Department of Chemistry, DSCE

Applied Chemistry
Chemistry of Sustainable and Construction Materials
Civil Stream
I / II SEMESTER
Course Code: 1BCHEC102/202
Module - III

DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Accredited by National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ’A’ Grade
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi & ISO
9001:2015 Certified)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
SHAVIGE MALLESWARA HILLS, KUMARASWAMY
LAYOUT BENGALURU-560111

2025-2026
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Materials and Composites for structural Integrity

Polymers
Introduction to polymers: Polymers are large macromolecules composed of repeating units called
monomers, linked together by covalent bonds. The word polymer comes from Greek: poly = many, meros
= parts. Polymers can be natural, synthetic, or semi-synthetic and are widely used in everyday life due to
their versatility in mechanical, thermal, chemical, and electrical properties.
Monomers: Small molecules of low molecular weight, which combine to give a polymer, are called
monomers
Polymerization: Polymerization is the chemical process by which monomers combine to form polymers.
There are two main types:
Functionality: The functionality (f) of a monomer is the number of reactive sites capable of forming
bonds during polymerization. Functionality determines the structure of the polymer (linear, branched, or
network).
Degree of Polymerization (DP): The degree of polymerization (n or DP) is the number of monomer
units in a polymer chain.
Properties of Polymers
1. Mechanical: Strength, elasticity, toughness
2. Thermal: Glass transition temperature (Tg), melting point (Tm)
3. Chemical: Resistance to solvents, acids, bases
4. Electrical: Insulators or conductors
Applications of Polymers
1. Packaging: Polyethylene, Polypropylene, PET
2. Textiles: Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic fibers
3. Automobile & Aerospace: Kevlar, Carbon-fiber reinforced polymers
4. Medical: Biodegradable polymers (PLA, PGA)
5. Electronics: Insulators, Conducting polymers for sensors, OLEDs

Molecular Weight of the Polymers

“Molecular weight of a polymer is defined as sum of the atomic weight of each of the atoms in the
molecules, which is present in the polymer”.

Number Average Weight (Mn¯)

The number average molecular weight is mass obtained when total mass of all the molecules of the
sample is divided by total number of molecules.

Mn¯ = ∑niMi
∑ni
w =Total weight, n=Total number of particles,
n1M1 + n2M2 + ….
n1 + n2 + ------
(Where n1, n2---etc are number of particles having mass M1, M2 etc.)

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Weight Average Molecular Weight (Mw¯)
The weight average molecular weight is mass obtained when sum of the products of total mass of groups
of molecules of the sample is divided by total mass of all molecules.

Mw¯ = ∑niM2i
∑niMi
= n1 M12 + n2 M22 + ------ (Since W1 = n1m1)
n1 M1 + n2 M2 +-----

Difference between Number average molecular weight (Mn¯) and Weight average molecular weight
(Mw¯)

Number average molecular weight (Mn¯) Weight average molecular weight (Mw¯)
1. The number average molecular weight is 1. The weight average molecular weight is mass
mass obtained when total mass of all the obtained when sum of the products of total
molecules of the sample is divided by total mass of groups of molecules of the sample is
number of molecules. divided by total mass of all molecules.
2. Mn¯ =∑niMi 2. Mw¯ =∑niMi2
∑ni ∑niMi
3. Number average is less than weight average 3. Weight average is always more than number
4. Measured by osmometry. average.
4. Measured by viscometry.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON POLYMER
1. A polymer sample contains 2, 3 and 4 molecules having molecular weights 2 x 10 3, 3 x 103 and 4
x 103 respectively. Solve for the number average and weight average molecular weights of the polymer.
Answer: Mn¯= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3
n1 + n2+ n3

= 2( 2x103)+3(3x103)+4(4x104) =3.22 x103 g/mol

2+3+4

Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 + n3 M23

n1 M1 + n2 M2 +n3 M3
=2( 2x103)2+3(3x103)2+4(4x104)2 = 3.41x103 g/mol
2( 2x103)+3(3x103)+4(4x104)

