Evolution

Evolution is the process of change in inherited characteristics within biological populations over
successive generations, leading to the diversity of life on Earth. This process, explained
by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, occurs when populations with beneficial genetic
variations are better suited to their environment, survive, and reproduce more successfully,
passing those advantageous traits to their offspring.
Evolution is the change in the physical characteristics of a species over numerous generations
and it depend on the process of natural selection. The theory of evolution is based on the idea
that all species are related and progressively changes over the time.
Evolution relies on genetic variation in a population which affects the physical characteristics of
an organism. Certain physical characteristics may give advantage to the individuals which can be
transferred to their offspring.

Evidence of evolution
The evidence of evolution is one of the fundamental keystones of modern biological theory. It is
the only way which can prove all the proposed theories of evolution. We have number of
evidences to prove the biological evolution namely fossils, comparative anatomy and embryo
development pattern.

How it Works
1. 1. Genetic Variation:
Within any population, individuals have different traits due to variations in their genes.
2. 2. Heritability:
These traits are heritable, meaning they can be passed down from parents to offspring through
genes.
3. 3. Natural Selection:
Individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
4. 4. Accumulated Change:
Over generations, these advantageous traits become more common in the population, while less
favorable traits become less common.
5. 5. Divergence:
Small differences accumulating over vast periods can lead to new species.

Evidence for Evolution

 Fossil Record:
Shows that complex organisms emerged from simpler ancestors over millions of years.
 Comparative Anatomy:
Similarities in the structure of different species' bones or organs suggest a common ancestor.
 Molecular Structure:
Shared DNA or protein sequences among different species indicate evolutionary relationships.

Why Evolution Matters

 It explains the vast diversity of life on Earth, from microscopic bacteria to large animals.
 It provides a framework for understanding how species adapt to their changing environments.
 It is a fundamental concept in biology, shaping our understanding of life's history and
relationships between all organisms.
To find out about the meaning of life, let’s start by finding out how life started. Let’s see what
scientists have discovered.

To make life possible on a planet, you need at least 2 important things. That is what a well
known scientist, Carl Sagan, found out in 1966.

At first there has to be the right kind of star: The energy source (a sun).
Secondly the distance from a planet to the star has to be right. Too far away and it will be too
cold. When the sun is too close, it will be too hot for life.

Carl Sagan calculated that there were about 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 planets in the universe
that are suitable for life.

What happened since 1966? Scientists learned more about life and the universe. As we studied
more, also much more criteria were found that are necessary to make life possible on a planet!

No chance for life on earth?!

After more research, many new criteria were found. At first 10, later 20, and even to more than
50! All necessary to make life possible on a planet. Therefore the number of planets that could
support life dropped down rapidly!

Actually… no planet at all (not even earth!) could support spontaneous life! According to all
the essential criteria, we shouldn’t even be alive! Still here we are… Alive… and even thinking
about life.

Knowing all of this, it might not be a surprise that we did not find any life on other planets so far.

There is even more

Today science has discovered that at least 200 parameters are necessary for a planet to support
life. Not only that, every single one must have the right values and many depend on eachother. If
they are not in the right proportion, the whole thing falls apart.

For example: a massive planet (like Jupiter) is needed nearby. The gravity of Jupiter draws
away asteroids, preventing thousands of them from hitting Earth’s surface.

This is just one example of the many criteria that are needed to make life possible*.

The odds against life in the universe are simply incredible!

Anyway we do exist!

Yet here we are, not only existing, but we are talking about existence. How is this possible? Is it
sheer luck these parameters have all been set perfectly for the planet earth?

At what point is it fair to admit that life on earth is not the result of random forces? Especially
when considering that the fine-tuning necessary for life to exist on a planet is even “simple”
compared to the fine-tuning required for the whole universe to exist at all!

An example: Astrophysicists now assume that the values of the four fundamental forces (gravity,
the electromagnetic force, and the “strong” and “weak” nuclear forces) were determined within
less than one millionth of a second after the big bang. Alter any one value and the universe could
not exist. For instance, if the ratio between the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic
force had been off by the tiniest fraction of the tiniest fraction -by even one part in
100,000,000,000,000,000-… no stars could have ever formed at all!

Are you surprised?

Feel free to do research on your own at this topic. Try to find out yourself what facts science has
discovered up till now. Please be aware that also scientists do have some prejudices that will
color their interpretation of the findings.

No coincidence

The chances of a situation where all known parameters are set in the right conditions, is similar
to tossing a coin and having it come up “heads” 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 times in a row.
Would this really be possible?

What about the big bang?

Fred Hoyle is an astronomer who invented the term “Big Bang”. A well known theory that
explains the start of all life by a big blast in the universe billions of years ago.

Although Fred Hoyle was an atheist, he turned out to be “greatly shaken” by all the parameters
necessary for life to exist on a planet. Hoyle wrote “a common-sense interpretation of the facts
suggests that a super-intellect has monkeyed with the physics, as well as with chemistry and
biology…”

If even scientists cannot fully explain the origination of life, what else could be the source of
life?

Why is everything so complex that we cannot fully understand, even after many many years of
scientific research?

To think about for today

This is all for Day 1. You can think about this for the rest of the day.
Some helpful questions for you:
  Is life on earth based on coincidence or could there be some form of intelligence behind
all of it?
 If you’d like to do some more research on the criteria that are required for life, please do.
 Why am I different to other people?
 Is there a reason for my existence?

Some factors that are needed to make life possible on Earth

The image below shows you a few of the many factors that are needed to support life on earth.
These conditions need to be available in exact the right amount and proportion, otherwise life
would not be possible at all.

Home → The History of Evolutionary Thought

The History of Evolutionary Thought

Just as life has a history, science has a history. Understanding the history of evolutionary
thinking illuminates the nature of science.

In this section, you will see how study in four disciplinary areas — Earth’s history, life’s history,
mechanisms of evolution, and development and genetics — has contributed to our current
understanding of evolution.

