Term: University Freshman
Extension: Every single first-year student at Addis Ababa University,
Jimma University, Mekelle University, etc.
o Term: Ethiopian Coffee
Extension: All coffee beans grown in Ethiopia, including various local
and heirloom varieties.
Key Relationship: Intension Determines Extension
The intension (definition) is used to decide what is included in the extension (list of instances).
Example: A "hyena" is excluded from the extension of domestic animal because its
attributes (wild, scavenger, dangerous) do not match the intension of "domestic animal"
(tamed, human-friendly).
Empty Extension
Some terms have intension but no actual referents (empty extension).
Ethiopian Example: The current Emperor of Ethiopia. The term has clear
intension (the reigning monarch of the Ethiopian Empire), but since the monarchy was
abolished, the extension is empty.
Ordering of Terms: Intension and Extension
There is an inverse relationship between intension and extension: as one increases, the other
usually decreases.
Order Sequence (Ethiopian Example) Explanation
Increasing Building -> University Building -> AAU Each term is more specific and
Intension Building -> Ras Mekonnen Hall has more attributes.
Decreasing Ras Mekonnen Hall -> AAU Building -> Each term is more general and
Intension University Building -> Building has fewer attributes.
Increasing Ras Mekonnen Hall -> AAU Building -> The class of denoted things gets
Extension University Building -> Building larger.
Decreasing Building -> University Building -> AAU The class of denoted things gets
Extension Building -> Ras Mekonnen Hall smaller.
Note: The order of increasing intension often aligns with decreasing extension, and vice-versa.
Summary for Ethiopian Freshmen
Understanding these concepts will enhance your academic journey:
In essays and arguments, employ cognitive language to construct strong, logical cases
while being cautious of emotive language that manipulates rather than informs.
In discussions, if a debate circles repeatedly, ask: "Are we disagreeing about facts
(factual dispute) or definitions (verbal dispute)?" This can swiftly clarify the issue.
When reading complex texts, pinpoint key terms and clarify both their intension
(meaning) and extension (referents) to ensure a thorough grasp of the author's argument.