2. A polymer sample has population as follows: 5 molecules of molecular mass each= 2000; 4
molecules of molecular mass each = 3000; 3 molecules of molecular mass each = 4000. Solve for its
number average and weight average molecular weights.
Answer: Mn¯= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3
n1 + n2+ n3

=5( 2x103)+4(3x103)+3(4x103) = 2833.3 g/mol

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5+4+3
Mw¯=5( 2x103)2+4(3x103)2+3(4x103)2 = 3058.82 g/mol
5( 2x103)+4(3x103)+3(4x103)

3. Solve for Mn and Mw of a polymer which consists of 35% molecules having molecular mass
25000, 35% molecules having molecular mass 20000 and the remaining molecules having molecular
mass 10000.
Answer: Mn¯= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + n3 M3
n1 + n2+ n3
= 35x25000+35x20000+30x10000 = 18750 g/mol
100

Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 + n3 M23

n1 M1 + n2 M2 +n3 M3
= 35x(25000)2+35x(20000)2+30x(10000)2 = 20733 g/mol
35x25000+35x20000+30x10000
4. Solve for number average and weight average molecular weights of a polymer consisting of 150
molecules with molecular mass 102g/mol, 200 molecules with molecular mass 103 g/moland 350
molecules with molecular mass 105g/mol.

Answer: Mn= n1 M1 + n2 M2 + ------

n1 + n2+ -
=150x10 +200x103+350x105
2

150+200+350
=50307 g/mol
Mw¯ = n1 M12 + n2 M22 + n3 M23
n1 M1 + n2 M2 +n3 M3
= 150(102)2+200(103)2+350(105)2 = 99395.18 g/mol
150x102+200x103+350x105
C-PVC synthesis
aqueous suspension or solution at temperatures between 60°C
to 90°[Link] is a free radical substitution reaction in the presence of heat/[Link] gas (Cl₂) is bubbled
through the PVC suspension/solution.
–CH2–CHCl– Cl2/heat/UV –CHCl–CHCl–
PVC C-PVC

Properties of C-PVC
 High Heat Resistance:
 Excellent Chemical Resistance:
 Flame Retardancy
 Good Mechanical Strength
 Good Formability
Applications
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 Widely used for hot and cold potable water distribution systems in homes and buildings.
 Handles corrosive fluids, acids, and bases in chemical plants, water treatment, and mining
operations.
 Utilized in fire sprinkler systems due to its inherent flame retardant properties.
 Used for electrical conduits, tanks, and ventilation systems.
 Found in irrigation and fertilizer delivery systems.
Kevlar fiber
Kevlar is a high-performance synthetic fiber belonging to the aramid (aromatic polyamide) family.
Synthesis

Kevlar
Properties
 High Tensile Strength
 Strong yet light, ideal where both safety and mobility are crucial.
 Decomposition temperature ≈ 500 °C (does not melt). Burns only when in contact with a flame,
self-extinguishing when the source is removed.
 Resistant to most solvents, fuels, and oils. Prolonged exposure to strong acids or bases can
degrade the fiber.
 Maintains flexibility and strength down to –196 °C (liquid nitrogen temperatures).
 Degrades under prolonged UV light exposure, requiring protective coatings in outdoor
applications.
Applications:
 Bulletproof vests, helmets, gloves, and cut-resistant clothing.
 Aircraft components, lightweight armor, and military gear.
 Brake pads, gaskets, hoses, and tire reinforcements (asbestos replacement).
 High-performance shoes, shoelaces, tennis racquets, bicycles, and skis.

Adhesives:
An adhesive is defined as polymeric substances used to bind together two or more similar or
dissimilar materials so that resulting material can act or be used as a single piece.
Epoxy resin:
Synthesis: It is prepared by the condensation of excess of epichlorohydrine with bis - phenol-A at
60oCin the presence of aqueous NaOH.

