Python Tutorial

Python tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of Python. Our Python tutorial is designed for beginners and
professionals.

Python is a simple, easy to learn, powerful, high level and object-oriented programming language.

Python is an interpreted scripting language also. Guido Van Rossum is known as the founder of python programming.

Our Python tutorial includes all topics of Python Programming such as installation, control statements, Strings, Lists, Tuples,
Dictionary, Modules, Exceptions, Date and Time, File I/O, Programs, etc. There are also given Python interview questions to
help you better understand the Python Programming.

Python Introduction
Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high level and interpreted programming language. It supports Object Oriented
programming approach to develop applications. It is simple and easy to learn and provides lots of high-level data structures.

Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language which makes it attractive for Application Development.

Python's syntax and dynamic typing with its interpreted nature, makes it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application
development.

Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object oriented, imperative and functional or procedural programming
styles.

Python is not intended to work on special area such as web programming. That is why it is known as multipurpose because it
can be used with web, enterprise, 3D CAD etc.

We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed so we can write a=10 to assign an integer
value in an integer variable.
Python makes the development and debugging fast because there is no compilation step included in python development and
edit-test-debug cycle is very fast.

Python Features
Python provides lots of features that are listed below.

1) Easy to Learn and Use

Python is easy to learn and use. It is developer-friendly and high level programming language.

2) Expressive Language

Python language is more expressive means that it is more understandable and readable.

3) Interpreted Language

Python is an interpreted language i.e. interpreter executes the code line by line at a time. This makes debugging easy and thus
suitable for beginners.

4) Cross-platform Language

Python can run equally on different platforms such as Windows, Linux, Unix and Macintosh etc. So, we can say that Python is a
portable language.
5) Free and Open Source

Python language is freely available at offical web [Link] source-code is also available. Therefore it is open source.

6) Object-Oriented Language

Python supports object oriented language and concepts of classes and objects come into existence.

7) Extensible

It implies that other languages such as C/C++ can be used to compile the code and thus it can be used further in our python
code.

8) Large Standard Library

Python has a large and broad library and prvides rich set of module and functions for rapid application development.

9) GUI Programming Support

Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.

10) Integrated

It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, JAVA etc.

Python History and Versions
o Python laid its foundation in the late 1980s.
o The implementation of Python was started in the December 1989 by Guido Van Rossum at CWI in Netherland.
o In February 1991, van Rossum published the code (labeled version 0.9.0) to [Link].
o In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features like: lambda, map, filter, and reduce.
o Python 2.0 added new features like: list comprehensions, garbage collection system.
o On December 3, 2008, Python 3.0 (also called "Py3K") was released. It was designed to rectify fundamental flaw of the
language.
o ABC programming language is said to be the predecessor of Python language which was capable of Exception Handling
and interfacing with Amoeba Operating System.
o Python is influenced by following programming languages:
o ABC language.
o Modula-3

Python Version List

Python programming language is being updated regularly with new features and supports. There are lots of updations in python
versions, started from 1994 to current release.

A list of python versions with its released date is given below.

Python Version Released Date

Python 1.0 January 1994

Python 1.5 December 31, 1997

Python 1.6 September 5, 2000

Python 2.0 October 16, 2000

Python 2.1 April 17, 2001

Python 2.2 December 21, 2001

Python 2.3 July 29, 2003

Python 2.4 November 30, 2004

Python 2.5 September 19, 2006

Python 2.6 October 1, 2008

Python 2.7 July 3, 2010

 Python 3.0 December 3, 2008

Python 3.1 June 27, 2009

Python 3.2 February 20, 2011

Python 3.3 September 29, 2012

Python 3.4 March 16, 2014

Python 3.5 September 13, 2015

Python 3.6 December 23, 2016

Python 3.7 June 27, 2018

Python Applications
Python is known for its general purpose nature that makes it applicable in almost each domain of software development. Python
as a whole can be used in any sphere of development.

Here, we are specifying applications areas where python can be applied.

1) Web Applications

We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries to handle internet protocols such as HTML and XML, JSON,
Email processing, request, beautifulSoup, Feedparser etc. It also provides Frameworks such as Django, Pyramid, Flask etc to
design and delelop web based applications. Some important developments are: PythonWikiEngines, Pocoo, PythonBlogSoftware
etc.

2) Desktop GUI Applications

Python provides Tk GUI library to develop user interface in python based application. Some other useful toolkits wxWidgets,
Kivy, pyqt that are useable on several platforms. The Kivy is popular for writing multitouch applications.

3) Software Development

Python is helpful for software development process. It works as a support language and can be used for build control and
management, testing etc.

4) Scientific and Numeric

Python is popular and widely used in scientific and numeric computing. Some useful library and package are SciPy, Pandas,
IPython etc. SciPy is group of packages of engineering, science and mathematics.

5) Business Applications

Python is used to build Bussiness applications like ERP and e-commerce systems. Tryton is a high level application platform.

6) Console Based Application

We can use Python to develop console based applications. For example: IPython.
7) Audio or Video based Applications

Python is awesome to perform multiple tasks and can be used to develop multimedia applications. Some of real applications
are: TimPlayer, cplay etc.

8) 3D CAD Applications

To create CAD

application Fandango is a real application which provides full features of CAD.

How to Install Python (Environment Set-up)

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss the installation of python on various operating systems.

Installation on Windows
Visit the link [Link] to download the latest release of Python. In this process, we will install
Python 3.6.7 on our Windows operating system.
Double-click the executable file which is downloaded; the following window will open. Select Customize installation and proceed.
The following window shows all the optional features. All the features need to be installed and are checked by default; we need
to click next to continue.
The following window shows a list of advanced options. Check all the options which you want to install and click next. Here, we
must notice that the first check-box (install for all users) must be checked.
Now, we are ready to install python-3.6.7. Let's install it.
Now, try to run python on the command prompt. Type the command python in case of python2 or python3 in case
of python3. It will show an error as given in the below image. It is because we haven't set the path.
To set the path of python, we need to the right click on "my computer" and go to Properties → Advanced → Environment
Variables.
Add the new path variable in the user variable section.
Type PATH as the variable name and set the path to the installation directory of the python shown in the below image.
Now, the path is set, we are ready to run python on our local system. Restart CMD, and type python again. It will open the
python interpreter shell where we can execute the python statements.

