REVOLUTION
&
RESTORATION
LITERATURE
(1649-1688)
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Renaissance Literature
James I (1603-1625)
Charles I (1625-1649)
Revolution &
Commonwealth
Commonwealth (1650-1660)
Charles II (1660-1685) Restoration Period
A German engraving of the execution of Charles I (1649); the unknown artist probably worked from
second-hand descriptions. The executioner's block, in fact, was only six or seven inches tall, requiring the
king to lie almost prone, and more effective for beheading than the pedestal depicted here. The hooded
executioner, holding the axe, has just struck; his assistant, also hooded, lifts Charles's head for the crowd
to see. Dr. Juxon, in clerical robes, stands just to the right of the king, holding some items of his clothing.
Colonel Hacker, farthest right, superintends the execution. The British Library.
Period of political upheaval which witnessed, nonetheless, important developments
The Bank of England (1694) The Royal Society of London (1660)
Period of political upheaval which witnessed, nonetheless, important developments
Formation of the modern political system → The first POLITICAL PARTIES in Britain
The Whigs
• Descendants → Parliamentarians
• Supported by → the wealthy and commercial classes
• Fought for → commercial development;
vigorous foreign policy;
religious toleration
The Tories
• Descendants → Royalists
• Supported by → the Church of England and landowners
• Fought for → the divine right of the king
WHAT ABOUT LITERATURE?
Critical Writing: John Dryden, Essay on Dramatic Poesy (1668)
Epic Poetry: John Milton, Paradise Lost (1667)
Restoration Poetry (Satire): John Dryden, Absalom and Achitophel (1681)
John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, “A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind”
Restoration Drama: William Wycherley, The Country Wife (1674)
Aphra Behn, The Rover (1677)
John Dryden, All for Love (1678)
Prose: Allegorical: John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678-1684)
Political: Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)
Autobiographical: Margaret Cavendish, A True Relation of My Birth,
Breeding and Life (1656)
Samuel Pepys, Diary (1659-69, full public. C.1918)
JOHN MILTON, PARADISE LOST (1667)
John Milton (1608-1674)
Poet and pamphleteer
He wrote pamphlets in which he
defended the liberty of the press as
well as his views in favour of divorce
He championed the absolute
freedom of the individual and was
critical of institutions
He was a Puritan who opposed the
Monarchy and favoured Cromwell’s
government
Most important work: Paradise Lost,
an epic poem initially published in
10 books (1667) and later on
published in 12 books (1674).
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Paradise Lost
• Epic poem → follows all conventions of epic poetry, drawing on
classical epic poetry
• Invocation of the muse at the beginning of the poem
• Heroic qualities of the characters
• ‘Grand style’ → elevated language and grandiose tone
• Style → elevated, dense and full of allusions; use of many Latinisms;
profuse in the use of adjectives (before and after nouns); inversion in the
normal order of sentences; full of similes, metaphors, images and Biblical
references
• The poem is written in blank verse – unrhymed iambic pentameter
Paradise Lost
Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing Heav’nly Muse, that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed
Paradise Lost
• Plot summary – the poem tells the story of the creation of Adam and
Eve and how they came to lose their place in Eden. Most importantly,
Paradise Lost also tells the story of Satan (formerly called Lucifer, when
Satan was an angel in Heaven). Satan is presented here as a tragic figure:
‘Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven’. Satan’s pride and envy
lead him to rebel against God and, consequently, he is cast out from
Heaven and condemned to Hell, where he establishes his own reign.
In what ways does Satan’s plight, as portrayed in Milton’s Paradise Lost,
resonate with the political atmosphere of the period?
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Adam's Story (Paradise Lost 8.249– Satan, Sin, and Death (Book II, Paradise Lost).
559). John Baptist Medina, 1688 John Baptist Medina, 1688
Folio Edition of Milton's Paradise Lost. Folio Edition of Milton's Paradise Lost.
The first illustrations to accompany the text of Paradise Lost were added to the fourth edition of 1688.
The illustrations were made by Sir John Baptist Medina, Bernard Lens II an and another unknown hand.
Later on, William Blake also illustrated Paradise Lost.
