RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

COURSE OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION

This module unit is designed to equip the trainee with the knowledge, skills and attitudes that
will enable him/her effectively manage community resources.

General Objectives

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Appreciate the importance of managing resources in a society.

b) Understand the importance of managing resources in society.
c) Understand ways of conserving resources in society
d) Co-ordinate various activities through an office.

TOPICS

1. INTORDUCTION TO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 Meaning of resources
 Categories of Resources
 Importance of resource management

2. NATURAL RESOURCES

 Types of natural resources

 Characteristics of natural resources
 Management of natural resources
 Conservation of natural resources
3. MAN MADE RESOURCES
 Meaning of man-made resources.
 Ways of managing man made resources
 Types of manmade resources
 Impact of managing man made resources
4. HUMAN RESOURCES

 Meaning of human resources

 Process of developing human resources
 Role of Human resources in utilization of other resources.
 Impact of human resource management in social development

5. FINANCIAL RESOURCES.

 Meaning of financial resources.

 Sources of finance
 Management of finances
 Controlling finances
 Challenges In financial management

6. ENERGY RESOURCES

 Meaning of Energy resources

 Types of energy Resources
 Utilization of energy resources
 Impact on conservation of energy resources.

7. LOGISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION

 Meaning of logistics and Distribution

 Components of logistics
 Procurement procedures
 Stores and warehouse management
 Channels of distribution
 Imports and exports procedures

8. OFFICE ADMINISTRATION

 Meaning of an office
 Functions of an office
 Types of office layout
  Role of office staffs.
 Office facilities
 Control of office facilities.

9. ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS IN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT.

 Role of government and development partners.

 Control of resource utilization by the government and the development partners.
 Impact of government and development partners in resource management.

10. EMERGING TRENDS IN RESOURCE MANAGEMNET

 Emerging trends in resource management.

INTRODUCTION TO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Resource is anything that can be utilized at a given time for a particular purpose to achieve
desired goals and objectives. It is anything that can be used as an input to produce the desired
outputs in order to achieve a particular objective. It is anything that has the following utilities;

- Form Utility- Can be used when it is in the right form.

- Time utility- Can be utilized at the right time.
- Place Utility- Can be used at the right place.

Resource – is anything that can be utilized at any given time for a particular purpose to achieve
desired goals and objectives. It is also anything that can be used as an input to produce a desired
output in order to achieve a particular objective. A resource is something used to create wealth.
Management – It comprises of planning, organizing, resourcing, leading or directing and
controlling an organization for the purpose of accomplishing a goal.
Functions of Management
1. Planning
Involves thinking about what has to be done in the near future. It is the process by which a
manager anticipates the future and comes up with alternative course of action.
Stages of planning
 Assessment- it includes identifying and clarifying or diagnosing the problems affecting
an organization.
 Goal setting – this is done to determine the direction of activities and serve as a guide for
action.
 Implementation – Involves putting solutions into action.
 Evaluation – involves determining the extent to which objectives have been achieved.
Reasons for Planning
  Contributes to purposeful work in the organization.
 Reduces costs because efforts are directed towards desired results.
 Provides for integration and coordination of activities.
 Minimizes disorganized approaches and avoids duplication.
2. Organizing
This is the process of grouping the necessary responsibilities and activities in workable units,
determining the links of authority, communication, developing patterns of communication and
giving feedback.
Benefits of effective organizing
 Reveals and helps eliminate weaknesses
 Provides employees with well-defined hierarchy and sets of rules and procedures
 Enables clarity of management expectations.
3. Controlling
It is the managerial function concerned with making sure plans succeed. It is also the process that
measures work performance and guides it towards some pre-determined goal.
Importance of controlling
 Ensures that work is done according to set objectives
 Enables supervisors to understand the staff appropriately
 Enables management to ensure that resources provided are adequate and being used
properly
 Facilitates the recognition and reward of work done
 Enables early detection of mistakes before they reach critical levels.
Theories of management
 Theory of Scientific Management/Classic Tailorism by Fredrick Winslow Tailor
 Human Relations Theory by Elton Mayo
 Social Change Theory by George Casper
 Bureaucracy Theory by Max Weber
Meaning of Resource Management
Resource management is the process of using a company's in the most efficient way possible.
Such resources may include financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources,
or information technology (IT).
Importance of managing resources
1. Ensures effective and efficient utilization of resources.
2. Ensures resources are utilized in a sustainable manner.
3. Projects can be completed in time.
4. Resources are enough to guarantee other projects.
5. Leads to improvement of people’s well-being.
6. Promotes discipline within an organization.
7. Leads to diversification of the activities of an organization.
8. Helps improve community relations.
9. Encourages innovation.
10. Conserves the environment.
Qualities of a good resource manager
 Should be a person who loves development
 Should be a good steward
 Should be transparent
 Has the ability to influence others to correctly use resources
 Should be someone who is morally upright
 Should have good public skills
 Should be honest
 Should be a good resource mobilizer
Roles of a Resource Manager
1. Resource planning
It involves forecasting the use of resources in the organization or community.
2. Resource allocation
It involves assignment of the resources to users.
3. Resource sustainability
A manager ensures resource maintenance to meet the needs of the future generations
(resource conservation).
4. Capacity building
This is done through training on resource sustainability
5. Resource supervision
 A manager ensures that resources are put into the right use.
6. Directing
A manager directs the use of the resources.
Functions of a resource manager

1. To identify the available resources through mapping and s tock taking.

2. Directing the use of resources.
3. Training and educating people on the purpose of resources.
4. Formation of policy on resource management.
5. Educating the community on issues regarding resources in the society.
6. Promoting good use of available resources in society and organizations.
7. Creation of awareness of the importance of resources.

Impact of Resource Management

1. Ensures that organizations resources are conserved.
2. It helps to reduce wastage of resources.
3. Promotes a culture of discipline on resource use leading to sustainability.
4. Contributes to organizations effectiveness.
5. It helps to improve the quality of people’s living standards.
6. Contributes to economic growth through income generation e.g. tourism industry
7. It contributes to diversification of the organization.
8. Helps to improve relations within an organization.
Challenges that affect management of natural resources
 Overexploitation
The natural resources are produces and utilized at the rate exceeding their renewal ability
if renewable. This will lead to their eventual exhaustion.
 Pollution
Some resources like fossil fuels are utilized leading to carbon emissions into the
ecosystem, biosphere. Other resources generate wastes that pollute or contaminate the
environment.
 Increased population
 An increase in human population at times has undesirable effects on natural resources
like forests, marine systems and the ecosystem. The population encroaches on forests,
game reserves, water catchment areas etc.
 Conflict over natural resources
Some resources are found across boarders and are shared by different communities. Their
value and exploitation leads to conflict between various groups or communities.
 Climate change
Aspects like carbon emission leads to depletion of ozone layer and climate change. The
climate change affects biodiversity and natural resources like forests, marine life and
animals.
 Lack of proper policies
There’s lack of proper` and adequate policies and legislation that affect management of
natural resources e.g. exploration, exploitation, utilization and management of natural
resources.
 Weak international protocol
The international protocols are occasionally violated by some countries. Some are not
signed and implemented fully by some continents e.g. not binding.
Categories of resources

1. Natural resources

These are God given gifts of nature. Usually they are in the form of Raw materials. Natural
Resources are basic factors of production that include land and its properties like water, soil,
mountains, vegetation etc. Natural resources can also be categorized to renewable and non-
renewable resources.

2. Man-made resources.

These are resources which are created by man. They include machines, equipments etc.

3. Human resources.

This refers to people and their skills, and abilities are utilized to perform tasks so as to
accomplish goals and objectives.
 TOPIC 2: NATURAL RESOURCES

This are referred to as gifts of nature. Natural resources (economically referred to as land or raw
materials) occur naturally within the environment. They exist relatively undisturbed by mankind
in a natural form. Many of them are essential for our survival while others are used for satisfying
our wants. Natural resources provide us with basic needs such as food, water, shelter, clothing
etc.

Types of natural resources

Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of the resources are essential for
survival, while others are meant to satisfy societal wants. There are numerous ways to classify
the types of natural resources. This includes the source or origin, the state of development and
the renewability of the resources. Few examples of natural resources are:

 Air, wind and atmosphere

 Plants (Flora)
 Animals (Fauna)
 Agronomy (the science of using plants for food, fuel, feed and fiber)
 Wildlife
 Forestry and Agroforestry
 Coal and fossil fuels
 Range and pasture
 Soils
 Water, oceans, lakes and rivers
Natural resources and their uses
Soil
 Used for growing crops (only 10% of the Earth’s surface).
 Soil can be used for shelter. Many tribal people all around the world make shelter with
the help of soil.
Water
 Used for drinking (only 0.0007% of Earth’s water is suitable for drinking. The rest is salt
water, water trapped in glaciers or polluted water.
  Fresh water is used for irrigation of crops.
 Water bodies such as oceans, lakes and rivers of the world can be used for transportation.
 Fishing is a valuable source of food that is provided by water.
 Water in rivers is be used to generate hydro-electricity.
Minerals

Minerals can be defined as naturally occurring substances obtained from the ground. They are
coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron, copper, gold, etc. They are also absorbed by plants from the
Earth’s surface and transferred to humans through food.
 They (coal, natural gas and fossil fuels) are a source of energy.
 Used as ingredients to make other materials like iron ore, is used to make steel and
petroleum is used to make a variety of products like gasoline, plastics, etc.
 Can be used as they are in natural form like salt.
Vegetation
 Land is used for farming from which vegetables and fruits are grown.
 Wood from trees is cut and processed to make furniture and home
 Wood is used for cooking and also as fuel to produce heat for warmth.
 Clothing - clothes are made from cotton.
 Plants are used as an ingredient in medicines.
Animals
 Animals are used as a food, and their waste is used as fertilizers for crops.
 We get fur and hides from animals which are used for making clothes.
 Used for transportation.
Characteristics of natural resources
 They are a form of raw material
 They are given by nature e.g land and its properties.
 They are scarce.
 They can be overexploited.
 They are economic in nature.
Classification of Natural Resources
 1. Classification on the basis of origin

Resources may be divided into;

• Biotic - Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere, such as forests and their
products, animals, birds and their products, fish and other marine organisms. Mineral fuels such
as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed
organic matter.