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Properties
 Exhibits high tensile, compressive, and impact strength, making it ideal for structural applications
and repairs.
 Forms strong, long-lasting bonds with a wide variety of substrates, including wood, metal, glass,
and plastics.
 Resists a broad range of chemicals and solvents, making it suitable for industrial and chemical
storage environments.
 Maintains stability at elevated temperatures, allowing for use in high-demand applications.
 Possesses high dielectric strength, making it a preferred choice for electronics and electrical
applications.
 Experiences minimal shrinkage as it cures, which helps prevent deformation and cracking.
Applications:
 Epoxy resins are mainly used as surface-coating materials, which give outstanding toughness
flexibility, adhesion and chemical resistance.
 It can be used in both moulding and laminating techniques to prepare glass fibre-reinforced
articles with good mechanical strength, chemical resistance and electrical insulating properties.
 It is used as skid resistant for highway surfacing.
 To impart crease-resistance and shrinkage control on cotton and rayon fabrics.
 It is used as stabilizers for vinyl resins.

Biodegradable Plastic:
Biodegradable plastics are a specific type of polymer that breaks down after its intended purpose to result in
natural byproducts such as gases (CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts. These polymers are found
both naturally and synthetically made, and largely consist of ester, amide, and ether functional groups. Their
properties and breakdown mechanism are determined by their exact structure. These polymers are often
synthesized by condensation reactions, ring opening polymerization, and metal catalysts. There are vast
examples and applications of biodegradable polymers.

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Polylactic acid or polylactide (PLA) is a biodegradable and
bioactive thermoplastic aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, such as corn starch (in the
United States and Canada), cassava roots, chips or starch (mostly in Asia), or sugarcane (in the rest of the
world). In 2010, PLA had the second highest consumption volume of any bioplastic of the world.
Synthesis
The most common route to PLA synthesis is the ring-opening polymerization of lactide with various
metal catalysts(typically tin octoate) in solution, in the melt, or as a suspension.

Another route to PLA is the direct condensation of lactic acid monomers. This process needs to be carried
out at less than 200 °C; above that temperature, the entropically favored lactide monomer is generated.

Properties
 PLA has a high crystallinity
 Glass transition temperature of 60–65 °C,
 A melting temperature of 173–178 °C
 High tensile strength.
 Heat-resistant PLA can withstand temperatures of 110 °C.
 PLA is soluble in chlorinated solvents, hot benzene, tetrahydrofuran, and dioxane.
 Polylactic acid can be processed like most thermoplastics into fiber and film.
 PLA has similar mechanical properties to PETE polymer
Applications
 PLA can be processed by extrusion such as 3d printing, injection molding, film and sheet casting,
and spinning, providing access to a wide range of materials.
 PLA is used as a feedstock material in desktop fused filament fabrication 3D printers.
 PLA printed solids can be encased in plaster-like moulding materials.
 Being able to degrade into innocuous lactic acid, PLA is used as medical implants in the form of
anchors, screws, plates, pins, rods, and as a mesh.
 PLA can also be used as a decomposable packaging material, either cast, injection-molded, or
spun.
 Cups and bags have been made from this material. In the form of a film, it shrinks upon heating,
allowing it to be used in shrink tunnels.
 It is useful for producing loose-fill packaging, compost bags, food packaging, and disposable
tableware.
 In the form of fibers and nonwoven fabrics, PLA also has many potential uses,as upholstery,
disposable garments, awnings, feminine hygiene products, and diapers.

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Polymer Composites
Composite: Two or more chemically different constituents combined macroscopically to yield a
useful material.
Composite materials are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the
individual components.
Examples of naturally occurring composites permeated with holes filled with liquids
 Wood: Cellulose fibers bound by lignin matrix
 Bone: Stiff mineral “fibers” in a soft organic matrix permeated with holes filled with liquids
 Granite: Granular composite of quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Some examples of man‐made composites –
Concrete: Particulate composite of aggregates (limestone or granite), sand, cement, and water
Plywood: Several layers of wood veneer glued together
Fiberglass: Plastic matrix reinforced by glass fibers – Cements: Ceramic and metal composites
Composition of Composites