Paradise Lost
• Milton offered here his own version of the Bible, one that is tinged
with echoes to the political events of the period:
• Lucifer rebels against God because he sees God as a tyrant who
wields his power arbitrarily. This echoes the tyranny and arbitrariness
of the English monarchy that Milton himself denounced (remember
that he opposed the Monarchy and supported Cromwell’s government)
[…] how wearisome
Eternity so spent in worship paid
To whom we hate. Let us not then pursue
By force impossible, by leave obtained
Unacceptable, though in Heav’n, our state
Of splendid vassalage, but rather seek
Our own good from ourselves, and from our own
Live to ourselves, though in this vast recess,
Free, and to none accountable, preferring
Hard liberty before the easy yoke
Of servile Pomp (2.247-57)
Paradise Lost
• Milton offered here his own version of the Bible, one that is tinged
with echoes of the political events of the period:
• Lucifer rebels against God because he sees God as a tyrant who
wields his power arbitrarily. This echoes the tyranny and arbitrariness
of the English monarchy that Milton himself denounced (remember
that he opposed the Monarchy and supported Cromwell’s government)
• Gradually, however, we realize that Satan’s rebellion is not so much
against tyranny but rather against a figure he wants to ‘dethrone’ in
order to occupy his place and behave in exactly the same tyrannical
manner. Now, consider what happened with Oliver Cromwell
himself.
• By rebelling against God, Satan intends to do exactly what he
criticizes of God: “To do good will never be our task / But ever
to do ill our sole delight, / As being contrary to his high will /
Whom we resist” (1.159-62)
Paradise Lost
Satan acquires a very relevant role in the poem to the point that some critics (i.e.
Romantic writers) saw Satan as a heroic character: ‘better to reign in Hell than serve
in Heaven’
‘Paradise Lost excited different and far deeper emotions […] Like
Adam, I was apparently united by no link to any other being in
existence; but his state was far different from mine […] He had
come forth from the hands of God a perfect creature, happy
and prosperous, guarded by the especial care of his Creator; he
was allowed to converse with and acquire knowledge from
beings of a superior nature, but I was wretched, helpless, and
alone. Many times I considered Satan as the fitter emblem of my
condition, for often, like him, when I viewed the bliss of my
protectors, the bitter gall of envy rose within me’ (Frankenstein
129)
‘I am thy creature; I ought to be thy Adam; but I am rather the fallen
angel, whom thou drivest from joy for no misdeed […] I was benevolent
and good; misery made me fiend. Make me happy, and I shall again be
virtuous’ (Frankenstein Chapter 10, 100)
Critical Writing: John Dryden, Essay on Dramatic Poesy (1668)
Epic Poetry: John Milton, Paradise Lost (1667)
Restoration Poetry (Satire): John Dryden, Absalom and Achitophel (1681)
John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, “A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind”
Restoration Drama: William Wycherley, The Country Wife (1674)
Aphra Behn, The Rover (1677)
John Dryden, All for Love (1678)
Prose: Allegorical: John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678-1684)
Political: Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)
Autobiographical: Margaret Cavendish, A True Relation of My Birth,
Breeding and Life (1656)
Samuel Pepys, Diary (1659-69, full public. C.1918)
RESTORATION DRAMA
THE RESTORATION PERIOD – THEATRE
In 1660, theatres were reopened:
➢ Background:
➢ In 1642, just after the First English Civil War had begun, London theatres were closed.
➢ Puritans disapproved of theatre → secular forms of entertainment distracted people from
worshipping God → moral corruption & dissolution.
➢ Having been closed for 18 years, public theatres were reopened in 1660:
➢ King Charles II loved the theatre, and Restoration drama flourished
in this period.
➢ The moral climate of the Restoration can be seen as a political
reaction to Puritan mentality.
➢ Plays also showed a reaction against the strict rule of Puritanism and
frequently consisted of complicated plots about adultery, sexual
intrigue and money.
➢ Women appeared on the stage for the first time.
When watching the film Stage Beauty, pay attention to all the references the characters – and, in
particular, the character of Charles II – make to Puritanism and its previous ban on theatre.
The Globe – Renaissance Playhouse
Drury Lane – Restoration Playhouse
That the stage is now by his pains a thousand times better, and more glorious than ever heretofore. Now, wax-candles,
and many of them […] Now, all things civil, no rudeness anywhere; then, as in a bear-garden. Then, two or three fiddlers
[‘violinista’], now nine or ten of the best. (Samuel Peppys’ Diary).
THE RESTORATION PERIOD – THEATRE
New Buildings:
• Significantly different from those of the Elizabethan period
• .