• Abiotic - Abiotic resources include non-living things. Examples include land, water, air
and ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver etc.

2. Classification based on their stage of development

Natural resources may be referred to in the following ways;

• Potential Resources - Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be
used in the future. For example, petroleum may exist in many parts of India, having sedimentary
rocks but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.

• Actual Resources - are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality
determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual resource, such as
wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved. That part of the
actual resource that can be developed profitably with available technology is called a reserve.

3. Classification on the basis of status of development

They can be classified into;

 Potential resources - These are resources that exist in a region and may be used in the
future for example ,if a country has petroleum in sedimentary rocks, it is a potential resource
until it is actually drilled out of the rock and put to use .
 Actual resources - These are resources that have been surveyed, their quantity and
quality has been determined, and they are currently being used. The development of actual
resources is dependent on technology
  Reserve resources - This is the part of an actual resource that can be developed
profitably in the future
 Stock resources - These are resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due to
lack of technology. An example of a stock resource is hydrogen.
4. With respect to renewability, natural resources can be categorized as follows:

• Renewable resources - are ones that can be replenished or reproduced easily. Some of
them, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not affected by
human consumption. Many renewable resources can be depleted by human use, but may also be
replenished, thus maintaining a flow. Some of these, like agricultural crops, take a short time for
renewal; others, like water, take a comparatively longer time, while still others, like forests, take
even longer.

• Non-renewable resources - are formed over very long geological periods. Minerals and
fossil fuels are included in this category. Since their rate of formation is extremely slow, they
cannot be replenished once they get depleted. Of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by
recycling them. But coal and petroleum cannot be recycled.

5. Classification on the basis of availability

Natural resources can be categorized as follows;

• Inexhaustible natural resources - Those resources which are present in unlimited

quantity in nature and are not likely to be exhausted easily by human activity are inexhaustible
natural resources (sunlight, air etc.)

• Exhaustible natural resources - The amount of these resources are limited. They can be
exhausted by human activity in the long run (coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc.)

6. Characteristics of Natural Resources

1. They are a form of raw materials
2. Given by nature e.g. land and its properties
3. Are scarce
4. Can be overexploited
5. Are economic resources
 6. Some are unlimited
7. Require conservation or protection
8. Some are evenly distributed while others are sparsely distributed

Management of Natural Resources

This refers to the process of utilizing and conserving natural resources.

Ways of Conserving Natural Resources

1. Resource identification
2. Creation of awareness on resource conservation
3. Education and training on conservation
4. Resource management
5. Protection of natural resources through
o Fencing
o Guarding of forests
o Collaboration with the community members
o Policy measure in natural resource management
o Formation of legal bodies to protect natural resources
o Advocacy and lobbying
o Formation of legal bodies to protect resources e.g. government.

Conservation of Natural Resources

Conservation of natural resources refers to the sustainable utilization of natural resources like
soils, water, plants ,animals and minerals, fibber, fish, game, topsoil, pasture and also to the
preservation of forests, wildlife refuge, wilderness and watershed areas.

Conservation of water

1. Rain water harvesting

2. Proper storage
3. conservation of water catchment areas
 4. explore water reuse
5. Discourage water pollution.

Conservation of forests

1. Planting of trees
2. Fencing of forest areas
3. Banning of logging. cutting of trees
4. encourage intercropping
5. Employ forest awards

Conservation of wildlife

1. Putting them in a national parks

2. Employment of game rangers
3. Creation of awareness among community members on wildlife conservation
4. Dealing with human and animal conflict
5. Use of policy to protect wildlife.

Pollution and Degradation

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that causes adverse
change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substance or energy, such as noise, heat or light.
Major forms of pollution include

Air pollution - occurs when harmful or excessive quantities of substances including gases,
particles and biological molecules are introduced into earth’s atmosphere. Both human activity
and natural processes can generate air pollution.

Water pollution

Is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities. Water bodies
include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, and ground water. Water pollution results when
contaminants are introduced into the natural environment e.g. realizing inadequately treated
waste water into natural water bodies can lead to degradation of aquatic ecosystems water
pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and disease e.g. to water borne diseases.
Soil contamination/pollution

Also soil pollution: is caused by the presence of human-made chemicals or other alteration in the
natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or
improper disposal of waste

Noise pollution

Also known as environmental noise or sound pollution. It is the propagation of noise with
harmful impacts on the activity of human or animal life. The source of outdoor noise worldwide
is mainly caused by machines, transport and propagation systems.

Ways of dealing with pollution

1. Use of government policy on pollution control

2. Creating awareness on pollution
3. Encouraging proper disposal of waste
4. Discourage water pollution
5. Use of legislation to deal with pollution
6. Discourage farming along river banks
7. Digging of terraces
8. Planting trees.

Challenges in Natural Resource Conservation

1. Corruption
2. Lack of awareness
3. Man/animal conflict
4. Lack of clear government policy
5. Inadequate financial resources
6. Scarcity of resources
7. Poor exploitation of natural resources.

Specific Natural Resources and their Conservation

SOIL
Soil is a renewable as well as non-renewable resource. Soil is renewable because its productivity
can be maintained with fertilizers and manures rich in humus. If the soil has been removed from
a certain place by erosion, it is practically non-renewable because formation of new soil may
take hundreds and thousands of years.

Functions of soil in the ecosystem

1. Supports plant growth

Soil provides a medium through which plants draw water and nutrients for growth.
2. Controlling hydrological cycle
Soil controls water loss, utilization, contamination, purification, movement etc, that are
important in the ecosystem.
3. Nutrient recycling
The waste products, dead bodies, parts of vegetation and animals accumulate on or in the
soil where they undergo decomposition by micro-organisms.

4. Habitat for a myriad of organisms

Soil offers a habitat for mammals, reptiles, micro-organisms etc. These organisms derive
their livelihood from the soil directly or indirectly.
5. Infrastructural engineering
Soil provides the surface for which human beings construct various structures like
buildings, roads etc.

Soil Erosion

Erosion literally means “to wear away”. Wind and flowing water removes some amount of soil
along with it. This removal of top layers of soil by wind and water is called soil erosion. Top
layers of soil contain humus and mineral salts, which are vital for the growth of plants. Thus,
erosion causes a significant loss of humus and nutrients, and decreases the fertility of soil.

Causes of soil Erosion

There are several causes of soil erosion, these include:

 Natural Causes of Soil Erosion

Erosion of soil takes places due to the effect of natural agents like wind and water. High velocity
winds over lands, which have no vegetation, carry away the loose top soil. Similarly in areas
with no or very little vegetation, the pouring raindrops carry away the soil.

 Anthropogenic Causes of Soil Erosion

Besides the natural agents, there are some human activities, which cause soil erosion.
Deforestation: If the forests are cut down for timber, or for farming purposes, then the
soil is no longer protected from the effect of falling rains. Consequently, the top soil is washed
away into the rivers and oceans.

Poor farming methods: Improper tillage and failure to replace humus after successive
crops and burning the stubble of weeds reduce the water-holding capacity of the soil. So the soil
becomes dry and can be blown away as dust.

Overgrazing: Overgrazing by flocks of cattle, buffaloes, goats and sheep leave very little
plant-cover on the soil. Their hooves make the soil dry and soil can be blown away easily.

Conservation of Soil

Soil conservation means checking soil erosion and improving soil fertility by adopting various
methods.

 Maintenance of soil fertility: The fertility can be maintained by adding manure and
fertilizers regularly as well as by rotation of crop.
 Control on grazing: Grazing should be allowed only on the areas meant for it and not on
agricultural land.
 Reforestation: Planting of trees and vegetation reduces soil erosion by both water and
wind.
 Terracing: Dividing a slope into several flat fields to control rapid run of water. It is
practiced mostly in hilly areas.
 Contour ploughing: Ploughing at right angles to the slope allows the furrows to trap
water and check soil erosion by rain water.

WATER
Fresh water is needed by humans for their personal use (drinking, cleaning, sewage disposal), It
is also used by other animals, in agricultural, and for industrial purposes. Fresh water is a
renewable resource as it is continuously being produced through hydrological cycle (evaporation,
condensation and precipitation).

Degradation of Water/Pollution

Degradation of water is the decrease in quality and quantity of water on the earth surface. With
increase in population and industrial growth, water is being degraded day by day. The main
reasons for the degradation of water are:

 To meet the need of increasing population, surface water (water from ponds, lakes, rivers,
etc) and ground water are overdrawn.
 Sewage that is waste water from domestic and municipal use makes fresh water unfit for
use by human beings and animals.
 Waste water, from all industries flow down into the surface water bodies and ground
water bodies and they get polluted.
 Agricultural wastes containing manures, fertilizers and pesticides enter the water bodies
and degrade the quality of water.
 The continuous decrease of ground water level along coastal regions often cause
movement of saline sea water into freshwater wells, thus, spoiling their quality.