Installation on Mac
To install python3 on MacOS, visit the link [Link] and follow the
instructions given in the tutorial.

SETTING PATH IN PYTHON

Before starting working with Python, a specific path is to set.

o Your Python program and executable code can reside in any directory of your system, therefore Operating System
provides a specific search path that index the directories Operating System should search for executable code.
o The Path is set in the Environment Variable of My Computer properties:
o To set path follow the steps:

Right click on My Computer ->Properties ->Advanced System setting ->Environment Variable ->New

In Variable name write path and in Variable value copy path up to C://Python(i.e., path where Python is installed). Click Ok -
>Ok.

Path will be set for executing Python programs.

1. Right click on My Computer and click on properties.

2. Click on Advanced System settings

3. Click on Environment Variable tab.
4. Click on new tab of user variables.
5. Write path in variable name
6. Copy the path of Python folder

7. Paste path of Python in variable value.

8. Click on Ok button:
9. Click on Ok button:

G g

First Python Program

In this Section, we will discuss the basic syntax of python by using which, we will run a simple program to print hello world on
the console.

Python provides us the two ways to run a program:

 o Using Interactive interpreter prompt
o Using a script file

Let's discuss each one of them in detail.

Interactive interpreter prompt

Python provides us the feature to execute the python statement one by one at the interactive prompt. It is preferable in the
case where we are concerned about the output of each line of our python program.

To open the interactive mode, open the terminal (or command prompt) and type python (python3 in case if you have python2
and python3 both installed on your system).

It will open the following prompt where we can execute the python statement and check their impact on the console.

Let's run a python statement to print the traditional hello world on the console. Python3 provides print() function to print some
message on the console. We can pass the message as a string into this function. Consider the following image.
 Here, we get the message "Hello World !" printed on the console.

Using a script file

Interpreter prompt is good to run the individual statements of the code. However, we can not write the code every-time on the
terminal.

We need to write our code into a file which can be executed later. For this purpose, open an editor like notepad, create a file
named [Link] (python used .py extension) and write the following code in it.

1. Print ("hello world"); #here, we have used print() function to print the message on the console.

To run this file named as [Link], we need to run the following command on the terminal.

$ python3 [Link]
Hence, we get our output as the message Hello World ! is printed on the console.

Get Started with PyCharm

In our first program, we have used gedit on our CentOS as an editor. On Windows, we have an alternative like notepad or
notepad++ to edit the code. However, these editors are not used as IDE for python since they are unable to show the syntax
related suggestions.

JetBrains provides the most popular and a widely used cross-platform IDE PyCharm to run the python programs.

PyCharm installation
As we have already stated, PyCharm is a cross-platform IDE, and hence it can be installed on a variety of the operating
systems. In this section of the tutorial, we will cover the installation process of PyCharm on Windows, MacOS, CentOS, and
Ubuntu.

Windows
Installing PyCharm on Windows is very simple. To install PyCharm on Windows operating system, visit the
link [Link] to download the executable
installer. Double click the installer (.exe) file and install PyCharm by clicking next at each step.

CentOS
To install PyCharm on CentOS, visit the link [Link] The link will guide
you to install PyCharm on the CentOS.

MacOS
To install PyCharm on MacOS, visit the link [Link] The link will guide you
to install PyCharm on the MacOS.

Ubuntu
To install PyCharm on Ubuntu, visit the link [Link] The link will guide
you to install PyCharm on Ubuntu.
In the upcoming section of the tutorial, we will use PyCharm to edit the python code.

How to execute python

To execute Python code, we can use any approach that are given below.

1) Interactive Mode
Python provides Interactive Shell to execute code immediatly and produce output instantly. To get into this shell, write python
in the command prompt and start working with Python.
Press Enter key and the Command Prompt will appear like:

Now we can execute our Python commands.

Eg:
2) Script Mode
Using Script Mode, we can write our Python code in a separate file of any editor in our Operating System.
Save it by .py extension.
Now open Command prompt and execute it by :
NOTE: Path in the command prompt should be location of saved [Link] you have saved your file. In the above case file should be
saved at desktop.

3) Using IDE (Integrated Development Environment)

We can execute our Python code using a Graphical User Interface (GUI).

All you need to do is:

Click on Start button -> All Programs -> Python -> IDLE(Python GUI)

We can use both Interactive as well as Script mode in IDE.

1) Using Interactive mode:

Execute our Python code on the Python prompt and it will display result simultaneously.
2) Using Script Mode:

i) Click on Start button -> All Programs -> Python -> IDLE(Python GUI)

ii) Python Shell will be opened. Now click on File -> New Window.

A new Editor will be opened. Write our Python code here.

Click on file -> save as
Run code by clicking on Run in the Menu bar.

Run -> Run Module

Result will be displayed on a new Python shell as:

Python Variables
Variable is a name which is used to refer memory location. Variable also known as identifier and used to hold value.
In Python, we don't need to specify the type of variable because Python is a type infer language and smart enough to get
variable type.

Variable names can be a group of both letters and digits, but they have to begin with a letter or an underscore.

It is recomended to use lowercase letters for variable name. Rahul and rahul both are two different variables.

Identifier Naming
Variables are the example of identifiers. An Identifier is used to identify the literals used in the program. The rules to name an
identifier are given below.

o The first character of the variable must be an alphabet or underscore ( _ ).

o All the characters except the first character may be an alphabet of lower-case(a-z), upper-case (A-Z), underscore or
digit (0-9).
o Identifier name must not contain any white-space, or special character (!, @, #, %, ^, &, *).
o Identifier name must not be similar to any keyword defined in the language.
o Identifier names are case sensitive for example my name, and MyName is not the same.
o Examples of valid identifiers : a123, _n, n_9, etc.
o Examples of invalid identifiers: 1a, n%4, n 9, etc.