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Definition of FRPC: FRP composites are a combination of polymers (i.e., thermosets or

thermoplastics) with various continuous and non-continuous reinforcements/fillers, principally added to
polymers to improve the material performance.
Properties of FRPC:
 FRPCs exhibit superior tensile strength, stiffness, and impact resistance compared to the individual
components.
 FRPCs can be molded into complex shapes, allowing for innovative designs in engineering and
architecture.
 low density
 excellent resistance to fatigue
 low coefficient of thermal expansion
 high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios
 The polymer matrix provides protection against environmental degradation, enhancing the material's
lifespan.
 Light weight: They are significantly lighter than metals, making them ideal for
applications where weight reduction is crucial.
Applications of fiber reinforced polymers composites (FRPC)
1. Aerospace Industry
2. Automotive and Transportation
3. Civil and Structural Engineering
4. Sports and Recreation
5. Marine Applications
6. Electrical and Electronics
7. Medical Field
Carbon-based reinforced composites-graphene/carbon nano-tubes as fillers.
Carbon-based reinforced composites use graphene and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as fillers to improve the
thermo-mechanical, electrical, and other properties of various matrices, such as polymers and carbon
fibers.
Properties of Graphene and CNTs as Reinforcements
 Mechanical Properties
 Lightweight:

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 Electrical Conductivity
 Thermal Conductivity
 High Surface Area & Aspect Ratio:
 Chemical Stability
Applications of Graphene/CNT-Reinforced Composites
 Aerospace and Automotive
 Energy Storage and Generation
 Electronics
 Sensors
 Biomedical Applications
 Defense Technology
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are defined as materials with at least one external dimension in the size range from
approximately 1–100 nm. Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique optical, electronic,
or mechanical properties. A drastic change in the properties of nanomaterials can be observed when they
are breakdown to the nanoscale level. These distinct characteristics make nanomaterials highly valuable
in various fields such as medicine, electronics, energy, and environmental science.
Size dependent properties of nanomaterials
Surface area
As the size of nanomaterials decreases, their surface area to volume ratio increases significantly, meaning
a much larger proportion of atoms are exposed on the surface compared to the bulk. This size-dependent
increase in surface area enhances properties like chemical reactivity, catalytic activity, adsorption
capacity, and overall surface-driven behaviors. Because of their high surface area, nanomaterials are
widely used in applications such as catalysis, sensors, drug delivery, and energy storage, where surface
interactions are crucial.
Water absorption & permeability
Nanomaterials exhibit unique water absorption and permeability properties due to their high surface area,
nanoscale porosity, and tunable surface chemistry. Hydrophilic nanomaterials like nanocellulose,
graphene oxide, and nanoclays absorb significant moisture, making them useful in hydrogels, biomedical
scaffolds, and filtration systems. In contrast, hydrophobic nanomaterials such as pristine carbon
nanotubes or silane-coated nanoparticles resist water absorption. Water permeability in nanomaterials is
influenced by pore size, structure, and functionalization—graphene oxide membranes, for example, offer
high water permeability with selective filtration capabilities. These properties are widely leveraged in
applications ranging from packaging and coatings to water purification and biomedical devices.
Thermal properties
Nanomaterials exhibit distinct thermal properties compared to their bulk counterparts due to their reduced
size, large surface area, and quantum effects. Their thermal conductivity can be either enhanced or
suppressed depending on material type and structure. For example, carbon-based nanomaterials like
carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene have extremely high thermal conductivity, making them ideal for
heat dissipation in electronics. In contrast, nanostructured thermoelectric materials (e.g., nanostructured
bismuth telluride) are engineered to have low thermal conductivity while maintaining electrical
conductivity, enhancing energy conversion efficiency. Additionally nanoparticles typically have lower
melting points due to high surface energy. These unique thermal behaviors make nanomaterials valuable
in electronics, energy storage, coatings, and thermal barrier applications.