• Playhouses were more sophisticated → incorporation of
European designs (France and Italy)
• Unlike the open-air playhouses of the Elizabethan period,
Restoration theatres were indoor structures with proscenium
arches, elaborate stage machinery and moveable scenery
→ more dynamic stage effects were made possible.
• Introduction of artificial lighting, primarily through
chandeliers and footlights
• Important playhouses: Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, the
Duke’s Theatre
• Attending theatre was more expensive → more elitist vis-á-
vis Renaissance theatre
THE RESTORATION PERIOD – THEATRE
Model reconstruction by Richard Southern of Wren's design for a playhouse (probably Drury Lane), c. 1674. The actors are shown on the
forestage. Entrances and exits were usually through the proscenium doors, shown stage right. The large area to the rear of the stage was used for
movable scenery. Photograph from Richard Southern, Changeable Scenery (London: Faber, 1952) plate 28. Reproduced by permission of Faber
and Faber Ltd.
THE RESTORATION PERIOD – THEATRE
The interior of Drury Lane in 1775, showing the
pit, boxes, and galleries after gradual
enlargement during the eighteenth century.
Photograph from Allardyce Nicoll, The
Development of the Theatre, 5th ed. (London:
Harrap, 1966) figure 201. (Original from the Art
Collection of the Folger Shakespeare Library.
Reproduced by permission.)
THE RESTORATION PERIOD – THEATRE
Actresses on the English stage for the first time:
• Prior to the Restoration Period, female roles were played by young boys.
• Charles II granted patents to theatre companies, allowing women to perform publicly. His years in exile in France –
where women were allowed to perform – were pivotal in this respect.
When watching Stage Beauty, pay attention to the debates surrounding this issue. Early in the film, this issue is
discussed quite at length during a dinner party, with Charles II making important remarks in this respect. Notice that
Queen Henrietta Maria, Charles II’s mother, took part in court masques.
• Actresses like Nell Gwyn, Elizabeth Barry, and Anne Bracegirdle became celebrated figures, not only for their
performances but also for their public personas and connections to influential patrons (‘celebrity culture’).
• Female performers faced, however, significant challenges, as they were often objectified and associated with
scandal due to the blurred lines between theater and courtesan culture.
When watching Stage Beauty, consider the ways in which female actresses are objectified. In addition, pay attention
to the figure of Nell Gwyn, who appears in the film.
First Actress
In Stage Beauty , the character
of Maria (starring Claire Danes)
is based on Margaret Hughes.
When watching Stage Beauty ,
pay attention to scene where
Maria gets her portrait painted.
THE RESTORATION PERIOD – THEATRE
Mary Saunderson, one of the
Nell Gwyn, one of the first English actresses
first actresses
and a really popular one
William Prynne, Historio-Mastix (1633)
Women actors, notorious whores
In Stage Beauty, during a dinner party, Charles II refers to this
work. Comment on what he says as indicated in the
instructions for the course project.
Samuel Pepys Diary 1667
October 5th. […] it
being a new play, "The Coffee House," that we could not get
in, and so to the King's house: and there, going in, met with Knepp, and she
took us up into the tiring-rooms: and to the women's shift, where Nell was
dressing herself, and was all unready, and is very pretty, prettier than I
thought. And so walked all up and down the house above, and then below
into the scene-room, and there sat down, and she gave us fruit and here I
read the questions to Knepp, while she answered me, through all her part of
"Flora's Figary's," which was acted to-day. But, Lord! to see how they were
both painted would make a man mad, and did make me loath them; and
what base company of men comes among them, and how lewdly they talk!
[…] But to see how Nell cursed, for having so few people in the pit, was
pretty; the other house carrying away all the people at the new play, and is
said, now-a-days, to have generally most company, as being better players.
By and by into the pit, and there saw the play, which is pretty good, but my
belly was full of what I had seen in the house, and so, after the play done,
away home, and there to the writing my letters, and so home to supper and
to bed.
When watching Stage Beauty, look for this figure and relate it to what
we have just seen in your commentary.