Declaring Variable and Assigning Values

Python does not bound us to declare variable before using in the application. It allows us to create variable at required time.

We don't need to declare explicitly variable in Python. When we assign any value to the variable that variable is declared
automatically.

The equal (=) operator is used to assign value to a variable.

 Eg:

Output:

1. >>>
2. 10
3. ravi
4. 20000.67
5. >>>

Multiple Assignment
Python allows us to assign a value to multiple variables in a single statement which is also known as multiple assignment.
 We can apply multiple assignments in two ways either by assigning a single value to multiple variables or assigning multiple
values to multiple variables. Lets see given examples.

1. Assigning single value to multiple variables

1. x=y=z=50
2. print x
3. print y
4. print z

Output:

1. >>>
2. 50
3. 50
4. 50
5. >>>

[Link] multiple values to multiple variables:

Eg:

1. a,b,c=5,10,15
2. print a
3. print b
4. print c

Output:
1. >>>
2. 5
3. 10
4. 15
5. >>>

The values will be assigned in the order in which variables appears.

Basic Fundamentals:
This section contains the basic fundamentals of Python like :

i)Tokens and their types.

ii) Comments

a)Tokens:

o Tokens can be defined as a punctuator mark, reserved words and each individual word in a statement.
o Token is the smallest unit inside the given program.

There are following tokens in Python:

o Keywords.
o Identifiers.
o Literals.
o Operators.
 Tuples:
o Tuple is another form of collection where different type of data can be stored.
o It is similar to list where data is separated by commas. Only the difference is that list uses square bracket and tuple
uses parenthesis.
o Tuples are enclosed in parenthesis and cannot be changed.

Eg:

1. >>> tuple=('rahul',100,60.4,'deepak')
2. >>> tuple1=('sanjay',10)
3. >>> tuple
4. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak')
5. >>> tuple[2:]
6. (60.4, 'deepak')
7. >>> tuple1[0]
8. 'sanjay'
9. >>> tuple+tuple1
10. ('rahul', 100, 60.4, 'deepak', 'sanjay', 10)
11. >>>
Dictionary:
o Dictionary is a collection which works on a key-value pair.
o It works like an associated array where no two keys can be same.
o Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({}) and values can be retrieved by square bracket([]).

Eg:

1. >>> dictionary={d'name':'charlie','id':100,'dept':'it'}
2. >>> dictionary
3. {'dept': 'it', 'name': 'charlie', 'id': 100}
4. >>> [Link]()
5. ['dept', 'name', 'id']
6. >>> [Link]()
7. ['it', 'charlie', 100]
8. >>>

Python Data Types

Variables can hold values of different data types. Python is a dynamically typed language hence we need not define the type of
the variable while declaring it. The interpreter implicitly binds the value with its type.

Python enables us to check the type of the variable used in the program. Python provides us the type() function which returns
the type of the variable passed.

Consider the following example to define the values of different data types and checking its type.

1. A=10
2. b="Hi Python"
3. c = 10.5
4. print(type(a));
5. print(type(b));
6. print(type(c));

Output:

<type 'int'>
<type 'str'>
<type 'float'>
 Standard data types
A variable can hold different types of values. For example, a person?s name must be stored as a string whereas its id must be
stored as an integer.

Python provides various standard data types that define the storage method on each of them. The data types defined in Python
are given below.

1. Numbers
2. String
3. List
4. Tuple
5. Dictionary

In this section of the tutorial, we will give a brief introduction of the above data types. We will discuss each one of them in
detail later in this tutorial.

Numbers
Number stores numeric values. Python creates Number objects when a number is assigned to a variable. For example;

1. a = 3 , b = 5 #a and b are number objects

Python supports 4 types of numeric data.

1. int (signed integers like 10, 2, 29, etc.)

2. long (long integers used for a higher range of values like 908090800L, -0x1929292L, etc.)
3. float (float is used to store floating point numbers like 1.9, 9.902, 15.2, etc.)
 4. complex (complex numbers like 2.14j, 2.0 + 2.3j, etc.)

Python allows us to use a lower-case L to be used with long integers. However, we must always use an upper-case L to avoid
confusion.

A complex number contains an ordered pair, i.e., x + iy where x and y denote the real and imaginary parts respectively).

String
The string can be defined as the sequence of characters represented in the quotation marks. In python, we can use single,
double, or triple quotes to define a string.

String handling in python is a straightforward task since there are various inbuilt functions and operators provided.

In the case of string handling, the operator + is used to concatenate two strings as the operation "hello"+"
python" returns "hello python".

The operator * is known as repetition operator as the operation "Python " *2 returns "Python Python ".

The following example illustrates the string handling in python.

1. str1 = 'hello javatpoint' #string str1

2. str2 = ' how are you' #string str2
3. print (str1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
4. print (str1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
5. print (str1*2) #printing the string twice
6. print (str1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of str1 and str2

Output:
 he
o
hello javatpointhello javatpoint
hello javatpoint how are you

List
Lists are similar to arrays in C. However; the list can contain data of different types. The items stored in the list are separated
with a comma (,) and enclosed within square brackets [].

We can use slice [:] operators to access the data of the list. The concatenation operator (+) and repetition operator (*) works
with the list in the same way as they were working with the strings.

Consider the following example.

1. l = [1, "hi", "python", 2]

2. print (l[3:]);
3. print (l[0:2]);
4. print (l);
5. print (l + l);
6. print (l * 3);

Output:

[2]
[1, 'hi']
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
 Tuple
A tuple is similar to the list in many ways. Like lists, tuples also contain the collection of the items of different data types. The
items of the tuple are separated with a comma (,) and enclosed in parentheses ().

A tuple is a read-only data structure as we can't modify the size and value of the items of a tuple.

Let's see a simple example of the tuple.