The history of evolutionary thought spans from ancient Greek philosophy to modern genetics,
progressing from early notions of change and fixed species to Lamarck's theory of inherited traits
and finally Darwin and Wallace's theory of natural selection. The discovery of extinction and the
accumulation of fossil evidence challenged the idea of static species, while the work of Carolus
 Linnaeus in >>!nav>>taxonomy provided a framework for classifying organisms that was later
adapted by evolutionary thinkers.
Ancient Roots
 Greek Philosophers:
Early concepts of change and the origins of life were proposed by ancient Greek philosophers
like Anaximander, who suggested life began in the sea, and Heraclitus, who believed change
was a fundamental aspect of the universe.
 Essentialism vs. Change:
Medieval thought, influenced by Aristotle, often embraced essentialism—the belief in
unalterable species with fixed characteristics. However, this view was increasingly challenged
by observations of variability and the emerging concept of extinction.
Pre-Darwinian Evolution
 Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon:
This 18th-century French naturalist suggested that life followed material processes and that
organisms could change over time.
 Erasmus Darwin:
Charles Darwin's grandfather published early ideas on evolution, proposing a "struggle for
existence" and the descent of species from common ancestors.
 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck:
In the early 19th century, Lamarck proposed the first fully formed theory of evolution. His
theory of "inheritance of acquired characteristics" proposed that traits acquired during an
organism's life (like the elongation of a giraffe's neck from reaching for leaves) could be passed
to offspring, a concept later proven incorrect but which stimulated evolutionary thought.
Darwin, Wallace, and Natural Selection
 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace:
Independently, Darwin and Wallace developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
 On the Origin of Species (1859):
Darwin's seminal work introduced the concept that species evolve through natural selection.
 Natural Selection:
This process explains how variations within a population, coupled with a "struggle to survive,"
can lead to differential reproduction and the gradual adaptation of species to their environment.
Modern Evolutionary Synthesis
 The work of Darwin and Wallace was later combined with genetics to form the modern
evolutionary synthesis. This approach incorporates principles like mutation, genetic drift, and the
changes in allele frequencies within populations.

The History of Evolutionary Thought → Pre 1800

 Pre 1800

 Comparative Anatomy: Andreas Vesalius

 Observation and Natural Theology: William Harvey & William Paley
 Fossils and the Birth of Paleontology: Nicholas Steno
 Nested Hierarchies, the Order of Nature: Carolus Linnaeus
 Old Earth, Ancient Life: Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
 The Ecology of Human Populations: Thomas Malthus

 Extinctions: Georges Cuvier

 Early Concepts of Evolution: Jean Baptiste Lamarck
 Developmental Similarities: Karl von Baer
 Biostratigraphy: William Smith
 Uniformitarianism: Charles Lyell
 Discrete Genes Are Inherited: Gregor Mendel
 Natural Selection: Charles Darwin & Alfred Russel Wallace
 Early Evolution and Development: Ernst Haeckel
 Biogeography: Wallace and Wegener
 Fossil Hominids, Human Evolution: Thomas Huxley & Eugene Dubois
 Chromosomes, Mutation, and the Birth of Modern Genetics: Thomas Hunt Morgan

Home → The History of Evolutionary Thought → 1900 to present

1900 to present

 Random Mutations and Evolutionary Change: Ronald Fisher, JBS Haldane, & Sewall Wright
 Starting “The Modern Synthesis”: Theodosius Dobzhansky
 Speciation: Ernst Mayr
 DNA, the Language of Evolution: Francis Crick & James Watson
 Radiometric Dating: Clair Patterson
 Endosymbiosis: Lynn Margulis
 Evolution and Development for the 21st Century: Stephen Jay Gould
 Genetic Similarities: Wilson, Sarich, Sibley, & Ahlquist

[Link]
similarities-wilson-sarich-sibley-and-ahlquist/

Evidence for Evolution

Key Types of Evidence for Evolution

 Fossil Record:
 Fossils provide direct evidence of past life forms, showing changes in species over time and
documenting transitional forms between different groups of organisms.

 Comparative Anatomy:
 Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different species (like the limb bones in humans,
whales, and bats) indicate a common ancestor, even if the structures serve different functions.
 Analogous Structures: Structures that perform similar functions but have different origins (like
the wings of birds and bats) show adaptation to similar environments through convergent
evolution.
Molecular Biology:
Similarities in DNA, RNA, and protein sequences among different species provide powerful
evidence of evolutionary relationships, highlighting shared ancestry and the underlying genetic
machinery of life.
Embryological Development:
Similarities in the early embryonic stages of various vertebrates (like the presence of gill-like
structures and tails that disappear later) indicate a common evolutionary past.
Biogeography:
The geographical distribution of species, such as the unique marsupials in Australia or finches
on the Galápagos Islands, provides clues about how different groups are related and how
species have diverged from mainland ancestors due to isolation.
Direct Observation:
Evolution can be observed in real-time through processes like the development of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria and the rapid evolution of viruses (like the flu virus) that require new
vaccines.

Fossils
They are the remains of the non-degraded parts of living beings found within rocks. The layer
from which the fossil is recovered decides the age of the fossil. The fossils found deeper down
are older compared to the ones found in the upper layers. They give an idea of the condition of
the earth in that specific era. The study of fossils is called palaeontology. Thus, fossils are called
paleontological evidences.

Comparative Anatomy
It explains that many organisms have the same ancestor and many different organisms evolved as
a result of natural selection or genetic drift. Two types of comparative anatomy were observed,
namely homologous organs and analogous organs.
Homologous organs: These organs have the similar structure in different organisms but perform
different functions. Thus, it clearly shows a common ancestry. One species gave rise to many
other species. This type of evolution is called divergent evolution. For example, the limbs of
 human, cheetah, whale, and wings of a bat. They all have different functions but have a similar
structure indicating a common ancestor.
Analogous organs: These organs have different anatomy but perform similar functions. This
shows that different species evolved and adapted to a particular environment. This type of
evolution is called convergent evolution. For example, the wings of different birds and bats. The
wings of birds have feathers for flight whereas, bats have wings made up of streched skin and
lack feathers. But, both serve the function of flight.

Embryonic Development
The embryos of various species show similar structure till a certain period of gestation. For
example, the embryos of humans, pigs, reptiles, and birds show similar embryonic development.
They develop into the respective species as they grow. This again shows common ancestry.

