Non Conventional Energy Sources (18ME651)

Module-3
Syllabus:
Solar Radiation Geometry: Flux on a plane surface, latitude, declination angle, surface
azimuth angle, hour angle, zenith angle, solar altitude angle expression for the angle between
the incident beam and the normal to a plane surface (No derivation) local apparent time.
Apparent motion of sum, day length, numerical examples. Radiation Flux on a Tilted
Surface: Beam, diffuse and reflected radiation, expression for flux on a tilted surface (no
derivations) numerical examples. Solar Thermal Conversion: Collection and storage, thermal
collection devices, liquid flat plate collectors, solar air heaters concentrating collectors
(cylindrical, parabolic, paraboloid) (Quantitative analysis); sensible heat storage, latent heat
storage, application of solar energy water heating. Space heating and cooling, active and
passive systems, power generation, refrigeration. Distillation (Qualitative analysis) solar
pond, principle of working, operational problems.

1. Solar Radiation Geometry

Solar geometry is the determining factor of heat gain, shading and the potential of daylight
penetration. Temperature, precipitation, wind and sunshine have a direct effect on buildings.
a deliberate choice of surroundings may permit us to take advantage of the elements that
make the environment more favourable.
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into
useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. Solar
radiation includes visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma
rays. Radiation is one way to transfer heat.
Solar radiance measurements consist of global and/or direct radiation measurements taken
periodically throughout the day. The measurements are taken using either a pyranometer
(measuring global radiation) and/or a pyrheliometer (measuring direct radiation).

1.1 Flux on a plane surface

Solar flux measurements have been considered as an input to global circulation models which
will yield the electron density profile and other ionospheric characteristics, along with many
other atmospheric properties.
The incoming solar flux at the top of the atmosphere must be balanced by the reflected solar
and emitted infrared fluxes over a climatological time scale, since the only energy exchange
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with space is by means of radiative processes. The solar constant (GSC) is a flux density
measuring mean solar electromagnetic radiation (solar irradiance) per unit area. It is
measured on a surface perpendicular to the rays, one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun
(roughly the distance from the Sun to the Earth). Solar flux just outside the Earth's
atmosphere is referred to as the ‗solar constant‘ and has a value of approximately
1373 W m−2. Reflectance, scattering, and absorption of light in the atmosphere can reduce
this amount by 15–80% before reaching the Earth's surface. Scattering and absorption do not
influence all wavelengths equally, thus significant changes in the spectral distribution of
sunlight will occur as light penetrates the atmosphere.
The Sun is considered to produces a constant amount of energy. At the surface of the Sun the
intensity of the solar radiation is about 6.33×107 W/m2 (note that this is a power, in watts,
per unit area in meters). As the Sun‘s rays spread out into space the radiation becomes less
intense and by the time the rays reach the edge of the Earth‘s atmosphere they are considered
to be parallel.
The solar constant (ISC) is the average radiation intensity falling on an imaginary surface,
perpendicular to the Sun‘s rays and at the edge of the Earth‘s atmosphere. The word
‗constant‘ is a little misleading since, because of the Earth‘s elliptical orbit the intensity of the
solar radiation falling on the Earth changes by about 7% between January 1st, when the Earth
is nearest the Sun, and July 3rd, when the Earth is furthest from the Sun. A yearly average
value is thus taken and the solar constant equals 1367 W/m2. Even this value is inaccurate
since the output of the sun changes by about ±0.25% due to Sun spot cycles.

Fig. 1 Sun orientation with earth

The solar radiation intensity falling on a surface is called irradiance or insolation and is
measured in W/m2 or kW/m2. The solar constant can be used to calculate the irradiance
incident on a surface perpendicular to the Sun‘s rays outside and the Earth‘s atmosphere on
any day of the year (i.e. as the distance between the Sun and Earth changes thought the year):

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Where:
I0 = extraterrestrial (outside the atmosphere) irradiance on a plane perpendicular to the Sun‘s
rays (W/m2),
ISC = the solar constant (1367 W/m2),
n = the day of the year such that for January the 1st n = 1.

1.2 Latitude
The angle of incoming solar radiation influences seasonal temperatures of locations at
different latitudes. When the sun‘s rays strike Earth‘s surface near the equator, the incoming
solar radiation is more direct (nearly perpendicular or closer to a 90˚ angle). Therefore, the
solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller surface area, causing warmer temperatures. At
higher latitudes, the angle of solar radiation is smaller, causing energy to be spread over a
larger area of the surface and cooler temperatures. Because the angle of radiation varies
depending on the latitude, surface temperatures on average are warmer at lower latitudes and
cooler at higher latitudes (even though higher latitudes have more hours of daylight during
the summer months).

1.3 Declination angle

The earth's equator is tilted 23.45 degrees with respect to the plane of the earth's orbit around
the sun, so at various times during the year, as the earth orbits the sun, declination varies from
23.45 degrees north to 23.45 degrees south. This gives rise to the seasons.
The following equation can be used to calculate the declination angle:
δ=−23.45°×cos(360/365×(d+10)) where the d is the number of days since the start of the year
The declination angle equals zero at the equinoxes (March 22 and September 22), positive
during the summer in northern hemisphere and negative during winter.