Although not directly related to theatre, in his Diary Pepys recorded the most
important events of the period, including the outbreak of the plague and the Great
Fire of London (1666) – see excerpt below
Samuel Pepys Diary 1667
September 2, 1666
Lords Day. Some of our maids sitting up late last night to get things ready against our feast today, Jane called us up,
about 3 in the morning, to tell us of a great fire they saw in the City […] By and by Jane comes and tells me that she hears
that above 300 houses have been burned down tonight by the fire we saw, and that it is now burning down all Fish Street,
by London Bridge. So I made myself ready presently, and walked to the Tower and there got up upon one of the high places,
Sir J. Robinson’s little son going up with me; and there I did see the houses at that end of the bridge all on fire, and an
infinite great fire on this and the other side the end of the bridge – which, among other people, did trouble me for poor
little Michell and our Sarah on the Bridge. So down, with my heart full of trouble, to the Lieutenant of the Tower, who tells me
that it began this morning in the King’s baker’s house in Pudding Lane, and that it hath burned St. Magnus’s Church and most
part of Fish Street already. So I down to the waterside and there got a boat and through bridge, and there saw a lamentable
fire. Poor Michell’s house, as far as the Old Swan, already burned that way and the fire running further, that in a very little
time it got as far as the Steelyard while I was there. Everybody endeavouring to remove their goods, and flinging into the
river or bringing them into lighters that lay off. Poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them,
and then running into boats, or clambering from one pair of stairs by the waterside to another. And among other things, the
poor pigeons, I perceive, were loth to leave their houses, but hovered about the windows and balconies, till they some of them
burned their wings and fell down.
RESTORATION DRAMA - GENRES
Masques continued to be popular during this
Heroic Tragedy period. See previous Unit.
➢ Topics: ideas about honour, love and valour
➢ John Dryden’s The Conquest of Granada and All for Love
➢ In Dryden’s heroic plays, we often find a hero of superhuman powers and with superhuman ideals; there is a heroine of
unsurpassed beauty; there is an inner conflict in the minds of several characters between love and honour
Comedy of manners
➢ The term ‘comedy of manners’ is used to refer to comedies that depicted and often satirized the manners, vices and
follies of contemporary society.
➢ The social manners depicted in the comedies of manners of the Restoration period are often those of the fashionable,
vain and superficial aristocracy.
➢ In the comedy of manners of the Restoration period, the plot usually centres on an illicit love affair or a similarly
scandalous matter. Lust, greed, gossip, rumours and materialism are also subjects that tend to surface in the comedy
of manners of the period.
➢ The plot is often less important than the play’s witty dialogue and satirical commentary on social immorality.
➢ William Wycherley’s The Country Wife; William Congreve’s The Way of the World
The middle classes did not feel identified with these plays, which they
considered as either too artificial or morally questionable. Thus, the
theatre of the period was severely criticised. An example of such
critique can be found in the pamphlet titled “A Short View of the
Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage”, by Puritan writer
Jeremy Collier.
Under these circumstances, theatre in England began to progressively
decay due to censorship and the rejection of wide sections of the
population. This also explains the increasing importance of other forms
of entertainment and the development of the novel that we will tackle
in the next unit. In fact, many playwrights such as William Congreve or
Aphra Behn who had begun their literary careers as playwrights,
opted for writing other types of texts in prose
THE RESTORATION PERIOD – THEATRE
William Congreve (playwright)
Aphra Behn (playwright)
Critical Writing: John Dryden, Essay on Dramatic Poesy (1668)
Epic Poetry: John Milton, Paradise Lost (1667)
Restoration Poetry (Satire): John Dryden, Absalom and Achitophel (1681)
John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, “A Satyr Against Reason and Mankind”
Restoration Drama: William Wycherley, The Country Wife (1674)
Aphra Behn, The Rover (1677)
John Dryden, All for Love (1678)
Prose: Allegorical: John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678-1684)
Political: Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)
Autobiographical: Margaret Cavendish, A True Relation of My Birth,
Breeding and Life (1656)
Samuel Pepys, Diary (1659-69, full public. C.1918)
It is generally considered that the Restoration Period inaugurated the
beginning of modern prose. Many writers opted for commenting, in a
straightforward lucid style, on the conflicts and debates that were
taking place in England.
• John Dryden’s An Essay on Dramatic Poesy defends the importance
and interest of drama. (literary criticism)
• Diaries and autobiographical writings became popular and paved
the way for the development of the novel in the eighteenth century
• Samuel Pepys, Diary (1659-69, full public. C.1918)
• Margaret Cavendish, A True Relation of My Birth, Breeding and
Life (1656)
• John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim Progress (1678-1684) represents the most
important work written in prose during this period. It is a religious
allegory in which a character, named Christian, seeks salvation.
Many critics see in this text an antecedent to the English novel.