Mechanism of Darwin's theory of evolution

The mechanism of Darwin's theory of evolution is natural selection, which explains that
individuals with heritable traits that are beneficial for survival and reproduction in a specific
environment will leave more offspring, leading to these favorable traits becoming more common
in the population over generations. This process is driven by variation within a population,
differential reproductive success, and the inheritance of advantageous traits, ultimately causing
species to adapt to their environments and evolve over time.
How Natural Selection Works
Darwin's theory of natural selection can be understood through these key components:
1. 1. Variation:
Individuals within a population naturally exhibit variations in their traits. For instance, some
beetles might be green, while others are brown.
2. 2. Inheritance:
These variations are heritable, meaning they can be passed down from parents to their
offspring.
3. 3. Differential Survival and Reproduction:
Due to limited resources, not all individuals survive and reproduce to their full
potential. Individuals with traits that are advantageous in their environment are more likely to
survive and reproduce successfully.
4. 4. Adaptation:
Over generations, the proportion of advantageous traits increases in the population because
individuals with these traits have more offspring. This leads to the population becoming better
adapted to its environment.
Example: Stick Bugs
Consider a population of stick bugs with variations in color.
 Variation:
Some are green, and some are yellow.
 Environment:
In a green rainforest, yellow stick bugs are at a disadvantage and are eaten more often by
predators.
 Survival:
Green stick bugs, however, have better camouflage, survive longer, and reproduce more.
 Result:
Over time, the population of stick bugs becomes predominantly green, a trait that provides a
survival advantage in their environment.
Darwin, evolution, & natural selection
Google Classroom

Microsoft Teams

Learn about Charles Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle and his ideas about evolution and
natural selection.

Key points:

 Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who proposed the theory of biological evolution by
natural selection.
 Darwin defined evolution as "descent with modification," the idea that species change over time,
give rise to new species, and share a common ancestor.
 The mechanism that Darwin proposed for evolution is natural selection. Because resources are
limited in nature, organisms with heritable traits that favor survival and reproduction will tend to
leave more offspring than their peers, causing the traits to increase in frequency over generations.
 Natural selection causes populations to become adapted, or increasingly well-suited, to their
environments over time. Natural selection depends on the environment and requires existing
heritable variation in a group.

What is evolution?

The basic idea of biological evolution is that populations and species of organisms change over
time. Today, when we think of evolution, we are likely to link this idea with one specific person:
the British naturalist Charles Darwin.
In the 1850s, Darwin wrote an influential and controversial book called On the Origin of Species.
In it, he proposed that species evolve (or, as he put it, undergo "descent with modification"), and
that all living things can trace their descent to a common ancestor.
What exactly is a species?

Darwin also suggested a mechanism for evolution: natural selection, in which heritable traits that
help organisms survive and reproduce become more common in a population over time.
What does "heritable" mean?

In this article, we'll take a closer look at Darwin's ideas. We'll trace how they emerged from his
worldwide travels on the ship HMS Beagle, and we'll also walk through an example of how
evolution by natural selection can work.
Early ideas about evolution
Influences on Darwin
Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle
Darwin's seminal book, On the Origin of Species, set forth his ideas about evolution and natural
selection. These ideas were largely based on direct observations from Darwin's travels around the
globe. From 1831 to 1836, he was part of a survey expedition carried out by the ship HMS
Beagle, which included stops in South America, Australia, and the southern tip of Africa. At
each of the expedition's stops, Darwin had the opportunity to study and catalog the local plants
and animals.

Over the course of his travels, Darwin began to see intriguing patterns in the distribution and
features of organisms. We can see some of the most important patterns Darwin noticed in
distribution of organisms by looking at his observations of the Galápagos Islands off the coast of
Ecuador.

_Image credit: "Darwin's finches," by John Gould (public domain)._

Darwin found that nearby islands in the Galápagos had similar but nonidentical species of
finches living on them. Moreover, he noted that each finch species was well-suited for its
environment and role. For instance, species that ate large seeds tended to have large, tough
beaks, while those that ate insects had thin, sharp beaks. Finally, he observed that the finches
(and other animals) found on the Galápagos Islands were similar to species on the nearby
mainland of Ecuador, but different from those found elsewhere in the world\[^2\].

Darwin didn't figure all of this out on his trip. In fact, he didn't even realize all the finches were
related but distinct species until he showed his specimens to a skilled ornithologist (bird
biologist) years later\[^3\]! Gradually, however, he came up with an idea that could explain the
pattern of related but different finches.

According to Darwin's idea, this pattern would make sense if the Galápagos Islands had long ago
been populated by birds from the neighboring mainland. On each island, the finches might have
gradually adapted to local conditions (over many generations and long periods of time). This
process could have led to the formation of one or more distinct species on each island.

If this idea was correct, though, why was it correct? What mechanism could explain how each
finch population had acquired adaptations, or features that made it well-suited to its immediate
environment? During his voyage, and in the years after, Darwin developed and refined a set of
ideas that could explain the patterns he had observed during his voyage. In his book, On the
Origin of Species, Darwin outlined his two key ideas: evolution and natural selection.
Didn't Alfred Russel Wallace also come up with these ideas?

Evolution

Modern-day species appear at the top of the chart, while the ancestors from which they arose are
shown lower in the chart. Image credit: "Darwin's tree of life," by Charles Darwin. Photograph
by A. Kouprianov, public domain.

Darwin proposed that species can change over time, that new species come from pre-existing
species, and that all species share a common ancestor. In this model, each species has its own
unique set of heritable (genetic) differences from the common ancestor, which have accumulated
gradually over very long time periods. Repeated branching events, in which new species split off
from a common ancestor, produce a multi-level "tree" that links all living organisms.

Darwin referred to this process, in which groups of organisms change in their heritable traits over
generations, as “descent with modification." Today, we call it evolution. Darwin's sketch above
illustrates his idea, showing how one species can branch into two over time, and how this process
can repeat multiple times in the "family tree" of a group of related species.

Natural selection

Importantly, Darwin didn't just propose that organisms evolved. If that had been the beginning
and end of his theory, he wouldn't be in as many textbooks as he is today! Instead, Darwin also
proposed a mechanism for evolution: natural selection. This mechanism was elegant and
logical, and it explained how populations could evolve (undergo descent with modification) in
such a way that they became better suited to their environments over time.
 Darwin's concept of natural selection was based on several key observations:

 Traits are often heritable. In living organisms, many characteristics are inherited, or passed
from parent to offspring. (Darwin knew this was the case, even though he did not know that traits
were inherited via genes.)

 More offspring are produced than can survive. Organisms are capable of producing more
offspring than their environments can support. Thus, there is competition for limited resources in
each generation.

 Offspring vary in their heritable traits. The offspring in any generation will be slightly
different from one another in their traits (color, size, shape, etc.), and many of these features will
be heritable.