Antimicrobial Activity
Nanomaterials show strong antimicrobial activity due to their small size, large surface area, and ability to
interact with microbial cells. Materials like silver nanoparticles, zinc oxide, and copper oxide can disrupt

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bacterial membranes, generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), and interfere with cellular processes,
leading to microbial death. Their effectiveness depends on size, shape, concentration, and surface
functionalization. Because of these properties, antimicrobial nanomaterials are widely used in medical
devices, coatings, textiles, and water treatment to prevent infections and control microbial growth.
Nano concrete
Nano-concrete is a high-performance concrete enhanced by the addition of nanomaterials (like carbon
nanotubes or nanosilica) into the mix. These nanoscale additives, typically smaller than 500 nanometers,
act as fillers and binding agents.
Composition of Nanoconcrete
Cement Particles (under 500nm): The binding agent in nanoconcrete consists of cement particles that
are significantly smaller than those in conventional concrete.
Nanomaterials: These are the defining additives that provide the nanoconcrete with its enhanced
properties. Common examples include: Nano-silica (nS): Used to fill micro-pores, increasing density,
strength, and durability.
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs): Provide increased tensile strength, crack resistance, and overall toughness.
Nano-clay: Improves density and workability while reducing water absorption.
Aggregates: The larger particles (sand and gravel) that form the bulk of the concrete.
Water: Used to activate the cement in the hydration process.

[Link]. Parameter Normal Concrete Nano Concrete

Traditional concrete made from Concrete enhanced with nanomaterials
1 Definition
cement, water, sand, and [Link] improved properties.
Contains nanomaterials like nano-silica,
2 Composition Uses conventional materials.
nano-alumina, carbon nanotubes, etc.
Standard compressive and tensile Higher compressive, tensile, and
3 Strength
strength. flexural strength.
Prone to cracks, chemical attack, and Highly durable, reduced porosity, better
4 Durability
weathering. resistance to chemicals and weather.
Denser, compact microstructure with
5 Microstructure Coarse with microcracks and voids.
fewer voids.
More expensive due to costly
6 Cost Cost-effective and widely available.
nanomaterials.
Setting & Faster setting due to accelerated
7 Normal hydration and setting time.
Hardening hydration.
Synthesis of Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are made by two generalized processes
Top down: Start with the big chunk and cut away material to make what you want. It begins with
bulk materials that are subsequently reduced into nanomaterials.
Ex: Inert gas condensation, Ion beam technique, Laser ablation, etc
Bottom -up: Building what you want by assembling it from small prefabricated units molecules
react under chemical or physical circumstances to form nanomaterials. Such as atoms and molecules.
Ex: Hydrothermal, Sol-gel method, Co-precipitation and Combustion synthesis.

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Sol-gel method: Sol-gel process has been used in the synthesis of mono-dispersed nanoparticles of metal
oxides and temperature sensitive organic-inorganic hybrid materials. It consists of following
steps:
i) Preparation of sol: Sol is prepared by dispersing metal oxide or metal alkoxide (precursors) in a
solvent.
ii) Conversion of sol to gel: Sol is then converted into a gel by hydrolysis and condensation
reactions of precursors. Hydrolysis and condensation reactions are initiated by addition of an acid
or a base.
M-OR + H2O M-OH + R-OH
M-OH + M-OR M-O-M + R-OH
A gel is a state where solid and liquid are dispersed in each other.
iii) Aging: Gel on aging for a known period of time condenses to nanoscale clusters.
iv) Drying: The encapsulated liquid is removed from gel by evaporative drying.
v) Heat treatment: The sample is then calcined to obtain nanoparticles (1 to 100 nm). During this
process, the surface bound hydroxyl groups are removed and the clusters collapse to give nanosized
particles of good homogeneity and purity.
Descriptive questions

1. Define the following terms with suitable examples: phase, components, and degrees of freedom.
2. Derive the Gibbs Phase Rule equation and explain its significance.
3. Discuss the importance of phase equilibria in metallurgy?
4. With the help of a neat diagram, explain the phase diagram of the Pb–Ag (Lead–Silver) system.
5. Define alloy. Give a brief classification of alloys with examples.
6. Explain the composition, properties, and applications of:
(a) Stainless Steel
(b) Iron
7. Define fiber reinforced polymer composites (FRPC).
8. Write a note on the properties and applications of Kevlar fiber in polymer composites.
9. Compare the advantages and limitations of FRPCs over conventional engineering materials
(metals/ceramics).

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