Conservation of Water

This can be achieved adopting the following methods:

 Growing vegetation in the catchment areas, which will hold water in the soil and allow it
to percolate into deeper layers and contribute to formation of ground water.
 Constructing dams and reservoirs to regulate supply of water to the fields, as well as to
enable generating hydroelectricity.
 Sewage should be treated and only the clear water should be released into the rivers.
 Industrial wastes (effluents) should be treated to prevent chemical and thermal pollution
of fresh water
 Careful use of water in our day-to-day life.
  Rainwater harvesting should be done by storing rainwater and recharging groundwater.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity can be defined as the flora and fauna i.e. variety of all plants, animals and microbes
of a region.

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is essential for maintenance of the ecosystem. It maintains gaseous composition of

atmosphere, controls climate, helps in natural pest control, pollination of plants by insects and
birds, soil formation and conservation, water purification and conservation, geo-chemical cycles
etc. Some of the uses of biodiversity are given below;

 Food - All kind of food is derived from plants and animals.

 Drugs and Medicines - Around 25% of drugs are obtained from plants e.g. quinins used
for treatment of malaria is obtained from Chinchona officinalis. All antibiotics are
derived from microbes.
 Cultural and Aesthetic value - You enjoy watching butterflies, animals, birds and flowers.
Eco-tourism is a source of income.
 Religious values - animals like cows, ox, elephant are worshiped.
 It is essential for maintenance of the ecosystem.
 It is required for disposal and pollination in plants, formation and conservation of soil and
purification and conservation of water.

Threat to Biodiversity

Though biodiversity is so important for our survival, it is being destroyed knowingly or

unknowingly. It is under threat due to the following reasons:

 Destruction of habitat by cutting down trees, filling up the wetland, ploughing of

grassland or burning a forest.
 Population explosion has increased demand for food and shelter. It has lead to culture of
single crop that will result in disappearance of some other crops.
  Industrialization and urbanization has changed and destroyed the natural habitat of plants
and animals.
 Pollution of soil, air and water changes the habitat quality and may reduce or eliminate
sensitive species.
 Mining activities add to the pollution of air and water and threaten the survival of the
animals in the nearby areas.
 Construction of dams, roads and railways destroys huge patches of forests, grassland etc.
thus, disturb the biodiversity.
 Indiscriminate killing of animals for different purposes has resulted in their reduction e. g
elephants for their tasks.
 Introduction of exotic/foreign species in an area threaten the survival of existing natural
biodiversity; e.g., water hyacinth clogs rivers and lakes and threatens the life of many
aquatic species in our country.

Conservation of Biodiversity

There are two basic strategies for conservation of biodiversity:

(i) In-situ conservation

(ii) Ex-situ conservation

In-situ (on site) conservation - includes the protection of plants and animals within their
natural habitats or in protected areas. Protected areas are areas of land or sea dedicated to
protection and maintenance of biodiversity. For example: e.g., National Parks, Wildlife
Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves, etc.

Ex-situ (off site) conservation - is the conservation of plants and animals outside their
natural habitats. These include Botanical Gardens, Zoo, Gene Banks, DNA Banks, Seed
Banks, Pollen Banks, Seedling and Tissue Culture etc.

WILDLIFE

The plants, animals and microorganisms other than the cultivated plants and domesticated
animals constitute the wildlife. Animals and plants living in their natural habitat constitute
wildlife. The wildlife forms an important resource as it plays a major role in maintaining
ecological balance. It is used in research as experimental material and also used for recreational
purposes. Like other resources it is also facing severe threat. So it should be conserved and
maintained for the use of future generation.

Need for Conservation of wildlife

Wildlife needs to be conserved for;

 Maintaining ecological balance for supporting life.

 Preserving different kinds of species (biodiversity)
 Preserving economically important plants and animals
 Conserving the endangered species.

Methods of Conservation of Wildlife

We can protect it by adopting various means, like:

 Establishing biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries.

 Afforestation (Tree planting programme).
 Special schemes for preservation of threatened species.
 Improvement of natural habitats of wildlife.
 Educating people about the need and methods of conservation of wildlife.
 Formulation of Acts and Regulations to prevent poaching (killing animals) for sports and
money.

Sustainable development

This is the development that meets the needs of the present generation and conserves it for the
future generation. So water, air, soil and other natural resources should be left as pure and
unpolluted as when it came on earth. Sustainable development should include

 Reducing excessive use of resources and enhancing resource conservation.

 Recycling and reuse of waste materials.
 Scientific management of renewable resources, especially bio-resources.
 Plant more trees.
  Green grassy patches to be interspersed between concrete buildings.
 Use more environment friendly material or biodegradable material.
 Use of technologies, which are environmental friendly and based on efficient use of
resources.

TOPIC 3: MAN MADE RESOURCES

They are resources created by man e.g. machines, equipment’s, premises, facilities, furniture,
money. Man-made resources are items or substances that have value to human lives that do not
occur in the natural world.

Types of man-made resources

 Technological resources
This refers to application of a body of knowledge, materials and resources for practical and
productive purposes. Every culture develops its own technology based in part on ts experience,
resources and needs.
 Informational resources
These are the ideas and data contained in books, research reports, films, records and other media
as well as the individuals and organizations that produce them. Informational resources help
development workers to increase their knowledge and understanding, thereby improving their
projects.
 Material resources
These are the physical inputs needed to carry out a particular task. The materials needed depend
on the nature of the tasks being performed for example timber, plastic etc
Ways of managing man-made resources
 Reducing waste of resources
Waste is anything discarded, rejected surpluses, abandoned, or otherwise released into the
environment in a manner (or quantity) that could have an impact on that environment. Reduction
is to make something smaller or use less, resulting in a smaller amount of waste. "Source
reduction" is reducing waste before you purchase it, or by purchasing products that are not
wasteful in their packaging or use. A key part of waste "reduction" is "conservation" - using
natural resources wisely, and using less than usual in order to avoid to waste.

 Reuse
You can "reuse" materials in their original form instead of throwing them away, or pass those
materials on to others who could use them too. Remember, one man's trash is another man's
treasure.

 Recycle
Recycling occurs when you save and take reusable materials to places where they can be remade
into either the same product or new products, rather than to just toss them in the trash. This helps
to ensure that they last longer, reduce wastage and pollution, eg recycling of paper, plastics etc.
Making new items from recycled ones also takes fewer energy and other resources than making
products from brand new materials.
 Servicing and maintenance of the resources

This is done for machines and equipment to make them last longer.

 Use of current technology

For example, computers can be used to make work fast and efficient.

 Training

This is done to equip people with relevant skills they need in running machines and operating
them.

 Proper usage

Resources should be used for the right purpose.

 Proper storage

Machines and equipment must be stored properly to avoid unnecessary breakages.

 Use of policy

Governments should develop policy to guide on the expected standards e.g paper quality.

 Proper disposal

Characteristics of man-made resources

 They have a negative environmental impact because they are not sustainable.
  They require less care and attention.
 They are based on human input.
 They go through rigorous processing to alter the material so that it suits its intended
purpose.
 They are durable.
 Created by man
 They can be depleted
 Are disposable
 Requires servicing and maintenance
 Require good storage
 Have an economic lifespan
 They need control or stewardship
Impacts of managing manmade resources

 There is effective and efficient utilization of the resources leading to increased efficiency
in an organization.
 There is minimization of wastage.
 Leads to sustainability of resources whereby they last a longer and give returns on value
for money or investment.
 It improves production and helps to speed up development.
 There is cost effectiveness where less money is spent on these resources.
 Leads to improved living standards because the resources aid in everyday life.
 Reduces pollution through proper disposal.
 Promotes discipline in resource utilization
 Increases effectiveness in the organization

Negative impact of Man -made resources to the Environment

1. Environmental pollution.
2. Cause destruction of natural resources.
3. Leads to depletion of natural resources.
4. Leads to war and displacement of people.
5. Increase in waste material.
TOPIC 4: HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Meaning of human resource

Refers to the personnel of a business or organization regarded as a significant asset in terms of

skills and abilities

It also refers to the department of a business or organization that deals with the hiring,
administration and training of staff.

Human resource management

This is the process of procuring and managing the human resources of the organization to
accomplish the objectives of the organization. The purpose of human resource management is
to:-

1. Attract ,train and develop personnel to work for the organization

2. To reward employees for increased productivity
3. To retain people to work within an organization
4. To help employees meet their needs while helping the organization meet its needs

Without having a dedicated, knowledgeable and motivate employees, the organization cannot
achieve its objectives.

Principles of Human resource management

1. Principle of individual development.

HRM should offer full and equal opportunities to every employee to realize their full
potential.

2. principle of scientific selection

HRM should select the right person for the right job.

3. Principle of free flow of communication.

 All channels of communication should be kept open and upward, downward, horizontal,
formal and informal communication should be encouraged.

4. Principle of participation.

Employee’s representative should be associated with every level of decision making.

5. Principle of fair remuneration.

Employees should be paid fair, equitable wages and salaries commiserating with jobs.