Based on these simple observations, Darwin concluded the following:

 In a population, some individuals will have inherited traits that help them survive and reproduce
(given the conditions of the environment, such as the predators and food sources present). The
individuals with the helpful traits will leave more offspring in the next generation than their
peers, since the traits make them more effective at surviving and reproducing.
 Because the helpful traits are heritable, and because organisms with these traits leave more
offspring, the traits will tend to become more common (present in a larger fraction of the
population) in the next generation.
 Over generations, the population will become adapted to its environment (as individuals with
traits helpful in that environment have consistently greater reproductive success than their peers).
Darwin's model of evolution by natural selection allowed him to explain the patterns he had seen
during his travels. For instance, if the Galápagos finch species shared a common ancestor, it
made sense that they should broadly resemble one another (and mainland finches, who likely
shared that common ancestor). If groups of finches had been isolated on separate islands for
many generations, however, each group would have been exposed to a different environment in
which different heritable traits might have been favored, such as different sizes and shapes of
beaks for using different food sources. These factors could have led to the formation of distinct
species on each island.
Wait, how would that work?

Example: How natural selection can work

To make natural selection more concrete, let's consider a simplified, hypothetical example. In
this example, a group of mice with heritable variation in fur color (black vs. tan) has just moved
into a new area where the rocks are black. This environment features hawks, which like to eat
mice and can see the tan ones more easily than the black ones against the black rock.

Because the hawks can see and catch the tan mice more easily, a relatively large fraction of the
tan mice are eaten, while a much smaller fraction of the black mice are eaten. If we look at the
ratio of black mice to tan mice in the surviving ("not-eaten") group, it will be higher than in the
starting population.

_Schematic based on similar schematic in Reece et al. \[^4\]. Hawk outline traced from "Black
and white line art drawing of Swainson hawk bird in flight," by Kerris Paul (public domain)._

Fur color is a heritable trait (one that can be passed from parent to child). So, the increased
fraction of black mice in the surviving group means an increased fraction of black baby mice in
the next generation. After several generations of selection, the population might be made up
almost entirely of black mice. This change in the heritable features of the population is an
example of evolution.
What genes and alleles are we assuming here?

Key points about natural selection

When I was first learning about natural selection, I had some questions (and misconceptions!)
about how it worked. Here are explanations about some potentially confusing points, which may
help you get a better sense of how, when, and why natural selection takes place.

Natural selection depends on the environment

Natural selection doesn't favor traits that are somehow inherently superior. Instead, it favors
traits that are beneficial (that is, help an organism survive and reproduce more effectively than its
peers) in a specific environment. Traits that are helpful in one environment might actually be
harmful in another.
Example

Natural selection acts on existing heritable variation

Natural selection needs some starting material, and that starting material is heritable variation.
For natural selection to act on a feature, there must already be variation (differences among
 individuals) for that feature. Also, the differences have to be heritable, determined by the
organisms' genes.
Example

Heritable variation comes from random mutations

The original source of the new gene variants that produce new heritable traits, such as fur colors,
is random mutation (changes in DNA sequence). Random mutations that are passed on to
offspring typically occur in the germline, or sperm and egg cell lineage, of organisms. Sexual
reproduction "mixes and matches" gene variants to make more variation.
Do organisms mutate on purpose?

Natural selection and the evolution of species

Let's take a step back and consider how natural selection fits in with Darwin's broader vision of
evolution, one in which all living things share a common ancestor and are descended from that
ancestor in a huge, branching tree. What is happening at each of those branch points?

In the example of Darwin's finches, we saw that groups in a single population may become
isolated from one another by geographical barriers, such as ocean surrounding islands, or by
other mechanisms. Once isolated, the groups can no longer interbreed and are exposed to
different environments. In each environment, natural selection is likely to favor different traits
(and other evolutionary forces, such as random drift, may also operate separately on the groups).
Over many generations, differences in heritable traits can accumulate between the groups, to the
extent that they are considered separate species.

Based on various lines of evidence, scientists think that this type of process has repeated many,
many times during the history of life on Earth. Evolution by natural selection and other
mechanisms underlies the incredible diversity of present-day life forms, and the action of natural
selection can explain the fit between present-day organisms and their environments.
Natural Selection
Natural selection is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution, along with mutation, migration,
and genetic drift.

Darwin’s grand idea of evolution by natural selection is relatively simple but often
misunderstood. To see how it works, imagine a population of beetles:

1. There is variation in traits.

For example, some beetles are green and some are brown.
2. There is differential reproduction.
Since the environment can’t support unlimited population growth, not all individuals get to
reproduce to their full potential. In this example, green beetles tend to get eaten by birds and
survive to reproduce less often than brown beetles do.
3. There is heredity.
The surviving beetles (more of which are brown) have offspring of the same color because this
trait has a genetic basis.
4. End result:The more advantageous trait, brown coloration, which allows the beetle to have more
offspring, becomes more common in the population. If this process continues, eventually, all
individuals in the population will be brown.

If you have variation, differential reproduction, and heredity, you will have evolution by natural
selection as an outcome. It is as simple as that.

II. Lamarckian Theory Of Evolution

The first theory of evolution was Lamarckism proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, the outline
of this theory came into the picture in 1801 only. He is responsible for coining terms “Annelida”
and “invertebrates”.
Lamarck’s Propositions
4 main factors are:

 Internal vital force – this force causes all living things and their component parts to be
continually increased
 Effect of environment and new needs – environmental changes have an impact on living
entities causing them to change leading to new needs. These needs generate new structure
altering habits of entities
 Use and disuse of entities – more usage of organs causes it to develop better, disuse of
organs leads to degeneration
 Inheritance of acquired traits – characteristics adapted as a result of all these above
factors passing on to the next generations. It is a continuous process. These variations are
accumulated over generations leading to the formation of a new species.
Examples In Support of Lamarckism:

 Webbed toes of aquatic birds

 Evolution of giraffe
 The disappearance of limbs in snakes
 Flightless birds
 Flat fishes
 Cave dwellers
Mechanism Of Organic Evolution
The phenomenon of genetic variation is basic for organic evolution. It is upon this that selective
forces act for evolution to take place. The mechanism of evolution emphasizes on:

 Descent and genetic differences which can be inherited to the next generation. Genetic
drift, migration, mutation, natural selection as mechanisms of change
 Significance of genetic variation
 Consequences of a reduction in genetic variation and random nature of genetic drift
 Impact of various species on each other’s evolution process via co-evolution
 Role of differential reproduction, variation, heredity in evolution by natural selection
Evolution is observed in a population as it contains genes in the gene pool, changes in this pool
cause evolution.
Mutation
It is a driving force for evolution. It can be a random change in the genetic composition having
an impact on the gene pool of a population. This alteration in the nature of DNA in 1 or more
chromosomes produces new alleles, hence a cause for genetic variation. Natural selection is
decisive in mutation to eliminate the less-fit, allowing survival of fittest.
Natural selection
It occurs when entities are left up to an environment where survival of fittest is observed. These
characteristics when inherited in offspring reproduce a population better suited to the changing
environment. Traits from less-fit entities are less likely to be passed to the upcoming generation.
In natural selection, the significant selective force is the role of the environment.
For instance, the ability to attract and mate can also be seen as a measure of fitness. Those who
are better adapted, produce comparatively more offspring, passing on their genes at a higher
success rate compared to the entities that are less adapted.
Gene flow
Migration of entities may cause a cluster of them to move to a new geographical location. When
the migratory entities interbreed with the newly introduced population, they result in the addition
of new genes to the already existing gene pool as a result of the local population, thereby
contributing to the gene flow.
For instance, when pollens are blown by wind beyond the reach of the parent plant population,
gene flow takes place. Some animals can be shifted away from a herd compelling them to move
to a new location, interbreed and introduce new genes to the pool.
Genetic drift
It can take place when a small population moves to a new geographical location, establishing in a
completely isolated area. For instance, when a few fishes are introduced in a lake, the population
evolves over time into a different one from the parent ones. This process does not take place in
densely populated areas.
Development of Species
A particular group of entities sharing a number of traits with the ability to interbreed with each
other, leading to the production of fertile offspring are species. These usually share the same
gene pool.
Speciation is the evolution of species taking place when a specific population is isolated as a
result of barriers, geographically. This phenomenon can also take place with the development of
reproductive barriers. For instance, when a population tends to develop anatomical hurdles
leading to difficulties in mating with members of the same population, a new species takes form.
Species can also develop as a result of spatial differences and timing of sexual activity.

Paleontological Evidence Of Organic Evolution

Palaeontology is the study of fossils. They are formed with the remains of entities, plants which
get implanted into water or soil, thus preserved for years together. In appearance, they resemble
skeletal, moulds, footprints or are intact in snow. With these studies, similarities can be drawn
between entities from the present and ancestors.
Fossils
Fossils were preserved in the form of hard structures of setae, spicules, chitinous and spiny
exoskeleton, shells, bones, scales, feathers, teeth and hair of previously dwelled entities.
Fossilisation
Fossils are formed from living entities that lived earlier. An animal becomes fossil when
immediate changes take place in the environment. Most fossils are formed as a result of
petrifaction where organic matter is replaced by minerals such as lime, sand, oxides of iron and
so on. Here the decomposers decay the dead entities and organic matter. Here, precipitation of
minerals takes place forming hard rock like structures resembling dead entities.
Fossil Types
There are four types of fossils –

 Altered fossils – formed as a result of Petrification, these are changed fossils. Most fossils
are of this type such as Eusthinopteron, Archaeopteryx fossil and Ayshaea
 Unaltered fossils – they are the dead bodies of entities that lived earlier and are
unchanged fossils as the name suggests. Example – Hexapod fossils, Wooly mammoths
in ice mountains of Siberia
 Coprolites – faeces fossils of entities that lived earlier. It assisted to decide if the faeces is
of omnivore, carnivore or herbivore, not of a specific animal.
 Moulds – impressions of leaves, foot and bodies of entities that lived earlier. Typically,
this type houses plant fossils.

Evidence For Organic Evolution

Organic evolution is not a hypothetical concept. Some evidence can provide proof depicting
existence and occurrence of organic evolution. The evidence includes:
  Fossils
 Vestigial organs
 Homologous organs
 Atavism
 Analogous organs
 Embryology
 Connecting links

Adaptive evolution

Adaptive evolution is the process by which populations of organisms change over time, driven
by natural selection, to become better suited to their environment. This occurs when heritable
traits that confer a survival or reproductive advantage become more common in a population,
leading to increased fitness and survival rates in a specific environmental context. Examples
include the varying beak shapes of Darwin's finches adapting to different food sources or the
peppered moth's shift in coloration during the Industrial Revolution.
Key Aspects of Adaptive Evolution
 Natural Selection:
This is the primary driver of adaptive evolution, favoring individuals with beneficial traits and
selecting against those with harmful or less advantageous ones.
 Beneficial Alleles:
Adaptive evolution involves the increase in frequency of beneficial genetic variations (alleles)
within a population.
 Heritable Traits:
For a trait to be considered adaptive, it must be heritable, meaning it can be passed from parents
to offspring.
 Environmental Context:
The "benefit" of a trait is always relative to its environment; a trait that is advantageous in one
environment might be neutral or even disadvantageous in another.
 Population Level Changes:
Adaptive evolution describes changes in the genetic makeup of an entire population, not just an
individual organism.
Examples of Adaptive Evolution
 Darwin's Finches:
On the Galapagos Islands, finches evolved different beak shapes to exploit various food
sources, such as seeds and insects.
 Peppered Moths:
During the Industrial Revolution, the coloration of peppered moths shifted from predominantly
light to dark as soot darkened trees, making the dark moths better camouflaged from predators.
 Antibiotic Resistance:
Bacteria can undergo rapid adaptive evolution, developing resistance to antibiotics as beneficial
resistance traits become more common within the population.
Mechanisms and Processes
 Mutation:
The raw material for evolution, creating new variations within a population.
 Genetic Variation:
The diversity of genes within a population that natural selection can act upon.
 Gene Regulation:
Changes in regulatory elements within the genome can alter gene expression, playing a key role
in adaptation to environmental changes.
 Gene Loss:
In some cases, losing specific genes can be an advantageous adaptation to a particular
environment.

Neutral evolution is a theory stating that most genetic changes at the molecular level are not
influenced by natural selection but instead by random genetic drift. This means many mutations
are "neutral," having no effect on an organism's fitness, and their spread through a population is
due to chance, not because they are beneficial or harmful. This theory provides a baseline for
understanding evolution, allowing scientists to identify deviations caused by natural selection
and population dynamics.
Key Concepts
 Selective Neutrality:
Many genetic variants do not differ in their impact on an organism's ability to survive and
reproduce.
 Genetic Drift:
The random, chance fluctuations in the frequency of alleles (gene variants) within a population.
 Molecular Clock:
The idea that neutral mutations accumulate at a relatively constant rate, allowing scientists to
estimate evolutionary time between species by comparing their DNA or protein sequences.
How it Works
1. 1. Random Mutations:
New mutations arise in a population.
2. 2. Neutral Alleles:
If a mutation doesn't change the functionality of a gene product, it is considered neutral.
3. 3. Random Drift:
 Without natural selection to favor or disfavor the new allele, its frequency in the population
changes randomly due to chance events during reproduction.