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Fig. 2 Declination angle

1.4 Surface azimuth angle

Solar azimuth angle is defined as the angle between the projection of sun's centre onto the
horizontal plane and due south direction. When used as a celestial coordinate, the azimuth is
the horizontal direction of a star or other astronomical object in the sky. ... The azimuth is the
angle between the north vector and the star's vector on the horizontal plane. Azimuth is
usually measured in degrees (°).
Azimuth varies from 0° to 360°. It starts with North at 0°. As you turn to your right (in a
clockwise direction) you'll face East (which is 90°), then South (which is 180°), then West
(which is 270°), and then return to North (which is 360° and also 0°).
The solar azimuth angle, as, is the angle between a due south line and the projection of the
site to sun line on the horizontal plane. The sign convention used for the azimuth angle is
positive west of south and negative east of south. The solar zenith angle, z, is the angle
between the site to sun line and the vertical at the site:
z = 90° − α.

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Fig. 3 Azimuth angle

1.5 Hour angle

In observing the sun from earth, the solar hour angle is an expression of time, expressed in
angular measurement, usually degrees, from the solar noon. ... For example, at 10:30 a.m.
local apparent time the hour angle is −22.5° (15° per hour times 1.5 hours before noon).
The hour angle at local solar noon is zero, with each 360/24 or 15 degrees of longitude ...
The solar azimuth angle z is the angle of the sun's rays measured in. The hour angle h, of a
point on the earth's surface is defined as the angle through which the earth would turn to
bring the meridian of the point directly under the sun.
• The hour angle at local solar noon is zero, with each 360/24 or 15 degrees of longitude
equivalent to one hour, afternoon hours being designated as positive. Expressed symbolically,
the hour angle in degrees is:
h = ±0.25 (number of minutes from local solar noon)
where: the + sign applies to afternoon hours and the ‐ sign to morning hours.

• The hour angle can also be obtained from the apparent solar time (AST), i.e., the corrected
local solar time):
h = (AST‐12)15

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• At local solar noon AST=12 and h=0o. Therefore, the Local Standard Time (the time shown
by our clocks at local solar noon ) is:
LST = 12 ‐ ET ± 4 (SL‐LL) [note: ‐/+]
• For the city in Germany: LST = 12 ‐ ET ‐ 9.2 [min]

1.6 Zenith angle

The solar zenith angle is the angle between the sun's rays and the vertical. It is closely related
to the solar altitude angle, which is the angle between the sun's rays and a horizontal plane. ...
At solar noon, the zenith angle is at a minimum and is equal to latitude
minus solar declination angle. The zenith angle is similar to the elevation angle but it is
measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal, thus making the zenith angle =
90° - elevation. Zenith is sometimes also used to refer to the highest point that a celestial
body reaches during its orbit at a given point of observation.

Fig. 4 Zenith angle

The reduction of intensity with increasing zenith angle of the sun is generally assumed to be
directly proportional to the increase in air mass, an assumption that considers the atmosphere
to be unstratified with regard to absorbing or scattering impurities.
• The degree of attenuation of solar radiation traveling through the earth‘s atmosphere is
dependent on the length of path and the characteristics of the medium traversed.
• In solar radiation calculations, one standard air mass is defined as the length of path
traversed in reaching the sea level when the sun is at the zenith (the vertical at the point of
observation).

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1.7 The expression for solar altitude angle.

Fig. 5 Position of sun in space

The solar altitude angle is the angle between the sun's rays and a horizontal plane.
• It is related to the Solar Zenith angle Φ, being the complimentary angle between the sun's
rays and the vertical.
• Thus: Φ+α = π/2 = 90°
• The mathematical expression for the solar altitude angle is:
sin(α) = cos(Φ) = sin(L) sin(δ)+cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)
where: L = local latitude.
The sun is said to rise and set when the solar altitude angle is zero. So the hour angle at
sunset, hss, can be found from solving the equation for the altitude angle for h when α=0o.
Thus :
sin(α) = sin(0) = 0 = sin(L)*sin(δ)+cos(L)*cos(δ)*cos(hss)
which reduces to: cos(hss) = ‐tan(L) tan(δ)
where: hss is taken as positive at sunset.