1. t = ("hi", "python", 2)
2. print (t[1:]);
3. print (t[0:1]);
4. print (t);
5. print (t + t);
6. print (t * 3);
7. print (type(t))
8. t[2] = "hi";

Output:

('python', 2)
('hi',)
('hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
<type 'tuple'>
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "[Link]", line 8, in <module>
t[2] = "hi";
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
 Dictionary
Dictionary is an ordered set of a key-value pair of items. It is like an associative array or a hash table where each key stores a
specific value. Key can hold any primitive data type whereas value is an arbitrary Python object.

The items in the dictionary are separated with the comma and enclosed in the curly braces {}.

Consider the following example.

1. d = {1:'Jimmy', 2:'Alex', 3:'john', 4:'mike'};

2. print("1st name is "+d[1]);
3. print("2nd name is "+ d[4]);
4. print (d);
5. print ([Link]());
6. print ([Link]());

Output:

1st name is Jimmy

2nd name is mike
{1: 'Jimmy', 2: 'Alex', 3: 'john', 4: 'mike'}
[1, 2, 3, 4]
['Jimmy', 'Alex', 'john', 'mike']
Python Keywords
Python Keywords are special reserved words which convey a special meaning to the compiler/interpreter. Each keyword have a
special meaning and a specific operation. These keywords can't be used as variable. Following is the List of Python Keywords.

True False None and as

asset def class continue break

 else finally elif del except

global for if from import

raise try or return pass

nonlocal in not is lambda

Python Literals
Literals can be defined as a data that is given in a variable or constant.

Python support the following literals:

I. String literals:

String literals can be formed by enclosing a text in the quotes. We can use both single as well as double quotes for a String.

Eg:

"Aman" , '12345'

Types of Strings:

There are two types of Strings supported in Python:

a).Single line String- Strings that are terminated within a single line are known as Single line Strings.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello'
 b).Multi line String- A piece of text that is spread along multiple lines is known as Multiple line String.

There are two ways to create Multiline Strings:

1). Adding black slash at the end of each line.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello\
2. user'
3. >>> text1
4. 'hellouser'
5. >>>

2).Using triple quotation marks:-

Eg:

1. >>> str2='''''welcome
2. to
3. SSSIT'''
4. >>> print str2
5. welcome
6. to
7. SSSIT
8. >>>

[Link] literals:

Numeric Literals are immutable. Numeric literals can belong to following four different numerical types.
gned integers) Long(long integers) float(floating point) Complex(complex)

mbers( can be both Integers of unlimited Real numbers with In the form of a+bj where a forms
sitive and negative) size followed by both integer and the real part and b forms the
h no fractional lowercase or uppercase fractional part eg: - imaginary part of complex number.
[Link]: 100 L eg: 87032845L 26.2 eg: 3.14j

III. Boolean literals:

A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.

IV. Special literals.

Python contains one special literal i.e., None.

None is used to specify to that field that is not created. It is also used for end of lists in Python.

Eg:

1. >>> val1=10
2. >>> val2=None
3. >>> val1
4. 10
5. >>> val2
6. >>> print val2
7. None
8. >>>
 [Link] Collections.

Collections such as tuples, lists and Dictionary are used in Python.

List:

o List contain items of different data types. Lists are mutable i.e., modifiable.
o The values stored in List are separated by commas(,) and enclosed within a square brackets([]). We can store different
type of data in a List.
o Value stored in a List can be retrieved using the slice operator([] and [:]).
o The plus sign (+) is the list concatenation and asterisk(*) is the repetition operator.

Eg:

1. >>> list=['aman',678,20.4,'saurav']
2. >>> list1=[456,'rahul']
3. >>> list
4. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav']
5. >>> list[1:3]
6. [678, 20.4]
7. >>> list+list1
8. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav', 456, 'rahul']
9. >>> list1*2
10. [456, 'rahul', 456, 'rahul']
11. >>>

Python Operators
The operator can be defined as a symbol which is responsible for a particular operation between two operands. Operators are
the pillars of a program on which the logic is built in a particular programming language. Python provides a variety of operators
described as follows.

o Arithmetic operators
o Comparison operators
o Assignment Operators
o Logical Operators
o Bitwise Operators
o Membership Operators
o Identity Operators

Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations between two operands. It includes +(addition), - (subtraction),
*(multiplication), /(divide), %(reminder), //(floor division), and exponent (**).

Consider the following table for a detailed explanation of arithmetic operators.

Operator Description

+ (Addition) It is used to add two operands. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a+b = 30
 - (Subtraction) It is used to subtract the second operand from the first operand. If the first operand is less than
the second operand, the value result negative. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a ? b = 10

/ (divide) It returns the quotient after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For example, if a =
20, b = 10 => a/b = 2

* It is used to multiply one operand with the other. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a * b = 200
(Multiplication)

% (reminder) It returns the reminder after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For example, if a =
20, b = 10 => a%b = 0

** (Exponent) It is an exponent operator represented as it calculates the first operand power to second operand.

// (Floor It gives the floor value of the quotient produced by dividing the two operands.
division)

Comparison operator
Comparison operators are used to comparing the value of the two operands and returns boolean true or false accordingly. The
comparison operators are described in the following table.
 Operator Description

== If the value of two operands is equal, then the condition becomes true.

!= If the value of two operands is not equal then the condition becomes true.

<= If the first operand is less than or equal to the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

>= If the first operand is greater than or equal to the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

<> If the value of two operands is not equal, then the condition becomes true.

> If the first operand is greater than the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

< If the first operand is less than the second operand, then the condition becomes true.

Python assignment operators

The assignment operators are used to assign the value of the right expression to the left operand. The assignment operators
are described in the following table.
Operator Description

= It assigns the value of the right expression to the left operand.

+= It increases the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and assign the modified value
back to left operand. For example, if a = 10, b = 20 => a+ = b will be equal to a = a+ b and therefore, a =
30.

-= It decreases the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and assign the modified value
back to left operand. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a- = b will be equal to a = a- b and therefore, a =
10.

*= It multiplies the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and assign the modified value
back to left operand. For example, if a = 10, b = 20 => a* = b will be equal to a = a* b and therefore, a =
200.

%= It divides the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand and assign the reminder back to left
operand. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a % = b will be equal to a = a % b and therefore, a = 0.