6. Principle of incentive.

HRM should recognize and reward good performance

7. Principle of dignity of labor.

Every job holder should be treated with dignity and respect.

Importance of Human Resource Management

1. It gives an organization competitive advantage

2. It is an important part of an organization strategy: This means managers must change
how they think about employees, treat them as partners and ensure effective work
relationship.
3. To improve performance that leads to organization effectiveness
4. To ensure retention of qualifies employees
5. To enhance employees commitment to the organization

Features of Human Resource Management

1. Comprehensive function – Human resource management is concerned with managing

people as work. It covers all type of people at all levels, in the organization.

2. People oriented- Human resource management is concerned with employees as individuals

as well as group. It is the task of dealing with human relationships within an organization. It is
the process of achieving the best fit between individual s, jobs, organizations and the
environment.
3. Action oriented – Human resource management focuses on action rather than on record
keeping or procedures.

4. Individual oriented – Under human resource management, every employee is considered as

an individual so as to provide services and programmes to facilitate employee satisfaction and
growth.

5. Development oriented – Human resource management is concern with developing

potential of employees so that they get maximum satisfaction from their work and give
their best effort to the organization.

Objectives of Human Resource Management

 To achieve and maintain high morale among employees
 To develop and maintain quality life of work.
 To enhance employee/s capabilities to perform the preferred job.
 To be ethically and socially responsible to the need of the society.
 To equip the employees with precision and clarity in transaction of business.
 To instill the sense of team spirit, team work and inter team collaboration.
 To help the organization attain its goals by providing well-trained and well-motivated
employees.
 To employ the skills and knowledge of employees efficiency and effectively i.e. to utilize
human resource effectively.
 To enhance job satisfaction and self-actualization of employee by encouraging and
assisting every employer to realize his/her full potential.
 To establish and maintain productive, self-respecting and internally satisfying working
relationships among all the members of the organization.
 To bearing about maximum individual development of member of the organization by
providing opportunities for training and advancement.
 To secure the integration of all the individual and group with the organization by
reconciling individual /group goals with those of an organization.
 To develop and maintain a quality of work life (QWL) which makes employment in
the organization a desirable personal and social situation.
 To maintain high morale and good human relations within the organization.
  To help maintain ethical policies and behavior inside and outside the organization.
 To manage change to the mutual advantages of individual, group the organization and the
society.
 To recognize and satisfy initial needs and group goals by offering appropriate monetary
and non-monetary incentives.
Process of Developing Human resources

A. PLANNING

HR Planning is the process by which management determines how an organization should move
from its current manpower position to its desired man-power position. Through it management
strives to have the right number and kind of people at the right places, right time, to perform the
work necessary to achieve the organization goals. Human resource planning is the process by
which management determines how an organization should move from its current manpower
position to its desired man power position.

Characteristics of Human Resource planning

1. Human resource planning like all planning is forward looking or future oriented. It
involves forecast of the man power needs in a future time periods so that adequately and
timely provision may be made to meet the needs.
2. Human resource planning is an ongoing or continuous process.
3. It is the primary responsibility in management so as to ensure effective utilization of the
organization’s human resource.
4. Human resource planning is an integral part of corporate planning.
5. Human resource planning is a system approach to human resources.
Aims/Objectives of Human Resource Planning

 Obtaining and retaining the right quality and quantity of workers

 To efficiently utilize the human resources
 To avoid the organization coming to a standstill due to lack of competent human
resources
 Assists in budgeting for human resources.
 To forecast future requirements for human resource.
  To provide control measures to ensure that necessary human resource are available as
and when they are required.
 To link human resource planning with organizational planning
 To access the surplus and shortage of human resources.
 To anticipate the impacts of technology on jobs and human resources.
 To determine levels of recruitment and training.
 To estimate the cost of human resources and housing needs of employees.
 To provide a basis for management development programme.
 To facilitate productivity bargaining.
 To meet the needs of expansion and diversification programme.

The Process of Developing Human Resource

 Planning human resource

This involves determining the staffing needs of an organization. It is done through employment
forecast which is defined as estimating in advance the type and number of employees needed.

 Sourcing

This refers to looking for potential workers and is the same as recruitment where managers try to
develop a pool of qualified candidates for open positions. This involves circulating the job
through announcements and giving the job description through the appropriate channels.

 Training

It involves making sure that all employees are well prepared for their work. Training of workers
is in the best interest of the organization and it is an investment into the future.

 Motivation

This is done in order for the employee to attain their fullest potential. Some of the features of
motivation include;

 Compensation package ie salary

 Cost of living adjustment
  Fringe benefits etc.

Need and Importance of Human Resource Planning

 To carry on its work and to achieve its objectives, every organization requires
employees with adequate knowledge , experience and attitudes. Human resource
planning is helpful in selection and training activities.
 Human resource planning identifies gaps in existing man power in terms of their quantity
and talents.
 Provision for replacement of personnel can be through human resource planning that
is replacing retired employees who die, resign and become incapacitated due to injury.
 Human resource planning facilitates expansion and diversification of an organization.
 Human resource planning creates awareness about the effective utilization of human
resource throughout the organization.
 Human resource planning is helpful in effective utilization of technological progress. To
meet the challenge of new technology existing employees need to be retrained and
new employees may be recruited .
 With the help of human resource planning areas of surplus man power can be
anticipated and timely action can be taken .
 Human resource planning is useful in anticipating the cost of human resource which
facilitates the budgeting process. It also helps in controlling human resource costs
through effective utilization.
 Human resource planning facilitates career succession planning in an organization.
 Human resource planning helps in planning for physical facilities.

Human Resource Planning has increased due to following reasons:

 Employment situation
Number of educated unemployed is increasing and there is acute shortage for a variety of
skills. This situation requires more effective recruitment and retraining of people.
 Technological changes
Wide spread and rapid changes in production technology marketing methods and
management techniques are having profound effects on the content and converts of jobs.
 Organizational changes
 Size of the firm is increasing rapidly changes in environment requires changes in
organization structure and activities which affects requirement for human resources.
 Demographic changes
The profile of the workforce in terms of age, sex, education, technical skills and social
background is changing.
 Shortage of skills
Organizations have become increasingly complex and require a wide-range of specialized
skills. These skills are scarce and problems arise when employees with these skills leave an
organization.
 Legislative controls
Laws have been put in place with regard to working conditions, working hours, weaker
sections. Therefore managers must look ahead and foresee man power problems with the
help of systematic human resource planning.
Human resource planning starts with

1. Job analysis
It is an assessment that defines a job and the behavior necessary to perform it. Managers
must carry out job analysis for each job in order to understand the job.
2. Job description
This is a description of the title and the purpose of the job. Major work activities, levels
of authority involved in the job etc. are described.
3. Job specification
4. This lists the human characteristics or dimensions that a position requires, the education,
experience, skills, training and knowledge requirements.

The major stages in human resource planning

1. Analyzing organizational plans

The objectives and strategic plans of the company are analyzed organization structure and
job design should be made clear and changes in the organization structure should be
examined so as to anticipate its manpower requirement. A company’s plans are based on
economic forecast, company’s sales and expansion forecast and the labour market forecast.
 2. Forecasting demand for human Resource (Manpower forecasting)
On the basis of corporate and functional plans and future activity levels, the future needs for
human resources in the organization are anticipated. The number of people and the skills
level needed in future depend on reductions and sales budgets in a manufacturing enterprise.

3. Forecasting supply of Human Resource

Every organization has to sources of supply of human resource- internal and external.
Internally human resources can be obtained for certain posts through promotion and
transfers. Human resources flow in and out of organization due to several reasons. Man
power inventory helps in determining and evaluating the quantity and quality of the internal
human resources. It reveals what exist in stock of man power and what can be expected in
future.

4. Estimating manpower gaps

Net human resource requirement or manpower gaps can be identified by comparing demand
forecasts and supply forecasts. Deficits suggest the number of persons to be recruited
similarly gaps may occur in terms of knowledge, skills and aptitudes.

5. Action planning
Once the manpower gaps are defied, plans are prepared to bridge these gaps. Plans to
meet the surplus man power descries in brief the tasks, duties and responsibilities which
need to be charged foe effective job performance.

Limitations of HR Planning

1. Inaccuracy
HR planning involves forecasting the demands for and supply of human resources.
Inaccuracy increases when departmental forecasts are aggregated without critical review
2. Employees resistance
Employees and trade unions feels that HRP increases the workload and regulates them
through productivity bargain. Employers may also resist HRP feeling that it increases the
cost of man-power
3. Uncertainties
 There are things like labor absenteeism, labor turnover technological changes, market
fluctuations among others.
4. Inefficient Information System
This could be a problem in the developing world. When HR information systems have
not yet been fully developed. In the absence of reliable data, it’s not easy to develop HRP
5. Lack of top management support
Successful HRP flourishes slowly and gradually and hence it requires support and
commitment from the top management. In some cases, sophisticated technology is
imposed just because competitors have adopted them yet they may not yield fruits in that
organization.
6. Human resource planning is time wasting
B. SOURCING
This involves identifying the various sources for staff recruitment. Recruitment is the
process of searching for prospective employees and encouraging them to apply for jobs in
an organization. It can be made from internal (promotions, demotions, transfers,
deputation) and external (educational institutions, recruiting agencies, employment,
exchange, labor contractors, trade unions among others).

Sources of recruitment

Internal Sourcing - Involves promoting from within the organization.