1.8 Apparent motion of sum

The apparent motion of the sun, caused by the rotation of the Earth about its axis, changes the
angle at which the direct component of light will strike the Earth. From a fixed location
on Earth, the sun appears to move throughout the sky. The Rotation of the Earth About Its
Axis. The daily rising and setting of the sun and stars is due to the earth's rotation about its

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axis. The apparent motion of the sun, from east to west across the sky during the day, is
familiar to us all. Earth spins around its axis, just as a top spins around its spindle.
This spinning movement is called Earth's rotation. At the same time that the Earth spins on its
axis, it also orbits, or revolves around the Sun. This movement is called revolution.
Motion-picture film is a strip of discrete, still pictures but produces the visual impression of
continuous movement. In part, such effects of apparent movement (called the visual phi
phenomenon) depend on persistence of vision: visual response outlasts a stimulus by a
fraction of a second. The movement of the sun towards the north or south in a year is called
the apparent movement of the sun. The revolution of the earth around the sun and the tilted
axis of the earth are the two factors responsible for the apparent movement of the sun. One
complete revolution takes 365.25 days, or one year. The Earth revolves around the
Sun because gravity keeps it in a roughly circular orbit around the Sun.

1.9 Day length

It is normal to measure the day length, by specifying the solar zenith angle at sunrise and
sunset. The solar zenith at sunrise/set is taken as 90 degrees 50 minutes. The longer
the length of daytime, the higher the amount of energy received. The shorter the length of
daytime, the shorter will be the exposure of the earth on the sun causing lesser amount of
solar energy. ... Generally, the longer the length of daytime, the longer its exposure, the
higher amount of solar energy received. As a result of the slowing down of Earth's rotation
the length of day has increased. The rotation of Earth on its axis, however, is affected by a
number of other factors -- for example, the force of the wind against mountain ranges
changes the length of the day by plus or minus a millisecond over a period of a year. The day
length is twice the sunset hour since the solar noon is at the middle of the sunrise and sunset
hours. Thus the length of the day in hours is :
Day Length = 2/15 cos‐1[‐tan(L) tan(δ)].

2.1 Radiation Flux on a Tilted Surface

The power incident on a PV module depends not only on the power contained in the sunlight,
but also on the angle between the module and the sun. When the absorbing surface and the
sunlight are perpendicular to each other, the power density on the surface is equal to that of
the sunlight (in other words, the power density will always be at its maximum when the PV
module is perpendicular to the sun). However, as the angle between the sun and a fixed

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surface is continually changing, the power density on a fixed PV module is less than that of
the incident sunlight.
The amount of solar radiation incident on a tilted module surface is the component of the
incident solar radiation which is perpendicular to the module surface. The following figure
shows how to calculate the radiation incident on a tilted surface (Smodule) given either the solar
radiation measured on horizontal surface (Shoriz) or the solar radiation measured perpendicular
to the sun (Sincident).

Fig. 6 Radiation flux with respect to inclined surface

The equations relating Smodule, Shoriz and Sincident are:

Where: α is the elevation angle

And β is the tilt angle of the module measured from the horizontal.
The elevation angle has been previously given as:

Where: ϕ is the latitude;

And δ is the declination angle previously given as:

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Where: d is the day of the year. Note that from simple math (284+d) is equivalent to (d-81)
which was used before. Two equations are used interchangeably in literature. From these
equations a relationship between Smodule and Shoriz can be determined as:

2.2 Beam, diffuse and reflected radiation

Beam radiation is the solar radiation received from the Sun without having been scattered by
the atmosphere. Diffuse radiation is that received from the Sun after its direction has been
changed by scattering by the atmosphere. Solar radiation includes visible light, ultraviolet
light, infrared, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. Radiation is one way to transfer heat.

Fig. 7 Beam and diffuse radiation

3.1 Solar Thermal Conversion

3.2 Collection and storage
In all thermal conversion processes, solar radiation is absorbed at the surface of a receiver,
which contains oris in contact with flow passages through which a working fluid passes. As
the receiver heats up, heat is transferred to the working fluid which may be air, water, oil, or a
molten salt. Solar thermal energy uses the energy from the sun captured in the parabolic
troughs seen above to heat a fluid. These troughs allow more sunlight to be captured. That

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heated fluid is then transferred and heats water, which produces steam. Next, this steam spins
a turbine, producing mechanical energy.

3.3 Thermal collection devices

People can harness the sun's energy in a few different ways: Photovoltaic cells, which convert
sunlight into electricity. Solar thermal technology, where heat from the sun is used to make
hot water or steam. Solar photons convert naturally into three forms of energy—electricity,
chemical fuel, and heat—that link seamlessly with existing energy chains. Despite the
enormous energy flux supplied by the Sun, the three conversion routes supply only a tiny
fraction of our current and future energy needs. Solar thermal power plant comprises power
plants which first convert solar radiation into heat. The resulting thermal energy is
subsequently transformed into mechanical energy by a thermal engine, and then converted
into electricity.
According to the type of solar radiation concentration, solar thermal power plants are
subdivided into:
*concentrating (point and line focusing systems)
*non-concentrating systems. The former
Classification can be further made according to:
*type of receiver of the solar radiation
*the heat transfer media and the heat storage system
*additional firing based on fossil fuel energy

Fig. 8 Process of power generation

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Process of solar thermal power generation:

− concentrating solar radiation by means of a collector system;
− increasing radiation flux density (i.e. concentrating of the solar radiation onto a receiver), if
applicable;
− Absorption of the solar radiation (i.e. conversion of the radiation energy into thermal
energy (i.e. heat) inside the receiver);
− Transfer of thermal energy to an energy conversion unit;
− Conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy using a thermal engine
(e.g. steam turbine);
− Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy using a generator.