**= a**=b will be equal to a=a**b, for example, if a = 4, b =2, a**=b will assign 4**2 = 16 to a.

//= A//=b will be equal to a = a// b, for example, if a = 4, b = 3, a//=b will assign 4//3 = 1 to a.
 Bitwise operator
The bitwise operators perform bit by bit operation on the values of the two operands.

For example,

1. if a = 7;
2. b = 6;
3. then, binary (a) = 0111
4. binary (b) = 0011
5.
6. hence, a & b = 0011
7. a | b = 0111
8. a ^ b = 0100
9. ~ a = 1000

Operator Description

& (binary and) If both the bits at the same place in two operands are 1, then 1 is copied to the result. Otherwise, 0 is
copied.

| (binary or) The resulting bit will be 0 if both the bits are zero otherwise the resulting bit will be 1.

^ (binary xor) The resulting bit will be 1 if both the bits are different otherwise the resulting bit will be 0.
 ~ (negation) It calculates the negation of each bit of the operand, i.e., if the bit is 0, the resulting bit will be 1 and
vice versa.

<< (left shift) The left operand value is moved left by the number of bits present in the right operand.

>> (right The left operand is moved right by the number of bits present in the right operand.
shift)

Logical Operators
The logical operators are used primarily in the expression evaluation to make a decision. Python supports the following logical
operators.

Operator Description

And If both the expression are true, then the condition will be true. If a and b are the two expressions, a → true, b
→ true => a and b → true.

Or If one of the expressions is true, then the condition will be true. If a and b are the two expressions, a → true,
b → false => a or b → true.

Not If an expression a is true then not (a) will be false and vice versa.
Membership Operators
Python membership operators are used to check the membership of value inside a data structure. If the value is present in the
data structure, then the resulting value is true otherwise it returns false.

Operator Description

In It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is found in the second operand (list, tuple, or dictionary).

not in It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is not found in the second operand (list, tuple, or dictionary).

Identity Operators

Operator Description

Is It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both sides point to the same object.

is not It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both side do not point to the same object.
Operator Precedence
The precedence of the operators is important to find out since it enables us to know which operator should be evaluated first.
The precedence table of the operators in python is given below.

Operator Description

** The exponent operator is given priority over all the others used in the expression.

~+- The negation, unary plus and minus.

* / % // The multiplication, divide, modules, reminder, and floor division.

+- Binary plus and minus

>> << Left shift and right shift

& Binary and.

^| Binary xor and or

<= < > >= Comparison operators (less then, less then equal to, greater then, greater then equal to).
 <> == != Equality operators.

= %= /= //= -= += Assignment operators

*= **=

is is not Identity operators

in not in Membership operators

not or and Logical operators

Python Comments
Comments in Python can be used to explain any program code. It can also be used to hide the code as well.

Comments are the most helpful stuff of any program. It enables us to understand the way, a program works. In python, any
statement written along with # symbol is known as a comment. The interpreter does not interpret the comment.

Comment is not a part of the program, but it enhances the interactivity of the program and makes the program readable.

Python supports two types of comments:

1) Single Line Comment:

In case user wants to specify a single line comment, then comment must start with ?#?

Eg:
1. # This is single line comment.
2. print "Hello Python"

Output:

Hello Python

2) Multi Line Comment:

Multi lined comment can be given inside triple quotes.

eg:

1. ''''' This
2. Is
3. Multipline comment'''

eg:

1. #single line comment

2. print "Hello Python"
3. '''''This is
4. multiline comment'''

Output:

Hello Python
next →← prev

Python If-else statements

Decision making is the most important aspect of almost all the programming languages. As the name implies, decision making
allows us to run a particular block of code for a particular decision. Here, the decisions are made on the validity of the particular
conditions. Condition checking is the backbone of decision making.

In python, decision making is performed by the following statements.

Statement Description

If Statement The if statement is used to test a specific condition. If the condition is true, a block of code (if-block)
will be executed.

If - else The if-else statement is similar to if statement except the fact that, it also provides the block of the
Statement code for the false case of the condition to be checked. If the condition provided in the if statement is
false, then the else statement will be executed.

Nested if Nested if statements enable us to use if ? else statement inside an outer if statement.
Statement

Indentation in Python
For the ease of programming and to achieve simplicity, python doesn't allow the use of parentheses for the block level code. In
Python, indentation is used to declare a block. If two statements are at the same indentation level, then they are the part of the
same block.

Generally, four spaces are given to indent the statements which are a typical amount of indentation in python.

Indentation is the most used part of the python language since it declares the block of code. All the statements of one block are
intended at the same level indentation. We will see how the actual indentation takes place in decision making and other stuff in
python.

The if statement
The if statement is used to test a particular condition and if the condition is true, it executes a block of code known as if-block.
The condition of if statement can be any valid logical expression which can be either evaluated to true or false.
 The syntax of the if-statement is given below.

1. if expression:
2. statement
Example 1
1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even")

Output:

enter the number?10

Number is even

Example 2 : Program to print the largest of the three numbers.

1. a = int(input("Enter a? "));
2. b = int(input("Enter b? "));
3. c = int(input("Enter c? "));
4. if a>b and a>c:
5. print("a is largest");
6. if b>a and b>c:
7. print("b is largest");
8. if c>a and c>b:
9. print("c is largest");

Output:

Enter a? 100
Enter b? 120
Enter c? 130
c is largest
The if-else statement
The if-else statement provides an else block combined with the if statement which is executed in the false case of the condition.

If the condition is true, then the if-block is executed. Otherwise, the else-block is executed.
 The syntax of the if-else statement is given below.

1. if condition:
2. #block of statements
3. else:
4. #another block of statements (else-block)
Example 1 : Program to check whether a person is eligible to vote or not.
1. age = int (input("Enter your age? "))
2. if age>=18:
3. print("You are eligible to vote !!");
4. else:
5. print("Sorry! you have to wait !!");

Output:

Enter your age? 90

You are eligible to vote !!

Example 2: Program to check whether a number is even or not.

1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even...")
4. else:
5. print("Number is odd...")