Advantages

 Less expensive
 Saves time
 No need for orientation
 Motivates other staff

Disadvantages

 No new ideas are brought into the organization

 The promoted staff may not get maximum respect
 It does not enhance good public relation
  If it is biased it may lead to staff resentment
 It is subject to corruption and abuse
 It is a waste of time to ask the employee to apply when the management knows whom to
pick

External recruitment - It involves employing from outside the organization. The sources of
external recruitment include:

 Colleges and Universities

 Employment Agencies
 Through Social media
 Through advertisement in the media
 Through employment agencies
 From labour unions
 Employee recommendations
 Public employment agencies

Advantages of External sources of recruitment

 New ideas are brought to the organization

 Increase public and human relations
 Newly employed staff are highly respected
 Opens the organization to the outside world

Disadvantages

 It demotivates staff
 It is costly
 Time consuming
 Newly employed staff may become dissatisfied and quit the job
 Little is known about the newly employed staff

Recruitment Process
Recruitment process starts when the personnel department receives a requisition for recruitment
from any department of an organization. The personal requisition contains details about the
position to be filled
 Number of persons to be recruited
 Duties to be performed
 Qualification required from the candidate
 Terms and condition of employment
 Time by which the person should be available

The personnel department should locate and develop the sources of required

 Numbers and type of employees

 Identify the prospective employees with required characteristic
 Communicate the information about the organization, the job and terms and
 Condition of service
 Encourage the identified persons to apply for the jobs in the organization
 Evaluate the process of recruitment

Shortlisting

This is the process of deciding on a few candidates from the many applicants who will attend a
job interview e.g. if the applicants are 20, 5 can be shortlisted for interview

Factors to consider when shortlisting

 Handwriting- remove all applicants letters with bad handwriting

 Remove all applicant letters that are poorly presented
 Remove all applicant letters that do not meet minimum requirement
 Remove all letters that do not provide detailed information

Selection

An interview is conducted to determine the suitability of a candidate for a job interview can be
oral, orderly asking of questions, written, practical’s.
Advantages of Interviews

 Help to screen candidates for the job

 Helps the employee to choose the most suitable person for the job
 Employees have the opportunity to listen to the concerns of prospective (potential)
employees
 Potential employees can also express their concerns during the interview

Disadvantages of Interviews

 Requires skills to effectively conduct an interview which the interviewer may be lacking
 Quick judgment of the interviewer may cause prejudice against the interviewee
 It may be biased
 Liable to corruption or bribery
 Waste of time

How to ensure the success of an interview

The Interviewer
1. Should start the interview at the right time
2. Should ensure that all the interviewed have their documents including academic
certificates , I.D , K.R.A pin
3. Should conduct the interview with courtesy , be system friendly and thank the
interviewee

The Interviewee

 Prepare to attend the interview by putting together the necessary documents to ensure you
arrive on time
 Ensure that he/she has all the documents required for the interview
 Arrive early at the venue
 Observe good manners at the interview
 Answer the questions confidently and sincerely
 Thank the interviewer for the interview
 Take back all the original documents before he leaves the room
Orientation

This is the process of familiarizing a new employee with the organization

Importance of orientation

 Helps the newly employed staff to settle down quickly

 Helps the new staff to deal with personal nervousness
 Helps the new employee to adjust with the requirement of the organization
 Helps to minimize loss of hours

Components of an Orientation Program

 Introduction – Introduce an employee to other staff in the Organization

 Provide brief information on the department or organization
 Organization working manual or policy hand book
 Rules and regulations
 Statutory requirement – NHIF , NSSF
 Health and safety requirements

TRAINING

Training is the process of increasing the knowledge and skills for doing a particular job. It is an
organized procedure by which people learn knowledge and skills for a definite purpose. The
purpose of training is basically to bridge the gap between job requirement and present
competence of an employee.
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
Principle of Motivation:
To render training effective it is essential that it should motivate the trainees to undergo training.
Trainees must be made aware as to which of their needs will be satisfied by training so that they
get training with keen interest. Once the trainees are convinced that they will get more salary,
appreciation or even promotion, they will get training with full enthusiasm.
Principle of Practice:
To increase efficiency, this principle lays emphasis on practice and repetition. To render training
effective, it is essential that trainees be put on continuous practice.
Principle of Individual Differences:
Ordinarily, trainees should be given training collectively. While imparting training, individual
differences among the trainees must be kept in mind. These differences can be physical or
mental. Besides, training requirements of each trainee may also be different. Training should
therefore be imparted keeping in view the needs and aptitudes of the trainees.
Principle of Progress:
Training becomes effective only when the trainer keeps in mind how much progress has been
made by the trainees in different fields and how much is still to be made.
Principle of Whole versus Part Training:
Training can be of two kinds — whole training and part training. It depends on the nature of
work and the ability of the trainee. If the work is complex, it is divided into small parts and
training is imparted part-wise. It proves more effective.
Principle of Reinforcement:
To make training effective, it is essential that there should be proper provision of wage-hike,
promotion, etc. in the organization, so that trainee may be motivated to go in for training.
Objectives of training

 To impart to new entrants the basic knowledge and skills required for efficient
performance of definite tasks.
 To assists the employees to function more effectively in their present position by
exposing them to the latest concept, information and techniques & developing skills
they would require in their particular field.
 To build up a second line of competent officers and prepare them to occupy more
responsible position.
 To broaden the minds of senior managers through interchange of experience within
and outside so as to correct out loaded caused to over specialization
 Improvement on job performance
 Improve quality and quantity of products and services
  Create more favorable attitude towards work and the organization
 Satisfy man power planning requirements
 Reduction of number and cost of accidents
 Helping employees in their personal development and career advancement
 Reducing the need for recruitment when vacancies arise
 Minimizing supervision time

Need for training

Training is required on account of the following reasons:
1. Job requirement- Employees selected for a job might lack the qualification required to
perform the job effectively. New and inexperienced employees require detailed instructions for
effective performance on the job.
2. Technological changes – Technology is changing very fast. Now automation and
mechanization have are been increasingly applied in offices and service sector.
3. Organizational viability – In order to survive and grow, an organization must continually
adopt itself to the changing environment. With increasing economic linearization and
globalization, business firms are experiencing expansion growth & diversification.
4. Internal mobility – Training becomes necessary when an employee moves from one job to
another due to promotion and transfer.
Advantages of training
1. Higher productivity- Training helps to improve the level of performance. Trained
employees perform better by using better method of work.
2. Better quality of work – Informal training , the best methods are standardized and
taught to employees.
3. Cost reduction – Trained employees make more economical use of materials and
machinery.
4. Reduced supervision- Well trained employees tend to be self –reliant and motivated.
5. Low accident-rate – Trained personnel adopt the right work method and make use
of the prescribed safety devices
Benefits of training to the employees
 Self-confidence - Training helps to improve the self-confidence of employees.
  Higher earnings - Trained employees can perform better and herby earn more.
 Safety – Training helps an employee to use various safety devices. We can handle the
machines safety and become less prone to accidents.
 Adaptability- Training enables an employee to adopt to changes work procedures and
methods.
 Promotion – Through training employees can help them develop themselves and earn
promotions.

Types of Training
1. Orientation

It’s the process of disseminating information and provides direction to new employees. It
provides basic survival knowledge at the work place. One gets to know there immediate
supervisor, other work mates, rules and regulations

1. Skills Development

When new machines, appliances or equipments are introduced or job content changes,
employees must acquire new skills in order to cope

2. Safety training

It is designed to prevent physical harm to both people and property of the organization

The training includes physical measures such as how to maintain machine appliances and
buildings. Safety consciousness is a part of this training

3. Professional and technical training

Employees are retrained in order to update them on the new developments in the area of
specification

4. Supervisory and management training

Supervisors and managers need to know how to work with people and make decisions. It
involves planning and organizing work, decision making techniques, communication, public
relations and human relations

5. Promotion training
It involves training of existing employees to enable them to perform higher-level job.
6. Refresher training
When existing techniques become absolute due to the development of better techniques
employees have to be trained in the use of new methods and techniques with the passage of time
employees may forget some of the methods of doing work. Refresher training is designed to
revise and refresh the knowledge and to update the skills of the existing employees.
7. Remedial training
Such training is arranged to overcome the shortcoming in the behaviour and performance of old
employees to refresh on their knowledge.
Training methods and Techniques

1. On-Job-Training (OJT) - In this method the trainee is placed on a regular job and taught the
skills necessary to perform it. The trainee learns under the guidance and supervision of the
superior or an instructor. Employee is not sent elsewhere for training i.e. trained within the
organization.

Advantages

 The trainee learns on the actual machine in use and in the real environment of the job
thus he is better motivated to learn and there is no problem of turnover of training
skills to the job.
 This method is very economical because no additional space, equipment, personnel or
other facilities are required for training.
 The trainee learns the rules and regulation and procedures by observing their day to day
application.
 This is the most suitable method for teaching knowledge and skills which can be acquired
through personal observation in a relatively short time period.
 Line supervisors take an active part in training their subordinates.
  The employee is able to quickly master the use of equipment.
 Production is continuous
 Saves time
 It is less expensive
Disadvantages

 Valuable equipment can be destroyed

 Lack of experts
 Monotony at work
 Does not motivate

Off job training

Employee is sent elsewhere for training e.g. to college

Advantages

 Qualify training by experts

 Motivates employees when sent out for training
 Improves the organization

Disadvantages

 It is time consuming
 It is expensive
 Employees may quit after training
 Employees may use it to defraud the organization

Training includes all the processes whereby employees are shown and taught the necessary skills
for performing a particular job .Consequently any education which is technical in nature should
be regarded as training. Some of the training methods used in organization are

- Apprenticeship
- Vestibule
- Classroom training methods
 Apprenticeship
This is the oldest training method commonly found in industrial organization. A worker also
called an apprentice is supposed to work alongside or under the supervision of a skilled person
usually the immediate supervisor. Apprenticeship is often used when the skill to be mastered is
highly requiring a relatively long period of time to attain proficiency. This can also be referred to
as on the job training. Apprenticeship id prevalence in the skilled trade’s e.g. plumbing,
masonry, electronics, mechanics and carpentry.