4. 4. Fixation:
Over time, a neutral allele can randomly become fixed in the population, meaning it becomes
the only allele present for that gene.
Significance
 Baseline for Selection:
Neutral evolution serves as a null hypothesis, providing a foundation to test for the effects of
natural selection and other factors.
 Understanding Genetic Variation:
It explains a significant portion of the genetic variation observed within and between species.
 Evolutionary History:
By tracking the accumulation of neutral mutations, scientists can reconstruct evolutionary
relationships and estimate when different species diverged.
Evolutionary relationships
Evolutionary relationships describe how different organisms are connected through a shared
evolutionary history, indicating that they have descended from common ancestors. These
relationships are visualized using phylogenetic trees, which show speciation events and lineage
divergence. Scientists determine these connections by comparing DNA sequences, homologous
structures, and other traits, with closer relationships indicated by more recent common ancestors
and greater similarity in genetic or physical characteristics.
Key Concepts
 Common Ancestry:
All living species ultimately trace their lineage back to a single common ancestor.
 Descent with Modification:
Over time, evolutionary changes accumulate, leading to new traits and the diversification of
species from their ancestors.
 Phylogenetic Trees:
Also known as cladograms or evolutionary trees, these diagrams visually represent evolutionary
relationships, with branching patterns indicating speciation events.
 Nodes and Branches:
A node where a tree splits represents a common ancestor of the splitting branches, and the taxa
at the tips are the descendants.
How Relationships Are Determined
1. 1. Genetic Comparisons:
Scientists compare the DNA or protein sequences of different organisms. Species that separated
more recently will have fewer genetic differences, reflecting a closer evolutionary relationship.
2. 2. Homologous Traits:
 Similar traits that share a common evolutionary path, such as the bone structure in the limbs of
different vertebrates, are used as evidence of shared ancestry.

3. 3. Anatomical and Embryological Data:

The study of shared characteristics and developmental patterns during embryogenesis can also
reveal evolutionary relationships.
Why It Matters
 Understanding Life's History:
Evolutionary relationships help reconstruct the history of life on Earth, showing when and how
different groups of organisms evolved.
 Biological Classification:
Modern biological classification systems are based on these evolutionary relationships, allowing
scientists to group organisms into clades descended from a single ancestor.
 Identifying Shared Traits:
By understanding which traits are shared due to common ancestry versus independent
evolution, scientists can better understand the evolution of complex features like wings or the
function of specific genes.

Phylogeny

Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary history and relationships among a group of organisms, often
visualized as a phylogenetic tree (or cladogram). This diagram shows how species have diverged
from common ancestors over time, with branches representing lineages and branch points
indicating shared ancestry. By analyzing observable characteristics or genetic sequences,
scientists reconstruct these evolutionary paths to understand the relationships and classification
of life.

What is Phylogeny?
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group. There are about 100 million species
living on earth today.
The morphological and biochemical evidence suggests that all the organisms are genetically
related.
The genealogical relationships of the organisms can be represented in the form of an
evolutionary tree known as the phylogenetic tree. In this, the species or groups are organized in
such a way that helps to know how they evolved from the common ancestors.
Phylogeny helps us know how the genes, genomes and species evolve. It is useful for
fundamental and numerical applications.

Key Aspects of Phylogeny:

 Evolutionary History:
 It traces the ancestral line of descent for a group of organisms, showing how they evolved from
common ancestors.

 Phylogenetic Trees (Cladograms):

These branching diagrams are the primary tool for visualizing phylogenetic relationships, with
tips of the branches showing species and connecting branches showing common ancestors.
 Common Ancestry:
Organisms that share more recent common ancestors on a phylogenetic tree are considered
more closely related.
 Evidence for Relationships:
Scientists use both morphological (physical) and biochemical/molecular (genetic, like DNA and
protein sequences) evidence to infer evolutionary histories.
 Phylogenetics:
This is the broader study and method of reconstructing these evolutionary relationships and
histories using observable characteristics.
How it Works:
1. Data Collection: Researchers gather morphological or molecular data from different species.
2. Data Analysis: This data is then analyzed to identify shared and divergent characteristics.
3. Tree Construction: Algorithms use this comparative data to build a phylogenetic tree, grouping
organisms based on their shared evolutionary history and characteristics.
In essence, phylogeny provides a framework for understanding the diversity of life and how
different species are connected through their shared evolutionary past
phylogeny, the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of
descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms.
Fundamental to phylogeny is the proposition, universally accepted in the scientific community,
that plants or animals of different species descended from common ancestors. The evidence for
such relationships, however, is nearly always incomplete, for the vast majority of species that
have ever lived are extinct, and relatively few of their remains have been preserved in the fossil
record. Most phylogenies therefore are hypotheses and are based on indirect evidence. Different
phylogenies often emerge using the same evidence. Nevertheless, there is universal agreement
that the tree of life is the result of organic descent from earlier ancestors and that true
phylogenies are discoverable, at least in principle.
Taxonomic systems
Taxonomy, the science of classifying organisms, is based on phylogeny. Early taxonomic
systems had no theoretical basis; organisms were grouped according to apparent similarity. Since
the publication in 1859 of Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection, however, taxonomy has been based on the accepted propositions of evolutionary
descent and relationship.
The data and conclusions of phylogeny show clearly that the tree of life is the product of a
historical process of evolution and that degrees of resemblance within and between groups
correspond to degrees of relationship by descent from common ancestors. A fully developed
phylogeny is essential for the devising of a taxonomy that reflects the natural relationships within
the world of living things.
Evidence for specific phylogenies

Tentative phylogenetic scheme for the evolution of the human lineage. Solid bars indicate the
time ranges during which species are thought to have existed, based on fossil evidence. Dotted
lines signify evolutionary relationships between hominin species that have been proposed on the
basis of the fossil evidence.(more)

Biologists who postulate phylogenies derive their most-useful evidence from the fields
of paleontology, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, and molecular genetics.
Studies of the molecular structure of genes and of the geographic distribution of flora and fauna
are also useful. The fossil record is often used to determine the phylogeny of groups containing
hard body parts; it is also used to date divergence times of species in phylogenies that have been
constructed on the basis of molecular evidence.