Output:

enter the number?10

 Number is even

The elif statement

The elif statement enables us to check multiple conditions and execute the specific block of statements depending upon the true
condition among them. We can have any number of elif statements in our program depending upon our need. However, using
elif is optional.

The elif statement works like an if-else-if ladder statement in C. It must be succeeded by an if statement.

The syntax of the elif statement is given below.

1. if expression 1:
2. # block of statements
3.
4. elif expression 2:
5. # block of statements
6.
7. elif expression 3:
8. # block of statements
9.
10. else:
11. # block of statements
 Example 1
1. number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
2. if number==10:
3. print("number is equals to 10")
4. elif number==50:
5. print("number is equal to 50");
6. elif number==100:
7. print("number is equal to 100");
8. else:
9. print("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");

Output:

Enter the number?15

number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100

Example 2
1. marks = int(input("Enter the marks? "))
2. if marks > 85 and marks <= 100:
3. print("Congrats ! you scored grade A ...")
4. elif marks > 60 and marks <= 85:
5. print("You scored grade B + ...")
6. elif marks > 40 and marks <= 60:
7. print("You scored grade B ...")
elif (marks > 30 and marks <= 40):
8. print("You scored grade C ...")
9. else:
10. print("Sorry you are fail ?")
Python Loops
The flow of the programs written in any programming language is sequential by default. Sometimes we may need to alter the
flow of the program. The execution of a specific code may need to be repeated several numbers of times.

For this purpose, The programming languages provide various types of loops which are capable of repeating some specific code
several numbers of times. Consider the following diagram to understand the working of a loop statement.
Why we use loops in python?
The looping simplifies the complex problems into the easy ones. It enables us to alter the flow of the program so that instead of
writing the same code again and again, we can repeat the same code for a finite number of times. For example, if we need to
print the first 10 natural numbers then, instead of using the print statement 10 times, we can print inside a loop which runs up
to 10 iterations.

Advantages of loops
There are the following advantages of loops in Python.

1. It provides code re-usability.

2. Using loops, we do not need to write the same code again and again.
3. Using loops, we can traverse over the elements of data structures (array or linked lists).

There are the following loop statements in Python.

Loop Description
Statement

for loop The for loop is used in the case where we need to execute some part of the code until the given condition
is satisfied. The for loop is also called as a per-tested loop. It is better to use for loop if the number of
iteration is known in advance.

while loop The while loop is to be used in the scenario where we don't know the number of iterations in advance. The
block of statements is executed in the while loop until the condition specified in the while loop is satisfied.
It is also called a pre-tested loop.
 do-while The do-while loop continues until a given condition satisfies. It is also called post tested loop. It is used
loop when it is necessary to execute the loop at least once (mostly menu driven programs).

Python for loop

The for loop in Python is used to iterate the statements or a part of the program several times. It is frequently used to
traverse the data structures like list, tuple, or dictionary.

The syntax of for loop in python is given below.

1. for iterating_var in sequence:

2. statement(s)
 Example
1. i=1
2. n=int(input("Enter the number up to which you want to print the natural numbers?"))
3. for i in range(0,10):
4. print(i,end = ' ')

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Python for loop example : printing the table of the given number
1. i=1;
2. num = int(input("Enter a number:"));
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. print("%d X %d = %d"%(num,i,num*i));

Output:

Enter a number:10
10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100
 Nested for loop in python
Python allows us to nest any number of for loops inside a for loop. The inner loop is executed n number of times for every
iteration of the outer loop. The syntax of the nested for loop in python is given below.

1. for iterating_var1 in sequence:

2. for iterating_var2 in sequence:
3. #block of statements
4. #Other statements

Example 1
1. n = int(input("Enter the number of rows you want to print?"))
2. i,j=0,0
3. for i in range(0,n):
4. print()
5. for j in range(0,i+1):
6. print("*",end="")

Output:

Enter the number of rows you want to print?5

*
**
***
****
*****

Using else statement with for loop

 Unlike other languages like C, C++, or Java, python allows us to use the else statement with the for loop which can be
executed only when all the iterations are exhausted. Here, we must notice that if the loop contains any of the break statement
then the else statement will not be executed.

Example 1
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. else:print("for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.");

In the above example, for loop is executed completely since there is no break statement in the loop. The control comes out of
the loop and hence the else block is executed.

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.

Example 2
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. break;
4. else:print("for loop is exhausted");
5. print("The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop")
 In the above example, the loop is broken due to break statement therefore the else statement will not be executed. The
statement present immediate next to else block will be executed.

Output:

The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop

Python while loop

The while loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part of the code to be executed as long as
the given condition is true.

It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the case where the number of iterations is not
known in advance.

The syntax is given below.

1. while expression:
2. statements

Here, the statements can be a single statement or the group of statements. The expression should be any valid python
expression resulting into true or false. The true is any non-zero value.
 Example 1
1. i=1;
2. while i<=10:
3. print(i);
4. i=i+1;

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Example 2
1. i=1
2. number=0
3. b=9
4. number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
5. while i<=10:
6. print("%d X %d = %d \n"%(number,i,number*i));
7. i = i+1;

Output:
 Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10

10 X 2 = 20

10 X 3 = 30

10 X 4 = 40

10 X 5 = 50

10 X 6 = 60

10 X 7 = 70

10 X 8 = 80

10 X 9 = 90

10 X 10 = 100

Infinite while loop

If the condition given in the while loop never becomes false then the while loop will never terminate and result into the infinite
while loop.

Any non-zero value in the while loop indicates an always-true condition whereas 0 indicates the always-false condition. This
type of approach is useful if we want our program to run continuously in the loop without any disturbance.

Example 1
1. while (1):
2. print("Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop");
 Output:

Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop

(infinite times)

Example 2
1. var = 1
2. while var != 2:
3. i = int(input("Enter the number?"))
4. print ("Entered value is %d"%(i))

Output:

Enter the number?102

Entered value is 102

fdas
Enter the number?102
Entered value is 102
Enter the number?103
Entered value is 103
Enter the number?103
(infinite loop)

Using else with Python while loop

Python enables us to use the while loop with the while loop also. The else block is executed when the condition given in the
while statement becomes false. Like for loop, if the while loop is broken using break statement, then the else block will not be
executed and the statement present after else block will be executed.