Advantages
 Gain real work experience
Apprenticeships are structured training programmes which gives one a chance to work towards a
qualification. They help one gain the skills and knowledge need to succeed in a chosen career.

 Career progression
Getting into employment earlier means there is lots of potential for one to progress in their career
quickly. You can also begin to earn a good salary much earlier on in your life.

 Helps in skill development

Hands-on training gives an apprentice a real chance to put their skills into practice and helps
them to gain more confidence in a working environment.

 Earning potential
An apprentice earns while learning. You’ll be paid a salary by your employer, and the
government tends to cover the cost of the training for most young people.

 Many opportunities
There are many types of apprenticeships. So whether one desires a career in business, sport,
marketing or construction, there’s something for everyone.

 Varied learning experience

Apprenticeships offer a varied learning experience as most of the time is spent working at a
company. It’s all about learning while doing, and learning from others in the industry.

Disadvantages
  An apprentice can’t gain access to certain careers through an apprenticeship route,
particularly in areas such as medicine and science.
 It takes much longer to gain a higher qualification through an apprenticeship.
 An apprentice may miss out on the added benefits of staying in full-time education and
the depth of learning that a degree offers.
 Apprenticeship training is time consuming and expensive.
 Many persons leave the training programme midway as the training period ranges from
one year to five years.
 Apprenticeship training is the oldest method of training.

 Vestibule Training.

This occurs in a separate training set up which is in a form of a workshop or classroom equipped
in a manner similar to the actual working area. It is an off-the-job training which is used for
teaching or training specific job skills. It can also be referred to as job instruction training. It
provides simulated training which also uses some theory but in an atmosphere that tries to
replicate actual job conditions. Some organizations in Kenya have used this method successfully
e.g. Kenya ports Authority, Kenya Railways Corporation, Telkom Kenya, Kenya Power And
Lighting Company etc.

Advantages of vestibule training

 Trainee can concentrate on learning without disturbance of the work place noise.
 The interest and motivation of the trainee are high as the real job conditions are
duplicated.
 This method is essential in cases, where on the job training might result in a serious
injury, costly event or the destruction of valuable equipment and materials.
 Correct method can be taught effectively by the trained instructor who knows how to
teach.
 It permits the trainee to practice without the fear of being observed and indicated
by the superior.
 It is very efficient method of training a large number of employee works.
Disadvantages vestibule training
  It is the most expensive method because of additional investment in classroom,
equipment and experts trainers.
 Training situations is somewhat artificial and the trainee does not get a feel of the real
job.
 Separation of training from the supervisory responsibilities may lead to problems in the
organization.
Motivation

Motivation is the external or internal factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be
constantly interested and committed to a job, or to make effort to attain s goal. Motivating people
is about getting them to move in the direction which is required in order to achieve a result. It is
a goal directed behavior. Motivation is also defined as the willingness to exert high levels of
effort towards organizational goal. Motivated employees;

1. Help organizations to survive.

2. Are more productive
3. Increase the output of the firm.

Process of motivation

 Identify a need
 Establish a goal
 Take action
 Attain a goal

Needs creates wants and desire to achieve or obtain something. Goals are established based on
the desires and wants. Actions are then taken based on goals in order to attain it. If the goals are
not achieved, the same action is likely to be repeated. This process of repeating successful
behavior or action is called reinforcement or the law of effect. Two types of motivation identified
by Herzberg are;

(i) Intrinsic motivation

(ii) Extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation.
These are the self generated factors that influence people to behave in a particular way or to
move in a particular direction. These factors include responsibility, autonomy (freedom to act),
scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and challenging work and opportunistic
for advancement.

Extrinsic motivation.

What is done to or for people to motivate them. This includes rewards such as:

 increased pay
 praise
 promotion

And punishments such as;

 Disciplinary action
 Withholding pay
 Criticism

Extrinsic motivation can have an immediate and powerful effect, but it will not necessarily last
long. The most influential theories of motivation are;

(i) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

(ii) Herzberg’s two factor theory.

Methods of motivating employees

 Rewards

Employees constantly look for payoffs for their efforts. They expect that good job
performances leads to organizational goal attainment which in turn leads to satisfying their
individual goals and needs.

 Challenging job

This is done through job enrichment. Job enrichment means building, motivators like
opportunities for achievement in to the job by making it more interesting and challenging.
  Using merit pay

A merit raise is a salary increase, usually permanent that is based on the employee’s
individual performance. It is a continuing increment rather than a single payment; like a
bonus. Relying heavily on merit rewards can be a problem because the reinforcement
benefits of merit pay is usually only determined once per year.

 Using spot awards.

With Skilled based pay, employees are paid for the range depth and types of skills and
knowledge they are capable of using rather than for the job they currently hold. The Reward
is a formal and concrete recognition that the person can do the more challenging job well.

 Status
This referees to the ranking of people in the firm. It includes rights and duties in the
organization
 Promotion
It is a movement to a position in which responsibilities are increased. Promotion satisfies the
need of human beings in the organization.
 Responsibility
Most people prefer a responsible job, that satisfies people’s natural and inherent characteristics
and they put more effort s for completing the job. Make the job pleasant and interesting by
designing such that it allows the employees to satisfy their natural instinct e.g. through job
enlargement and job enrichment.
 Recognition of work
Appreciating the work of the subordinates does motivate them.
 Job Security
If worker’s job is secure, he feels happy and less worried thus being motivated.
 Encouraging the team spirit
Encouraging the workers to work in cooperation and coordination in order to achieve the
organization goals will motivate them.
 Participation
The superior-subordinate relationship emphasis that superior takes the decision and
subordinates implement them and they also be involved in making the decision .
 Good communication
Better channel of communication in the organization.
 Separation

Is a situation when the service agreement of the employee with his/her organization comes to an
end and the employee leaves the organization? Employees may move out of an organization for a
variety of reason’s including;

 Retirement

This is the major cause of separation of employees from the organization. It can be defined as the
termination of the services of an employee on reaching a certain stipulated age. In Kenya the age
is 60 years. Retirements are of two types;

a) Compulsory retirement.

This is the retirement when the employees retire compulsorily from the service on attaining a
stipulated age. Some organizations like universities may a have a policy to reappoint
professionals and others who possess rare skills and expertise for a limited time even after
attainment of the retirement age.

b) Voluntary retirement.

This is where employees are given the option to retire ever before they reach the retirement age.
Lately, in their efforts to downsize the employees, organizations are providing incentives to try
to encourage employees to opt for voluntary retirement. This type of retirement is also called
Golden Hand shake. Retirement from service is a significant milestones in the life of an
employee. Post retirement life requires a great deal of adjustment on the part of the retired
employee. Thus an organization has a major role in facilitating smooth transition from a job to a
jobless state.

(i) Resignation
It is termination of service by the employee by serving a nature to an employer. It may be
voluntary o r involuntary. A voluntary resignation is when an employee decides to resign on the
grounds of ill health, marriage, better job prospects in other organizations etc. Involuntary
resignation on the other hand occurs when an employer directs the employee to resign on the
grounds of indiscipline action. However, in the case of involuntary resignation, a domestic
inquiry should be conducted before asking the employee to resign. This is because the affected
employee may report to the union of court of law and complain that he was asked to resign under
duress.

(ii) Lay off

It implies denial of employment to the employees for reasons beyond the control of employer.
Breakdown of machinery, seasonal fluctuations in demand, Shortage of power, raw materials etc.
are the reasons leading to layoffs. Here, the employee-employer relations does not come to an
end but is suspended for some time. Layoffs may be temporary.

(iii) Retrenchment.

This means permanent termination of an employee’s service for economic reasons.

Retrenchment occurs on account of surplus staff, poor demand of product and general economic
slowdown.

(iv) Dismissal.

This is termination of service of an employee as a punitive measure. This may occur either on
account of unsatisfactory performance or misconduct. Persistent failure on the part of employee
to perform up to expectations or specified standards is considered unsatisfactory performance.
Willful violation of rules and regulations by the employee is treated as misconduct.

Role of human resources in utilization of other resources

1. Planning for use of the resources.

 2. Delegation of rewards
3. Supervision
4. Monitoring and evaluation
5. Coordination of activities.
6. Mobilization.

Impact of Human Resource Management on Social Development

 It may lead to creation of organizations or groups such as societies, trade unions, welfare
associations etc.
 Leads to motivation of employees
 Brings about cooperation, that is, the element of tem work within an organization.
 Leads to increased productivity
 Can lead to unhealthy competition
 Individualization is encouraged, that is, all is mine syndrome.