homologies of vertebrate forelimbsHomologies of the forelimb among vertebrates, giving

evidence for evolution. The bones correspond, although they are adapted to the specific mode of
life of the animal. (Some anatomists interpret the digits in the bird's wing as being 1, 2, and 3
rather than 2, 3, and 4.)(more)

Most of the data used in making phylogenetic judgments have come from comparative
anatomy and from embryology, although those are rapidly being surpassed by systems
constructed using molecular data. In comparing features common to different species, anatomists
try to distinguish between homologies, or similarities inherited from a common ancestor,
and analogies, or similarities that arise in response to similar habits and living conditions.

phylogenetic treePhylogeny based on differences in the protein sequence of cytochrome c in

organisms ranging from Neurospora mold to humans.(more)

Biochemical investigations carried out in the latter half of the 20th and the early part of the 21st
century contributed valuable data to phylogenetic studies. By counting differences in the
sequence of units that make up protein and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules, researchers
have devised a tool for measuring the degree to which different species have diverged since
evolving from a common ancestor. Because mitochondrial DNA has very high mutation rates
compared with nuclear DNA, it has been useful for establishing relationships among groups that
have diverged recently. Essentially, the application of molecular genetics to systematics is
similar to the use of radioisotopes in geologic dating: molecules change at different rates, with
some, such as mitochondrial DNA, evolving rapidly and others, such as ribosomal RNA,
evolving slowly. An important assumption then in using molecules for phylogeny reconstruction
is to select the appropriate gene for the age of the taxon under study.
Phenetics versus cladistics
The methodology of phylogenetic work rests on two approaches at present: numerical taxonomy
(phenetics) and phylogenetic systematics (cladistics). The most-direct difference between the
two methods is that phenetics classifies species by using as many characteristics as possible and
arranges them by similarity regardless of any evolutionary relationships.
The phenetics approach, which arose in the 1950s, based classification strictly on similarities
between organisms and emphasized numerical analyses of a set of phenotypic
characteristics (that is, biological characters that are observable). In the name of objectivity, one
simply counted common characters without respect to ancestry, and divisions were made on the
basis of totals: the more characters in common, the closer the classification. However, in
phenetics, the shared history between one organism and another, such as the archosaur ancestry
of both crocodiles and birds, was simply irrelevant. Other problems, such as the precise
definition of a “character” (that is, an observable feature, or trait, of an organism), required
subjective decisions, thereby reducing the credibility of phenetics as an objective approach to
phylogeny. Although the tabulation of common characters remains very important in developing
a species’s phylogeny, taxonomists have moved away from phenetics as a viable approach.
Cladistics, on the other hand, does not base species classification on an assemblage of all shared
characters between one species and another. It bases the classification of a group of species
solely on their most-recent common ancestor. Taken from work by German zoologist Willi
Hennig in the 1950s, cladistics uses only shared derived characters—that is, selected
characteristics that infer monophyly (descent from a single species) or those that are expressed in
all descendants of a common ancestor. Such uniquely shared historical (or derived)
characteristics are called synapomorphies.
For example, suppose that there is an original species marked by character A, and from that three
species eventually evolve. The original species first breaks into two successor groups, in one of
which A evolves into the character a; that successor group then breaks into two daughter groups,
both of which have a. The other original successor group retains A throughout, with no further
division. In that case, a is a synapomorphy, since the two species with a evolved from an
ancestral species that had a uniquely. Therefore, the possessors of a must be classified more
closely to each other than to the third species. Consequently, by means of cladistics, crocodiles
and birds are classified together, before they can be jointly linked to lizards. (For additional
information on the philosophical underpinnings of phenetics and cladistics, see biology,
philosophy of: taxonomy).
Major evolutionary steps

A summary of probable lines of plant evolution.

The phylogeny of life, as drawn from fossils and living species, indicates that the earliest
organisms were probably the result of a long chemical evolution, in which random reactions in
the primeval seas and atmosphere produced amino acids and then proteins. It is supposed that
droplets containing proteins then formed membranes by binding molecules to their surface and
that those membrane-bound proteins became organisms when they developed the capacity to
reproduce. It is not certain whether those earliest self-reproducing organisms were
proteins, nucleic acid–protein associations, or viruses. There is general agreement that they
were heterotrophic organisms—i.e., they required nourishment in the form of organic matter
from early seas. Later, autotrophic forms appeared, having the ability to make their own food
from inorganic matter. Those organisms were the earliest bacteria; they could store energy as
food and release energy as needed through respiration.
Cyanobacteria, algae, and other early forms of life

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are thought to have been the next evolutionary step in that they
used photosynthetic pigments to manufacture their own food supply and therefore were not
totally dependent on their environment for nutrients. After the cyanobacteria there appeared an
extensive array of algae, molds, protozoans, plants, and animals. Three groups of algae can be
dismissed with passing mention, as they arose from uncertain ancestors and have given rise to no
further groups. Those groups are the chrysophytes (golden algae, chiefly diatoms), the
pyrrophytes (cryptomonads and dinoflagellates), and the rhodophytes (red algae).
Three more groups—the chlorophytes, the euglenoids, and the phaeophytes—have greater
phylogenetic importance. The chlorophytes (green algae) almost certainly gave rise to the land
plants—i.e., the bryophytes and the tracheophytes, or vascular plants (including all the higher
plants). The euglenoids—a group of mostly unicellular flagellates; that is, they are single-celled
and possess one to many flagella [hairlike structures] for locomotion and sensation at some time
in the life cycle—suggest a broad connection between plants and animals at that primitive level.
The choanoflagellates, or collared flagellates, are protozoans that may be single-celled or
colonial; those organisms are important because they are the closest living relatives of the
sponges, the most primitive of the metazoans (the multicellular animals). Biologists continue to
explore the possibility that the choanoflagellates gave rise to the metazoans. Other theories of
animal evolutions include their descent from one or more groups of protozoans.
Evolution of land plants

Land plants contain two major groups, bryophytes and tracheophytes, which differ in many ways
but which share distinctive characteristics for adaptation to dry land. Those include housing the
plant embryo in maternal tissue.
Bryophytes are descended from green algae and include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
Only small quantities of water are needed for their reproduction, so that the sperm may travel to
the eggs. The fertilized egg matures within the maternal tissue. The plant is protected from
desiccation by a waxy cuticle.