The Disadvantages of Solar Energy

 Location & Sunlight Availability. Your latitude is one of the main factors in determining the
efficacy of solar power.
 Installation Area.
 Reliability.
 Inefficiency.
 Pollution & Environmental Impact.
 Expensive Energy Storage.
 High Initial Cost.

3.3 Liquid flat plate collectors

A Flat Plate Collector is a heat exchanger that converts the radiant solar energy from the sun
into heat energy using the well known greenhouse effect. It collects, or captures, solar energy
and uses that energy to heat water in the home for bathing, washing and heating, and can even
be used to heat outdoor swimming pools and hot tubs.

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Fig. 9 Liquid flat plate collector

A solar flat plate collector typically consists of a large heat absorbing plate, usually a large
sheet of copper or aluminium as they are both good conductors of heat, which is painted and
chemically etched black to absorb as much solar radiation as possible for maximum
efficiency. This blackened heat absorbing surface has several parallel copper pipes or tubes
called risers, running length ways across the plate which contains the heat transfer fluid,
typically water.
These copper pipes are bonded, soldered or brazed directly to the absorber plate to ensure
maximum surface contact and heat transfer. Sunlight heats the absorbing surface which
increases in temperature. As the plate gets hotter this heat is conducted through the risers and
absorbed by the fluid flowing inside the copper pipes which is then used by the household.
The pipes and absorber plate are enclosed in an insulated metal or wooden box with a sheet
of glazing material, either glass or plastic on the front to protect the enclosed absorber plate
and create an insulating air space. This glazing material does not absorb the suns thermal
energy to any significant extent and therefore most of the incoming radiation is received by
the blackened absorber.
The air gap between the plate and glazing material traps this heat preventing it from escaping
back into the atmosphere. As the absorber plate warms up, it transfers heat to the fluid within
the collector but it also loses heat to its surroundings. To minimize this loss of heat, the
bottom and sides of a flat plate collector are insulated with high temperature rigid foam or
aluminium foil insulation as shown.

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Fig. 10 working of flat plate collector

3.4 Solar Air Heaters

Air stream is heated by the back side of the collector plate in flat plate collector. Fins attached
to the plate increase the contact surface. The back side of the collector is heavily insulated
with mineral wool or some other material. If the size of collector is large, a blower is used to
draw air into the collector and transmit the hot air to dryer. The most favorable orientation of
a collector for heating only is facing due south at an inclination angle to the horizontal equal
to the latitude plus 150. The use of air as the heat transport fluid eliminates both freezing and
corrosion problems and small air leaks are of less concern than water leaks

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Fig. 11 Solar air heater

Disadvantages:
1. Need of handling larger volumes of air than liquids due to low density of air as working
substance.
2. Thermal capacity of the air is low.
3. They have relatively high fluid circulation costs (especially if the rock heat storage
unit is not carefully designed)
4. They have relatively large volumes of storage (roughly three times as much volume as
for water heat-storage)
5. They have a higher noise level.
6. The system has difficulty of adding conventional absorption air- conditioners to air
systems
7. The space is required for ducting.

Applications of Solar air heaters:

• Heating buildings.
• Drying agricultural produce and lumber.
• Heating green houses.
• Air conditioning building utilizing desiccant beds or a absorption refrigeration process.
• Heat sources for a heat engine such as a Brayton or Stirling cycle.

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3.4.1 Flat plate collector:

A flat-plate collector (FPC) is a device to collect solar energy and transform it into thermal
energy (low-grade energy) by using water as a working fluid. It is a heart of solar thermal
devices that has many applications in a medium temperature range ≅100 °C from domestic to
preheating to industrial sectors. Flat plate collector absorbs both beam and diffuse
components of radiant energy. The absorber plate is a specially treated blackened metal
surface. Sun rays striking the absorber plate are absorbed causing rise of temperature of
transport fluid. Thermal insulation behind the absorber plate and transparent cover sheets
(glass or plastic) prevent loss of heat to surroundings.

Applications of flat plate collector:

1. Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.
2. Desalination plant for obtaining drinking water from sea water.
3. Solar cookers for domestic cooking.
4. Drying applications.
5. Residence heating.

Losses in flat plate collector:

1. Shadow effect: Shadows of some of the neighbor panel fall on the surface of the collector
where the angle of elevation of the sun is less than 15˚ (sun-rise and sunset).
Shadow factor = Total surface of the collector / surface of the collector receiving light

Shadow factor is less than 0.1 during morning and evening. The effective hours of solar
collectors are between 9AM and 5PM.

2. Cosine loss factor: For maximum power collection, the surface of collector should receive
the sun rays perpendicularly. If the angle between the perpendicular to the collector surface
and the direction of sun rays is θ, then the area of solar beam intercepted by the collector
surface is proportional to cosθ.