Emerging trend in human resource management

1. Use of technology
2. Innovation
3. Diversification
4. Bench marking
5. Stewardship
6. Expertise
7. Training

TOPIC 5: FINANCIAL RESOURCES

Financial resource is a term covering all financial funds of the organization. From an
economic perspective, financial resources are the part of the organization assets (Property). It
ca n also be defined as one type of resource, that inputs into the production process. Financial
resources are used to carry out the major operations of the business, like buying goods and
services, and carrying out long term investments. Financial resources of an organization are
the set of liquid assets such as;
  Cash
 Short term bank deposits.
 Liquid financial investments, like stocks and bonds.

Sources of financial resources

 The capital markets:

 New share issues, for example, by companies acquiring a stock market listing
for the first time
 Rights issues
 Loan stock
 Retained earnings
 Bank borrowing
 Government sources
 Business expansion scheme funds
 Venture capital
 Franchising.
 Grants
 Main activities of the business, like the sale of goods and services.
 External sources- bank loans and issues of corporate bonds.
 Savings
 Income generating Activities (IGAS)
 Loans from commercial banks
 Partnerships
 Personal savings
Ways of managing financial resources

The following methods can be applied in managing financial resources;

 Budgeting
 Planning
 Simple record keeping
1. Budgeting
 It is the process of creating a plan to spend money. Creating this spending plan allows one to
determine in advance whether they will have enough money to do the things they need to do
or would like to do. Budgeting is simply balancing expenses with income. A budget is thus a
comprehensive financial plan for achieving the financial and operational goals of an
organization.

The purpose of a budget

Budgeting is a basic and essential process that allows a business to attain many goals. These are;

 Control and evaluation

Budgeting allows the company to have a certain degree of control over cost such as not allowing
many types of expenses if they were not planned for.

 Planning

Budgeting allows the business to take stock of revenue and expenses from the previous period. It
allows the manager to forecast Income and Expenditure, and thereby profitability.

 Communication and motivation

Budgets allow the management to communicate goals and promote goal congruence so that
resources can be coordinated and focused in key areas.

Types of Budgets

 Operating budgets

They reflect day to day expenses and depreciation. They typically cover a one year period.

 Capital budget

Outlines planned outlays for investments in plants, equipment etc

 Cash budget

They plot the expected cash balances the organization will experience during the forecast period
based on information provided in operating and capital budgets.
 Importance of budgeting

1. It estimates revenue, plans expenditure and restricts any spending that is not part of the
plan.
2. It ensures that money is allocated to those things that support the strategic objectives of
the business.
3. It provides a means of controlling income and expenditure of a business i.e. it gives a
plan of spending.
4. a well communicated budget helps everyone understand the priorities of the business
5. Helps in directing both capital and revenue resources in a profitable way.

Limitations of budgeting

8. It is time consuming.
9. May lead to under or over budgeting.
10. It is rigid.
11. Can lead to excessive spending.
12. It is not accurate.

2. Simple record keeping

Keep records of expenditure from which reference can be made and control measures found in
place.

 It helps you to manage your accounts, interests, taxes and working costs effectively.
 Tells about cash in hand
 Act as resource for new strategies.
 Helps in finding solutions for business issues.
 Tells about the customer service and employee efficiency.
 Helps in monitoring company growth rate and profit.
 How your business performs against your competitors.
 Tells about hidden and unexpected costs.
 And most of all it is the most resourceful adviser whenever your business is in serious
trouble
Types of records
Cash Book
A cash book is a financial journal that contains all cash receipts and disbursements, including
bank deposits and withdrawals. Entries in the cash book are then posted into the general ledger.

Bank statement
A bank statement is an official summary of financial transactions occurring within a given period
for each bank account held by a person or business with a financial institution.

Balance Sheets
A balance sheet provides detailed information about a company’s assets, liabilities and
shareholders’ equity. Assets are things that a company owns that have value and they can either
be sold or used by the company to make products or provide services that can be sold. Assets
include physical property, such as plants, trucks, equipment and inventory. Liabilities are
amounts of money that a company owes to others.

Accounting records
The records relating to financial transactions are known as financial records. For example, cash
receipt, deposit slip, sales records, profit or loss statement, vouchers, balance sheet etc.

Income Statements
An income statement is a report that shows how much revenue a company earned over a specific
time period (usually for a year or some portion of a year). An income statement also shows the
costs and expenses associated with earning that revenue.
3. Planning

Financial planning is the task of defining how a business will afford to achieve its strategic goals
and objectives. Refers to deciding in advance how the money will be used, sources of funds and
control measures. Usually a company creates a financial plan immediately after the vision and
objectives have been set. Definition of plans describes each of the activities, resources,
equipment and materials that are needed to achieve these objectives as well as the time frame
involved.
Financial planning activities involve the following tasks;

 Assessing the business environment.

 Confirming the business vision and objectives.
 Identify the types of resources needed.
 Quantify the amount of resources.
 Calculate the total cost of each type of resource.
 Summarize the cost to create a budget.
 Identify any risks and issues with the set budget.

Ways of controlling financial resources

Budgeting - Budgeting controls involves comparing costs against projected costs and analyzing
any deviations.

Auditing – This refers to evaluation of a person, organizational system, processes, project or

product. It is a control tool that tracks the use of funds, places measures to
avoid fraud and to ensure prudent use of funds. Audits are performed to ascertain validity
and also reliability of information and also provides an assessment of a systems
internal control.

Types of auditors

Internal auditors – They are employees of a company hired to assess and evaluate its system of
internal control to maintain independence. They present their report directly to the board of
directors or top management.

External auditors – They are independent staff assigned by an auditing firm to assess and
evaluate financial statements of their clients and other agreed upon evaluations.

Auditor’s reports

This is a formal opinion or disclaimer issued by either an internal auditor or an independent

external auditor or evaluation performed on legal entity.

Types of auditor’s reports

  Unqualified opinion

This opinion means that all materials were made available, found to be in order, and met all
auditing requirements. This is the most favorable opinion that can be rendered by an external
auditor about a company's operations and records.

 Qualified opinion

This type of opinion is used for instances in which most of the company's financial materials
were in order, with the exception of a certain account or transaction.

 Adverse opinion

An adverse opinion states that the financial statements do not accurately or completely represent
the company's financial position, results of operations, or cash flows in conformity with
generally accepted accounting principles. Such an opinion is obviously not good news for the
business being audited.

 Disclaimer of opinion

A disclaimer of opinion states that the auditor does not express an opinion on the financial
statements, generally because he or she feels that the company did not present sufficient
information. Again, this opinion casts an unfavorable light on the business being audited.

 Unqualified opinion report

This type of is issued by an auditor when the company financial position and operations are
fairly presented in the financial statements and are in accordance with the General Accepted
Audit Standards (GAAP). It is the best type of report and auditing that a company may receive
from an external auditor.

Record keeping – This involves keeping records of all transactions.

Importance of Financial Management

Each and every business must maintain adequate amount of finance for their smooth running of
the business and also maintain the business to achieve the goal of the business. The business goal
can be achieved only with the help of effective management of finance. Some of the importance
of the financial management is as follows:
 Financial Planning
Financial management helps to determine the financial requirement of an organization and leads
to proper financial planning.
 Acquisition of Funds
Financial management involves the acquisition of required finances. Acquiring needed funds
play a major part of the financial management, which involves possible sources of finance at
minimum cost.
 Proper Use of Funds
Proper use and allocation of funds leads to improvement of the operational efficiency of an
organization. When the finance manager uses the funds properly, they can reduce the cost of
capital and increase the value of the firm.
 Decision making
Financial management helps to make sound financial decisions in an organization.
 Improves Profitability
Profitability of an organization purely depends on the effectiveness and proper utilization of
funds by the organization. Financial management helps to improve the profitability position of an
organization with the help of strong financial control devices such as budgetary control.
Increase the Value of the Firm
The ultimate aim of any business will achieve maximum profit and a higher profitability for an
organization.
Promoting Savings
Savings are possible only when the business earns higher profitability and maximizing wealth.
Effective financial management helps in promoting and mobilizing individual and corporate
savings.
Principles of Financial Management
 Stewardship
The organization must take good care of the resources it is entrusted with and make sure that
they are used for the purpose intended.
  Accountability
The organization must explain how it has used its resources and what it has achieved as a result
to all stakeholders, including beneficiaries. All stakeholders have the right to know how their
funds and authority have been used.
 Transparency
The organization must be open about its work, making information about its activities and plans
available to relevant stakeholders. This includes preparing accurate, complete and timely
financial reports and making them accessible to stakeholders, including beneficiaries. If an
organization is not transparent, then it may give the impression of having something to hide.
 Integrity
On a personal level, individuals in the organization must operate with honesty and propriety. For
example, managers and trustees should lead by example in following procedures and by
declaring any personal interests that might conflict with their official duties. The integrity of
financial reports depends on the accuracy and completeness of financial records.
 Viability
Expenditure must be kept in balance with incoming funds, both at the operational and the
strategic levels. Viability is a measure of financial continuity and security.
 Accounting standards
The system for keeping financial records and documentation must observe internationally
accepted accounting standards and principles. Any accountant from anywhere around the world
should be able to understand the organization’s system for keeping financial records.
 Consistency
The organization’s financial policies and systems must be reliable. This promotes efficient
operations and transparency, especially in financial reporting. Inconsistent approaches to
financial management can be a sign that the financial situation is being manipulated.