Britannica Quiz
 All About Biology Quiz

All the dominant plants on Earth are included in the tracheophytes. The tracheophytes’
development of large plant bodies was made possible by vascular parts that carry water and food
inside those plants and by a dominant sporophyte stage (the nonsexual phase in the alternation of
generations in the life cycle of certain plants and algae) with a microscopic-
sized gametophyte (the sexual phase in the alternation of generations). Tracheophytes’ tissues
have differentiated into leaves, stems, and roots and, in the highest plants,
into seeds and flowers.
In explaining the evolution of tracheophytes, it has been suggested that a mutant form of green
algae developed a primitive rootlike function with which to supply itself with water and
minerals. The progeny of that organism eventually developed bundles of vascular tissues, a stem
and leaves, and a cuticle for protection. The early vascular plants are called psilophytes. The
development of seeds arose from the retention of the embryo inside maternal tissue. Early
seed ferns gave rise to the gymnosperm group, including pines, spruces, and firs. Flowering
plants, known as angiosperms, probably came from the gymnosperm phase and have two
subgroups: the dicotyledons (which have a pair of leaves, or cotyledons, in the embryo of the
seed) and the monocotyledons (which have only one leaf in the embryo of the seed).
Animal evolution

Hypothetical relationships in the animal kingdom.

Discussion of the origin of multicellular animals (metazoans) was long dominated by German
embryologist Ernst Haeckel’s theory that the original metazoan ancestor was a
spherical protozoan that was structurally similar to the cnidarians (e.g., jellyfish and corals).
Currently there are two alternative explanations. The first traces metazoans back to flagellates.
Flagellates are the presumed ancestors of flattened ciliated animals (planulas) that eventually led
to cnidarians, ctenophores (the comb jellies), and flatworms. Another theory hypothesizes that
multinucleated protozoans, dividing into subcells, were the original metazoans, which developed
into simple flatworms. Fossil evidence of Ediacara fauna, dating from 630 million to 542 million
years ago, suggests that the earliest multicellular life originated as soft-bodied aquatic animals
such as jellyfish and worms.
Lower metazoan forms developed the first symmetrical arrangement of body parts about a main
axis, thus establishing the bilateral symmetry that characterizes most animals; major exceptions
are the echinoderms (e.g., starfish and sea cucumbers). The development of tissues into an
outer ectoderm (providing protection and carrying sense apparatus), a
middle mesoderm (muscle, cartilage, bone, and other supportive tissue), and an
inner endoderm (serving digestion and reproduction needs) was an important phase. Another
important trend was cephalization (head formation). The anterior end of the body generally holds
the central nervous system, the sense organs, and the mouth.
Two current theories postulate the lineage of the higher metazoans. The monophyletic sequence
suggests that four groups evolved from lower forms to higher: Ameria (unsegmented animals),
which includes flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, and mollusks; Polymeria (segmented
animals), which includes annelids and arthropods; Oligomeria (reduced segmentation), which
includes insects and echinoderms; and Chordonia (chordates), which includes all vertebrates.
The alternative diphyletic theory has been proposed by many zoologists. It contends that the
higher metazoans had two lines of descent; one led to annelids, arthropods, and mollusks, and the
other led to echinoderms and chordates. Both groups emanated from an ancient flatworm.
Humans are included in the chordates. Three basic structures are shared by all chordates: a dorsal
nerve tube (brain and spinal cord in vertebrates), a notochord (supporting rod under the nerve
tube), and a pharynx (cone-shaped passageway leading from the oral and nasal cavities in the
head to the esophagus and larynx) perforated by gill slits, at least during the embryonic stage.
Applications of phylogeny

An exciting development in phylogenetics is the application of phylogenies to various modern

problems. In medicine, phylogenies have been used to trace the origins and transmission rates
of infectious diseases such as AIDS, influenza, and dengue. Phylogenies developed from
molecular genetics have been particularly useful in conservation biology for identifying the
evolutionary distinctiveness of endangered species, parentage in captive breeding programs, and
levels of hybridization and inbreeding across species. Phylogenetic analyses have also been used
as admissible evidence in criminal court cases involving the determination of purposeful viral
transmission.

Phylogenetic Trees
The phylogenetic tree is also known as the cladogram. The species or the groups are found at
the tips of the lines known as the tree branches.
The evolution of species evolved from a common ancestor is exhibited by how the branches
connect.
The branch points represent the most recent common ancestor of all the groups descended from
that common point.
Some cladograms are blocky, while the others are diagonal. However, the orientation of the tree
does not change the information.
In a phylogenetic tree, if two species have the more common recent ancestor, they are more
related than those with a less recent common ancestor.
Also read: Evolution

Applications of Phylogenetics
Phylogenetics has the following applications:
Classification
The Linnaean classification of species is known with the help of phylogeny. Based on the
sequence data, more accurate descriptions of patterns of relatedness are available.

Forensics
The DNA in case of a crime scene or paternity disputes is assessed by phylogeny.

Identification of the origin of Pathogens

Phylogenetic approaches can be used to know about a new pathogen outbreak. It helps to know
the species the pathogen is related to and the source of its transmission.

Conservation
Phylogeny helps the conservation biologists to make decisions about which species they should
try to prevent from extinction.

Computing and Bioinformatics

The algorithms developed for phylogenetics are also used in software development in other
fields.

Ontogeny and Phylogeny

Ontogeny is the course of development of an individual organism. It begins at the time
of fertilization and includes all the developmental events at the time of birth and thereafter.
The ancestral characters are often preserved in the development of an organism. For eg., the
human and chick embryos undergo a stage during their development where they have slits and
arches in their neck similar to the gill slits and arches of a fish. This suggests that humans and
chicks share a common ancestor with fish. These developmental characters can be used to create
phylogenetic trees.
It is believed that during development, an organism progresses through each of the adult stages
of evolutionary history. This states that “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. For instance, a
chick goes through the following stages of evolutionary history during the development- a single
cell, a multicellular invertebrate, fish, reptile, bird, and then forms the chick. However, the
statement is controversial and cannot be proved in all the organisms.
Over the years, the organisms have evolved into more derived forms. The new generations retain
most of their ancestral features. These features get modified with additional novel traits which
helps them to adjust in the environment they live in.
Phylogeny helps us to know the similarities and differences between plants, animals, and
microorganisms.

Difference Between Ontogeny And Phylogeny

Ontogeny refers to the development of an organism while phylogeny refers to how the
organisms have evolved.
Let us take an example of a chicken, the ontogeny will explain the entire development cycle of
the chicken right from the single cell.
Now if we consider the example of an ostrich and assume that it descended from the family of
chickens, phylogeny will explain how the chicken evolved into an ostrich, i.e., it will explain the
evolutionary process.