3. Reflective loss factor: The collector glass surface and the reflector surface collect dust, dirt,
moisture etc. The reflector surface gets rusted, deformed and loses the shine. Hence, the
efficiency of the collector is reduced significantly with passage of time.

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Maintenance of flat plate collector:

1. Daily cleaning
2. Seasonal maintenance (cleaning, touch-up paint)
3. Yearly overhaul (change of seals, cleaning after dismantling)

Fig. 12 Air heater

3.4.2 Parabolic trough collector:

Parabolic trough with line focusing reflecting surface provides concentration ratios from 30
to 50. Hence, temperature as high as 300˚C can be attained. Light is focused on a central line
of the parabolic trough. The pipe located along the centre line absorbs the heat and the
working fluid is circulated trough the pipe. Paraboloid dish collectors:
The beam radiation is reflected by parabolic dish surface. The point focus is obtained with
CR (above 1000) and temperatures around 1000 Based on the temperature:
 Low temperature collector
 Medium temperature collector
 High temperature collector.

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a. Low-temperature collectors
Glazed solar collectors are designed primarily for space heating. They rebuilding air through
a solar air panel where the air is heated and then directed back into the building. These solar
space building and only perform when the air in the solar collector is warmer than the
building room temperature. Most glazed collectors are used in the residential sector. Light is
focused on a surface. The re-circulated heating systems require at least two penetrations into
the cells.

Fig. 13 space heater

Unglazed solar collectors are primarily used to pre-heat make-up ventilation air in
commercial, industrial and institutional buildings with a high ventilation load. They turn
building walls or sections of walls into low cost, high performance, unglazed solar collectors.
Heat conducts from the absorber surface to the thermal boundary layer of air 1 mm thick on
the outside of the absorber and to air that passes behind the absorber. The boundary layer of
air is drawn into a nearby perforation before the heat can escape by convection to the outside
air. The heated air is then drawn from behind the absorber plate into the building's ventilation
system.

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Fig. 14 unglazed solar collector

3.5 Thermal energy

Thermal energy can be also very effectively stored. Nowadays, situation on energy markets is
different. The increasing on the prices of the conventional energy sources and the
environmental awareness have leaded to increase the use of renewable energies and the
energy efficiency. Thermal energy storage forms a key component of a power plant for
improvement of its dispatchability, especially for concentrating solar power plants
(CSP). Thermal energy storage (TES) is achieved with widely differing technologies. There
are three methods used and still being investigated in order to store thermal energy.
 Sensible Heat Storage (SHS)
 Latent Heat Storage (LHS)

3.6 Sensible heat storage

The most direct way is the storage of sensible heat. Sensible heat storage is based on raising
the temperature of a liquid or solid to store heat and releasing it with the decrease of
temperature when it is required. The volumes needed to store energy in the scale that world
needs are extremely large. Materials used in sensible heat storage must have high heat
capacity and also high boiling or melting point. Although this method of heat storage is
currently less efficient for heat storage, it is least complicated compared with latent or
chemical heat and it is inexpensive.
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From thermodynamics point of view, the storage of sensible heat is based on the increase
of enthalpy of the material in the store, either a liquid or a solid in most cases. The sensible
effect is a change in temperature. Heat stored can be obtained by the equation:

3.7 Latent Heat Storage (LHS)

A common approach to thermal energy storage is to use materials known as phase change
materials (PCMs). These materials store heat when they undergo a phase change, for
example, from solid to liquid, from liquid to gas or from solid to solid (change of one
crystalline form into another without a physical phase change).
The phase change ―solid-to-liquid‖ is the most used, but also solid-to-solid change is of
interest. These materials can be used as an effective way of storing thermal energy (solar
energy, off-peak electricity, industrial waste heat). In comparison to sensible heat storage
systems, the latent heat storage has the advantages of high storage density (due to high latent
heat of fusion) and the isothermal nature of the storage process. The heat of fusion or the heat
of evaporation is much greater than the specific heat capacity. The comparison between latent
heat storage and sensible heat storage shows that in latent heat storage storage densities are
typically 5 to 10 times higher.
In general, latent heat effects associated with the phase change are significant. Latent
heat, known also as the enthalpy of vaporization (liquid-to-vapor phase change) or enthalpy
of fusion (solid-to-liquid phase change), is the amount of heat added to or removed from a
substance to produce a change in phase. This energy breaks down the intermolecular
attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to expand the substance
(the pΔV work). When latent heat is added, no temperature change occurs.

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3.8 Solar water heater

A solar water heater is a solar energy system that uses the sun to heat your domestic hot
water. Just like a solar electric system, it uses panels to collect solar energy. However, these
panels contain a water-based fluid that carries the sun's heat down to your hot water tank.
Solar water heating system is a device that uses solar energy to heat water for domestic,
commercial, and industrial needs. Heating of water is the most common application of solar
energy in the world. A typical solar water heating system can save up to 1500 units of
electricity every year, for every 100 litres per day of solar water heating capacity. Uses for
solar energy extend to water heating systems. Most solar water heating solutions create hot
water that is consumed inside the home. Solar water heaters use a rooftop cell to absorb the
sun's heat and transfer it to the water tank.