Benefits of Financial Management

1. Reduces over spending
2. Reduces wastage
3. Controls budgeting
4. Helps in planning
 5. Helps in avoidance of the misuse of funds
Challenges in financial management

 Requires knowledge and skills which may be lacking.

 Poor leadership
 Lack of budgeting
 Fraud
 Poor record keeping
 Lack of transparency and accountability
 Misuse of funds
 Embezzlement –diverting the use of money
 Corruption

TOPIC 6 ENERGY RESOURCES

These are the resources from which energy is drawn.

Types of energy resources

1. Solar energy
This is produced from sunlight and is usually known as solar power.
2. Hydroelectric power
This is produced from water which is then converted into electricity through electro
mechanization.
3. Fossil fuels
Are produced from fossils e.g. petrol, coal.
4. Gas energy
5. Biogas - Produced from plants
6. Fire - Produced from firewood ,vegetation through burning

Ways of utilizing Energy Resources

1. Though use of power savers e.g. power saving bulbs

2. Switching off lights after use to conserve electricity
3. Regulating the use of entertainment tools in the house e.g. TVs, radio, hoofers
 4. Removing electrical gadgets from sockets when not in use.
5. Encouraging the use of energy saving jikos e.g. jikokoa.
6. Encourage energy saving habits a t home and workplace e.g. notices to switch off lights
when not in used.
7. Encourage the use of solar energy as opposed to electricity since solar energy is free.

Impacts of conservation of energy resources (Importance/advantages)

1. Saves on the cost of energy

2. Encourages proper utilization of energy resources
3. Reduces over-exploitation of energy resources
4. Reduces environmental pollution
5. Helps in conservation of natural resources e.g. trees that supply firewood and charcoal
6. Conservation promotes sustainable use of energy resources so that they are made
available for future generations.

Logistics and Distribution

Logistics in social work refers to the planning, coordination, and management of resources (e.g., food,
medical supplies, relief items) to ensure they are available where and when needed.

Distribution is the process of delivering these goods and services from the point of storage to the point
of use (e.g., communities, families, institutions).

Components of Logistics
1. Procurement – Sourcing and purchasing of goods and services.
2. Transportation – Moving goods from suppliers to warehouses and beneficiaries.
3. Warehousing – Safe storage of goods.
4. Inventory Management – Keeping track of stock levels and movements.
5. Packaging and Labeling – Preparing items for distribution.
6. Information Flow – Documentation and communication for decision-making.

Procurement Procedures
 Needs Identification – Assessing what is required.
 Specification – Defining the characteristics of goods/services.
  Tendering – Inviting bids from suppliers.
 Evaluation of Bids – Reviewing bids based on quality, price, and capacity.
 Awarding Contracts – Selecting the most suitable supplier.
 Inspection and Acceptance – Checking goods before acceptance.
 Payment Processing – Paying the supplier after confirmation.

Ways of Managing Stores and Warehouses

Stock Control Systems – Use of manual or digital systems to track inventory.

FIFO/LIFO Methods – First-In-First-Out or Last-In-First-Out inventory methods.

Security Measures – Locks, CCTV, and guards to protect goods.

Regular Audits – Verifying stock and ensuring accountability.

Proper Layout – Organized storage to ease retrieval and reduce damage.

Record Keeping – Accurate documentation of all stock movements.

Channels of Distribution

Direct Distribution – From organization to beneficiaries.

Indirect Distribution – Using intermediaries like NGOs, CBOs.

Private Sector Partnerships – Collaborating with logistics companies.

Government Support – Utilizing public infrastructure for outreach.

Procedures of Imports and Exports

Import Procedures:

 Identifying foreign suppliers.

 Obtaining import licenses.
 Complying with customs regulations.
 Arranging for shipment and insurance.
 Receiving and clearing goods at the port.
 Paying taxes and duties.
Export Procedures:

 Identifying foreign buyers.

 Complying with export laws.
 Preparing export documentation (invoice, packing list, certificate of origin).
 Arranging transport and insurance.
 Exporting goods through customs clearance.

OFFICE ADMINISTRATION

Meaning of Office

An office is a place where administrative, clerical, and communication tasks are performed to support
the functioning of an organization. It serves as the center for data processing, decision-making, and
coordination of services.

Functions of an Office
 Receiving Information – Collecting data through letters, reports, emails, etc.
 Recording Information – Documenting and maintaining accurate records.
 Processing Information – Sorting, summarizing, analyzing data for use.
 Disseminating Information – Distributing information to the right people.
 Safe Custody of Records – Storing documents and files securely.
 Supporting Management – Helping in planning, coordination, and decision-making.
 Communication – Facilitating internal and external communication.

Types of Office Layout

Open Office Layout

 Large open space without many walls or partitions.

 Encourages teamwork, supervision, and communication.

Closed Office Layout

 Individual rooms or cubicles for employees or departments.

 Ensures privacy, reduces noise, and supports confidential work.
Combination Layout

 Mix of open and closed setups.

 Balances privacy and collaboration.

Role of Office Staff

Clerical Staff – Handle filing, typing, data entry, and record-keeping.

Administrative Staff – Oversee planning, supervision, and reporting.

Receptionists – Welcome visitors and manage calls.

Messengers – Deliver documents and assist with errands.

IT Support – Manage computer systems and troubleshoot issues.

Types of Office Facilities

1. Furniture – Desks, chairs, cabinets, etc.
2. Equipment – Computers, printers, photocopiers, scanners.
3. Communication Tools – Telephones, email systems, internet.
4. Stationery – Pens, files, paper, staplers.
5. Utilities – Lighting, ventilation, water, power.
6. Support Facilities – Toilets, kitchens, staff lounges.

Ways of Controlling Office Facilities

1. Inventory Control – Keeping accurate records of all items.
2. Regular Maintenance – Servicing and repairing equipment.
3. Proper Use Policies – Training staff to use items responsibly.
4. Security Measures – Locks, CCTV, restricted access to sensitive areas.
5. Budgeting – Planning for repairs, replacements, and purchases.
6. Waste Management – Avoiding misuse or overuse of supplies.
 Role of Government and Development Partners in Resource Management

Government Roles:

1. Policy Making – Formulating laws, regulations, and policies on resource use.

2. Planning and Budgeting – Allocating resources to priority areas.
3. Monitoring and Evaluation – Ensuring resources are used effectively and efficiently.
4. Capacity Building – Training personnel and institutions in resource management.
5. Enforcement – Ensuring compliance with environmental, financial, and administrative laws.
6. Development Partners (e.g. NGOs, UN, World Bank, etc.):
7. Funding – Providing financial support for projects and programmes.
8. Technical Assistance – Offering expertise and technology in planning and implementation.
9. Training and Capacity Building – Supporting skills development and education.
10. Research and Data – Conducting studies to inform planning and policy.
11. Advocacy – Promoting transparency, equity, and sustainable resource use.

Ways in Which the Government and Development Partners Control Resource

Mobilisation
1. Creating Budgetary Frameworks – Governments develop national and county budgets that guide
resource allocation and spending.
2. Taxation Systems – Governments use taxes to collect internal revenue.
3. Grant and Loan Agreements – Development partners provide resources through conditional or
unconditional grants and loans.
4. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) – Collaborating with private sector to raise and manage
resources.
5. Aid Coordination Units – Set up by governments to track and manage donor funds.
6. Monitoring and Auditing – Ensuring transparency in how resources are sourced and used.

Awareness Campaigns – Mobilizing community support and contributions through education and
sensitization.

1. Impact of Government and Development Partners in Resource Management

Positive Impacts:

1. Increased Funding – Support from partners supplements government budgets.

2. Improved Service Delivery – Better infrastructure, education, and healthcare.
3. Enhanced Accountability – Introduction of monitoring systems and audits.
4. Technology Transfer – Introduction of modern systems and methods.
 5. Capacity Strengthening – Training government and local staff.

Negative Impacts (if poorly managed):

1. Dependency – Over-reliance on donors may reduce local initiative.

2. Misallocation of Resources – Political interference or corruption.
3. Conditionality – Donors may impose conditions that limit national policy flexibility.
4. Duplication of Efforts – Poor coordination may lead to overlap in projects.

Emerging Trends in Resource Management

1. Digitalization and Technology Use

Use of ICT tools, mobile apps, and management software for budgeting, tracking, and reporting.

E-procurement systems and digital financial services improve transparency and speed.

2. Participatory Resource Management

Communities and stakeholders are increasingly involved in decision-making and planning.

Promotes ownership, accountability, and sustainability.

3. Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs)

Collaboration between governments and private sector to mobilize resources, especially for
infrastructure and service delivery.

4. Results-Based Management (RBM)

Focus on outcomes and impact rather than just inputs.

Resources are allocated based on performance indicators and measurable results.

 5. Climate-Smart Resource Management

Emphasis on sustainable use of resources.

Integration of environmental conservation and climate resilience into planning.

6. Decentralization of Resource Management

Shifting of resource control to local governments or community organizations to improve

responsiveness and efficiency.

7. Transparency and Accountability Mechanisms

Use of open data platforms, citizen audits, and social media to monitor resource use.

Anti-corruption strategies are being strengthened.

8. Integration of Gender and Social Inclusion

Resource management now considers the needs of women, youth, and marginalized groups to promote
equity.

9. Green Financing and Sustainability

Investment in projects that promote renewable energy, environmental protection, and long-term
sustainability.

10. Data-Driven Decision Making

Use of real-time data, surveys, and GIS mapping for better planning and monitoring.