Consider the following example.

1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
The while loop exhausted

Example 2
1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. if(i==3):
6. break;
7. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2

Python break statement

 The break is a keyword in python which is used to bring the program control out of the loop. The break statement breaks the
loops one by one, i.e., in the case of nested loops, it breaks the inner loop first and then proceeds to outer loops. In other
words, we can say that break is used to abort the current execution of the program and the control goes to the next line after
the loop.

The break is commonly used in the cases where we need to break the loop for a given condition.

The syntax of the break is given below.

1. #loop statements
2. break;

Example 1
1. list =[1,2,3,4]
2. count = 1;
3. for i in list:
4. if i == 4:
5. print("item matched")
6. count = count + 1;
7. break
8. print("found at",count,"location");

Output:

item matched
found at 2 location

Example 2
1. str = "python"
2. for i in str:
3. if i == 'o':
4. break
5. print(i);

Output:

p
y
t
h

Example 3: break statement with while loop

1. i = 0;
2. while 1:
3. print(i," ",end=""),
4. i=i+1;
5. if i == 10:
6. break;
7. print("came out of while loop");

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 came out of while loop

Example 3
1. n=2
2. while 1:
3. i=1;
4. while i<=10:
5. print("%d X %d = %d\n"%(n,i,n*i));
6. i = i+1;
7. choice = int(input("Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?"))
8. if choice == 0:
9. break;
10. n=n+1

Output:

2 X 1 = 2

2 X 2 = 4

2 X 3 = 6

2 X 4 = 8

2 X 5 = 10

2 X 6 = 12

2 X 7 = 14

2 X 8 = 16

2 X 9 = 18

2 X 10 = 20

Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?1

3 X 1 = 3

3 X 2 = 6
 3 X 3 = 9

3 X 4 = 12

3 X 5 = 15

3 X 6 = 18

3 X 7 = 21

3 X 8 = 24

3 X 9 = 27

3 X 10 = 30

Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?0

Python continue Statement

The continue statement in python is used to bring the program control to the beginning of the loop. The continue statement
skips the remaining lines of code inside the loop and start with the next iteration. It is mainly used for a particular condition
inside the loop so that we can skip some specific code for a particular condition.

The syntax of Python continue statement is given below.

1. #loop statements
2. continue;
3. #the code to be skipped

Example 1
1. i = 0;
2. while i!=10:
3. print("%d"%i);
4. continue;
5. i=i+1;

Output:

infinite loop

Example 2
1. i=1; #initializing a local variable
2. #starting a loop from 1 to 10
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. if i==5:
5. continue;
6. print("%d"%i);

Output:

1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10

Pass Statement
 The pass statement is a null operation since nothing happens when it is executed. It is used in the cases where a statement is
syntactically needed but we don?t want to use any executable statement at its place.

For example, it can be used while overriding a parent class method in the subclass but don't want to give its specific
implementation in the subclass.

Pass is also used where the code will be written somewhere but not yet written in the program file.

The syntax of the pass statement is given below.

Example
1. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
2. flag = 0
3. for i in list:
4. print("Current element:",i,end=" ");
5. if i==3:
6. pass;
7. print("\nWe are inside pass block\n");
8. flag = 1;
9. if flag==1:
10. print("\nCame out of pass\n");
11. flag=0;

Output:

Current element: 1 Current element: 2 Current element: 3

We are inside pass block

Came out of pass

 Current element: 4 Current element: 5

Python Pass
In Python, pass keyword is used to execute nothing; it means, when we don't want to execute code, the pass can be used to
execute empty. It is same as the name refers to. It just makes the control to pass by without executing any code. If we want to
bypass any code pass statement can be used.

Python Pass Syntax

1. pass

Python Pass Example

1. for i in [1,2,3,4,5]:
2. if i==3:
3. pass
4. print "Pass when value is",i
5. print i,

Output:

1. >>>
2. 1 2 Pass when value is 3
3. 3 4 5
4. >>>
next →← prev

Python String
 Till now, we have discussed numbers as the standard data types in python. In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss the
most popular data type in python i.e., string.

In python, strings can be created by enclosing the character or the sequence of characters in the quotes. Python allows us to
use single quotes, double quotes, or triple quotes to create the string.

Consider the following example in python to create a string.

1. str = "Hi Python !"

Here, if we check the type of the variable str using a python script

1. print(type(str)), then it will print string (str).

In python, strings are treated as the sequence of strings which means that python doesn't support the character data type
instead a single character written as 'p' is treated as the string of length 1.

Strings indexing and splitting

Like other languages, the indexing of the python strings starts from 0. For example, The string "HELLO" is indexed as given
in the below figure.
As shown in python, the slice operator [] is used to access the individual characters of the string. However, we can use the :
(colon) operator in python to access the substring. Consider the following example.
Here, we must notice that the upper range given in the slice operator is always exclusive i.e., if str = 'python' is given, then
str[1:3] will always include str[1] = 'p', str[2] = 'y', str[3] = 't' and nothing else.
 Reassigning strings
Updating the content of the strings is as easy as assigning it to a new string. The string object doesn't support item
assignment i.e., A string can only be replaced with a new string since its content can not be partially replaced. Strings are
immutable in python.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. str = "HELLO"
2. str[0] = "h"
3. print(str)

Output:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "[Link]", line 2, in <module>
str[0] = "h";
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

However, in example 1, the string str can be completely assigned to a new content as specified in the following example.

Example 2
1. str = "HELLO"
2. print(str)
3. str = "hello"
4. print(str)

Output:

HELLO
hello

String Operators

Operator Description

+ It is known as concatenation operator used to join the strings given either side of the operator.

* It is known as repetition operator. It concatenates the multiple copies of the same string.

[] It is known as slice operator. It is used to access the sub-strings of a particular string.

[:] It is known as range slice operator. It is used to access the characters from the specified range.