Parts of the Solar Water Heating System

 A solar water heating system consists of a flat plate solar collector, a storage tank kept
at a height behind the collector, and connecting pipes.
 The collector usually comprises copper tubes welded to copper sheets (both coated
with a highly absorbing black coating) with a toughened glass sheet on top and
insulating material at the back. The entire assembly is placed in a flat box.
 In certain models, evacuated glass tubes are used instead of copper; a separate cover
sheet and insulating box are not required in this case.

Working of a solar water heater

 The system is generally installed on the roof or open ground, with the collector facing
the sun and connected to a continuous water supply.
 Water flows through the tubes, absorbs solar heat and becomes hot.
 The heated water is stored in a tank for further use.
 The water stored in the tank remains hot overnight as the storage tank is insulated and
heat losses are small.

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Fig. 15 principle of water heating

3.9 Space heating and cooling

Solar heating & cooling (SHC) technologies collect the thermal energy from the sun and use
this heat to provide hot water, space heating, cooling, and pool heating for residential,
commercial, and industrial applications. These technologies displace the need to use
electricity or natural gas.
A solar cooling system collects solar power and uses it in a thermally driven cooling process
which is in turn used to decrease and control the temperature for purposes like generating
chilled water or conditioning air for a building. Active solar heating systems are most cost-
effective in cold climates with good solar resources when they are displacing the more
expensive heating fuels, such as electricity, propane, and oil. Heating home with an
active solar energy system can significantly reduce your fuel bills in the winter. Passive
solar heating and cooling, sometimes referred to simply as passive solar design, is the process
of using specific building systems to help regulate internal temperature by using the Sun's
energy selectively and beneficially in an attempt to improve the energy efficiency. Solar air
heaters do their best work in areas with long, cold, sunny winters. ... Like the solar air heater,

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this is supplemental energy. It won't replace electricity or natural gas for water heating in
most climates, but you can make it work to reduce the cost of this function.

Fig. 16 Space heating

3.10 Active passive heating

Active heating captures sunlight, either as heat or electricity, to augment heating systems,
while passive heating captures heat from the sun as it comes into your home through
windows, roofs and walls to heat objects in your home. Active solar heating systems
use solar energy to heat a fluid -- either liquid or air -- and then transfer the solar heat directly
to the interior space or to a storage system for later use. Both liquid and air systems can
supplement forced air systems. Using the sun's energy to heat a building; the windows, walls,
and floors can be designed to collect, store, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in
the winter (and also to reject solar heat in the summer). Greenhouses and sunrooms are
examples of passive designs. The sun's rays pass through the windows, and the structure's
interior absorbs and retains the heat. Other passive energy technology design techniques
include certain types of landscaping and using overhangs to contain the sun's heat.

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Fig. 17. Active passive heating

3.11 Power generation

Solar energy generation is one of fastest growing and most promising renewable energy
sources of power generation worldwide. Nowadays, the electrical energy becomes one of the
basic needs in our daily life, which makes increasing demand for it.
As a major source of electrical power generation fossil fuels are depleting day by day and
also its usage raises serious environmental concerns. These reasons force the development of
new energy sources which are renewable and ecologically safe.

Solar radiation may be converted directly into electricity by solar cells (photovoltaic cells).
In such cells, a small electric voltage is generated when light strikes the junction between a
metal and a semiconductor (such as silicon) or the junction between two different
semiconductors. When exposed to direct sunlight a typical home solar panel produces about
300 watts in one hour which means that in a normal day during summer, comprising 10 hours
of sunlight, it can produce around 3000 watts or 3 kWh per day. This could vary depending
on the number of hours of sunshine received during the day. There are three main types of
residential solar electric power systems: grid inter-tied; grid inter-tied with battery backup;
and off-grid. These three broad types vary in how closely connected they are to the traditional
power utility infrastructure, known as the grid. Solar cells can convert the energy of sunlight
directly into electricity. Consumer appliances used to provide services such as lighting, water

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pumping, refrigeration, telecommunications, and television can be run from photovoltaic

electricity.

Fig. 18 Power generation

3.12 Refrigeration
Solar-powered refrigerator is a cooling appliance that works completely with energy provided
by the sun. They are mostly used in hot climates to keep food so it would not perish and to
keep vaccines at their appropriate temperature. Some solar-powered refrigerators use
combination of solar panels and lead batteries to store energy when there is no sun (on the
cloudy days and at night), while other use heat of the sun to make refrigerator work.
Refrigerators generally keep food cool through the process of evaporation. Compressor,
which is a part of a refrigerator, turns the refrigerant gas into a liquid. Pressure is then
removed; the refrigerant turns back into a gas and absorbs heat because it has to take energy
from somewhere. That cools its surroundings. Solar-powered refrigerator works similarly but
the refrigerant is replaced with ammonia or lithium bromide mixed with water. Instead of
compressor, the heat of the sun is used to increase the pressure of the gas. From here solar
refrigerator works as a common refrigerator: gas again turns into a liquid, heat is removed,

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the liquid evaporates and lowers the temperature. Solar-powered refrigerator is useful for
many reasons. First it is used in regions that have no electricity but have greater number of
sunny days a year. Secondly, such regions often use kerosene or gas-powered absorption
refrigerated coolers which require constant supply of fuel and generate large amounts of
carbon dioxide. They are also very difficult to adjust which can result in the freezing of
medicine which is kept in those coolers. Fuel is also costly and there is risk of causing fires.
Solar-powered refrigerator can replace these kinds of coolers and make cooling safer.

Fig. 19 solar refrigeration

3.12 Distillation
Solar distillation is the use of solar energy to evaporate water and collect its condensate
within the same closed system. Unlike other forms of water purification it can turn salt or
brackish water into fresh drinking water (i.e. desalination). Solar water distillation is the
process of using energy from the sunlight to separate freshwater from salts or other
contaminants. The untreated water absorbs heat, slowly reaching high temperatures. The heat
causes the water to evaporate, cool, and condense into vapour, leaving the contaminants
behind. A solar still distills water with substances dissolved in it by using the heat of the Sun
to evaporate water so that it may be cooled and collected, thereby purifying it. The
pure water vapour condenses on the cool inside surface and drips down, where it is collected
and removed. The advantages of such solar distillers are their design simplicity, low
installation cost, independent water production and simple maintenance. But they also have
several disadvantages such as low efficiency and deposition of salt, scale and corrosion.

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A solar still works on two scientific principles: evaporation and condensation. The salts and
minerals do not evaporate with the water. Most stills are simple black bottomed vessels filled
with water and topped with clear glass or plastic. Sunlight that is absorbed by the black
material speeds the rate of evaporation.

Fig. 20 solar distillation

3.13 Solar pond

The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is heated
they become lighter and rise upward. Similarly, in an ordinary pond, the sun's rays heat the
water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top but loses the heat
into the atmosphere. A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size,
that looks like a pond. This type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a kind of
a flat plate collector that absorbs and stores energy from the Sun in the warm, lower layers of
the pond. Nowadays, solar ponds are used in variety of applications such as
thermal applications, desalination, salt extraction and power generation.
Solar radiation collected in the solar pond is converted into thermal energy that is stored in
the brine and raises its temperature. Utilization of the heat is possible by extracting the heat
from the hot brine of the storage zone, for direct use of the heat or further converting it into
electrical energy.

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Fig. 21 solar pond

3.14 Numerical
Example 3.1
(a) Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat-plate collector on
May 1 at 0900 h (local apparent time). The collector is located in New Delhi (28°35 N.
77°12' E). It is tilted at an angle of 36° with the horizontal and is pointing due south.
(b) Repeat the calculation for 1200 h (local apparent time).
Solution:
(a) For this case, y=0° and Eq. (3.5.5): cosѲ=sinδsin(Ф-β)+cosδ cosω cos(Ф-β) is
applicable. On May 1, n=121.
From Eq.(3.5.1) : δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin[360/365(284+n)]
δ=23.45 sin[360/365(284+121) = 14.90°
At 0900 h (local apparent time), ω= 45°. Substituting in Eq. (3.5.5) we have
Cos Ѳ= sin 14.90° sin (28.58° - 36°) + cos 14.90° cos 45° cos (28.58° - 36°) = 0.6444
Ѳ=48.90
The angle Ѳ can also be calculated using Eq. (3.5.8): cosѲ=cosѲ2 cosβ+sinѲ2 sinβ cos(γ2-γ),
in conjunction with Eqs (3.5.4): cosѲ=sinФ sinδ+cosФ cosδ cosω and (3.5.9):
cosγ1=(cosѲ2 sinФ-sinδ)/sinѲ2 cosФ.

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From Eq. (3.5.4).

Cos Ѳ2= sin 28.58° sin 14.90° + cos 28.58° cos 14.90° cos 45° = 0.7231
Ѳ2=43.690
From Eq. (3.5.9),
cos Y1= [cos 43.69° sin 28.58°-sin 14.90°]/sin 43.69° cos 28.58° = 0.1464
Y1= 81.58°
Substituting into Eq. (3.5.8):,we get
cos Ѳ= cos 43.69° cos 36° + sin 43.69° sin 36° cos(81.58°- 0°)= 0.6444
Ѳ=48.9°
(b) At 1200 h (local apparent time), to ω=0°. Proceeding in the same manner as in part (a),
we have from Eq. (3.5.5),
Cos Ѳ = 0.9251
Ѳ= 22.3°
Alternatively, consider Fig. 3.12 which shows a cross-section through the local meridian.
Since ω= 0° and y=0°, all the other angles involved, viz. Ѳ,Ф,δ and β lie in this plane.
(b) Ф-δ=β-Ѳ
or , Ѳ=β-Ф+δ= 22.3°
Inclined at an angle of 10° and facing due south (y=0°). The surface is located in Mumbai
(19°07′ N, 72°51' E). On June 21, δ = 23.45°
From Eq. (3.5.13):|ωst|=min[|cos-1(-tanФ tanδ)|,|cos-1 {-tan(Ф-β) tanδ}],
|ωst|= min [cos-1 (-tan 19.12° tan 23.45°),|cos-1{-tan (19.12° -10°) tan 23.45°)|] = min
[98.6°, 94.0°] = 94.0°
ωst= ±94.0°
On December 21, δ=-23.45° , From Eq. (3.5.13).
ωst= min [|cos-1{-tan 19.12° tan (-23.45°)}|, cos-1{-tan (19.12° -10°) tan (-23.45°)}|]
= min [81.4°, 86.0°] = 81.4°
ω=81.4°

Example 3.3 Determine the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to 1430 h (IST) at
Mumbai (19°07' N. 72°51' E) on July 1. In India, standard time is based on 82.50°E.

Solution : From Eq. (3.5.15):

E=229.18(0.000075+ 0.001868 cosB -0.032077 sinB -0.014615 cos 2B -0.04089 sin
2B) The equation of time correction on July 1 is (-3.5) minutes. Therefore,
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Local apparent time = 1430 h - 4(82.50 -72.85) minutes + (-3.5 minutes)

=1430 h-38.6 minutes -3.5 minutes = 1348hrs.

Example 3.4 Estimate the monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at
Vadodara (22°00′ N, 73°10' E) during the month of March if the average sunshine hours per
day is 9.5.
Solution: We will assume that the values of a = 0.28 and b = 0.48 obtained for Ahmedabad
(Table 3.3) are valid for Vadodara. This is a good assumption since the two cities are fairly
close to each other and their climate is similar. Based on Klein's recommendation, we will
take H0, to be equal to the value of H0 on March 16. Further, we will assume that this
recommendation is also valid for the calculation of Smax.
On March 16, n = 75. From Eq. (3.5.1), : δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin[360/365(284+n)]
δ= 23.45 [sin360/ 365(284+75)=-2.42°
Table 3.3 Constants a and b in Eq. (3.6.2) for Indian cities

Example 3.5 Use Gopinathan's correlation to calculate the value of Hg for Vadodara for the
month of March. Given: EL=34 m

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Solution: From example 3.4,Ф=22.00°,S=9.5 h,Smax=11.87h and H=34.206kJ/m 2

Substituting in Eq.(3.6.6):b1=1.527-1.027cosФ +0.0926 EL- 0.359(S/Smax)
A=-0.309+0.539cos22.00°-0.0693*0.034+0.290(9.5/11.87)=0.421
B=1.527-1.027cos 22.00°+0.0926*0.034-0.359(9.5/11.87)=0.291
Therefore,
Hg={0.421=0.291(9.5/11.87)}*34.206=22.367 kJ/m-day
This value of Hg agrees well with the values of 22.718kJ/m-day calculated in example 3.4.

Example 3.7 Use the prediction equations to calculate the monthly average hourly global and
hourly diffuse radiation during the month of April on a horizontal surface at New Delhi
(28°35' N, 77°12' E, elevation 216 m). Time: 0900 to 1000 h (LAT). The average number of
sunshine hours per day is 8.6. Compare the predicted values with the available measurements.
Solution: Daily Radiation
The representative day in April is the 15th. On April 15, n = 105.
From Eq. (3.5.1): δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin[360/365(284+n)] ,
δ= 23.45 sin[360/365(284+105)]=9.42°
From Eq. (3.5.10):ω1=cos-1(-tanФ tanδ)
ω = cos-1 (-tan28.58°*tan9.432°)=95.18°=1.661 radians
Smax=2/15*95.18=12.69h

Example 3.8 The following hourly values are measured around mid-day on a clear day at
Nagpur (21°06' N. 79°03' E). Date: June 20,1968

Solution: On June 20, 1968, -171

From Eq. (3.5.1), : δ(in degrees)=23.45 sin[360/365(284+n)]
δ=23.45sin {360/365(284+171)}=3.44°

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Therefore from Eq. (3.5.4), cos Ѳ=sinФ sinδ+cosФ cosδ cosω

cos Ѳ2= sin 21.10° sin 23.44° + cos 21.10° cos 23.44° cos ω
=0.1432 + 0.8560 cos ω
From Table 3.5, the values of A, B and C are
A= 1092 W/m² 3931.2 kJ/m²-h
B = 0.185
C = 0.137
The remaining calculation is conveniently done in tabular form. The obtained for Ib, Id and Ig,
from Eqs (3.6.15)-(3.6.18) are given in Table are compared with the measured data. It is seen
that the values of obtained on the basis of US data predict high values of the beam radias low
values of the diffuse radiation, when used to predict radiation unde conditions. The two
effects tend to balance each other to some external result, the values of global radiation are
predicted to a reasonable degree racy.

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