In It is known as membership operator. It returns if a particular sub-string is pr t esent in he specified string.

 not in It is also a membership operator and does the exact reverse of in. It returns true if a particular substring is
not present in the specified string.

r/R It is used to specify the raw string. Raw strings are used in the cases where we need to print the actual
meaning of escape characters such as "C://python". To define any string as a raw string, the character r or R
is followed by the string.

% It is used to perform string formatting. It makes use of the format specifiers used in C programming like %d
or %f to map their values in python. We will discuss how formatting is done in python.

Example

Consider the following example to understand the real use of Python operators.

1. str = "Hello"
2. str1 = " world"
3. print(str*3) # prints HelloHelloHello
4. print(str+str1)# prints Hello world
5. print(str[4]) # prints o
6. print(str[2:4]); # prints ll
7. print('w' in str) # prints false as w is not present in str
8. print('wo' not in str1) # prints false as wo is present in str1.
9. print(r'C://python37') # prints C://python37 as it is written
10. print("The string str : %s"%(str)) # prints The string str : Hello

Output:
 HelloHelloHello
Hello world
o
ll
False
False
C://python37
The string str : Hello

Python Formatting operator

Python allows us to use the format specifiers used in C's printf statement. The format specifiers in python are treated in the
same way as they are treated in C. However, Python provides an additional operator % which is used as an interface
between the format specifiers and their values. In other words, we can say that it binds the format specifiers to the values.

Consider the following example.

1. Integer = 10;
2. Float = 1.290
3. String = "Ayush"
4. print("Hi I am Integer ... My value is %d\nHi I am float ... My value is %f\nHi I am string ... My value is %s"%(Integer,Floa
t,String));

Output:

Hi I am Integer ... My value is 10

Hi I am float ... My value is 1.290000
Hi I am string ... My value is Ayush

Built-in String functions

Python provides various in-built functions that are used for string handling. Many String fun

Method Description

capitalize() It capitalizes the first character of the String. This function is deprecated in
python3

casefold() It returns a version of s suitable for case-less comparisons.

center(width ,fillchar) It returns a space padded string with the original string centred with equal
number of left and right spaces.

count(string,begin,end) It counts the number of occurrences of a substring in a String between

begin and end index.

decode(encoding = 'UTF8', errors = Decodes the string using codec registered for encoding.
'strict')
encode() Encode S using the codec registered for encoding. Default encoding is 'utf-
8'.

endswith(suffix ,begin=0,end=len(string)) It returns a Boolean value if the string terminates with given suffix
between begin and end.

expandtabs(tabsize = 8) It defines tabs in string to multiple spaces. The default space value is 8.

find(substring ,beginIndex, endIndex) It returns the index value of the string where substring is found between
begin index and end index.

format(value) It returns a formatted version of S, using the passed value.

index(subsring, beginIndex, endIndex) It throws an exception if string is not found. It works same as find()
method.

isalnum() It returns true if the characters in the string are alphanumeric i.e.,
alphabets or numbers and there is at least 1 character. Otherwise, it
returns false.

isalpha() It returns true if all the characters are alphabets and there is at least one
character, otherwise False.
isdecimal() It returns true if all the characters of the string are decimals.

isdigit() It returns true if all the characters are digits and there is at least one
character, otherwise False.

isidentifier() It returns true if the string is the valid identifier.

islower() It returns true if the characters of a string are in lower case, otherwise
false.

isnumeric() It returns true if the string contains only numeric characters.

isprintable() It returns true if all the characters of s are printable or s is empty, false
otherwise.

isupper() It returns false if characters of a string are in Upper case, otherwise False.

isspace() It returns true if the characters of a string are white-space, otherwise false.

istitle() It returns true if the string is titled properly and false otherwise. A title
string is the one in which the first character is upper-case whereas the
other characters are lower-case.
isupper() It returns true if all the characters of the string(if exists) is true otherwise
it returns false.

join(seq) It merges the strings representation of the given sequence.

len(string) It returns the length of a string.

ljust(width[,fillchar]) It returns the space padded strings with the original string left justified to
the given width.

lower() It converts all the characters of a string to Lower case.

lstrip() It removes all leading whitespaces of a string and can also be used to
remove particular character from leading.

partition() It searches for the separator sep in S, and returns the part before it, the
separator itself, and the part after it. If the separator is not found, return S
and two empty strings.

maketrans() It returns a translation table to be used in translate function.

replace(old,new[,count]) It replaces the old sequence of characters with the new sequence. The max
characters are replaced if max is given.
rfind(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is similar to find but it traverses the string in backward direction.

rindex(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is same as index but it traverses the string in backward direction.

rjust(width,[,fillchar]) Returns a space padded string having original string right justified to the
number of characters specified.

rstrip() It removes all trailing whitespace of a string and can also be used to
remove particular character from trailing.

rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit = -1) It is same as split() but it processes the string from the backward direction.
It returns the list of words in the string. If Separator is not specified then
the string splits according to the white-space.

split(str,num=[Link](str)) Splits the string according to the delimiter str. The string splits according to
the space if the delimiter is not provided. It returns the list of substring
concatenated with the delimiter.

splitlines(num=[Link]('\n')) It returns the list of strings at each line with newline removed.

startswith(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It returns a Boolean value if the string starts with given str between begin
and end.
 strip([chars]) It is used to perform lstrip() and rstrip() on the string.

swapcase() It inverts case of all characters in a string.

title() It is used to convert the string into the title-case i.e., The
string meEruT will be converted to Meerut.

translate(table,deletechars = '') It translates the string according to the translation table passed in the
function .

upper() It converts all the characters of a string to Upper Case.

zfill(width) Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a total of width characters;
intended for numbers, zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero).

rpartition()

Python List
List in python is implemented to store the sequence of various type of data. However, python contains six data types that are
capable to store the sequences but the most common and reliable type is list.

A list can be defined as a collection of values or items of different types. The items in the list are separated with the comma (,)
and enclosed with the square brackets [].
 A list can be defined as follows.

1. L1 = ["John", 102, "USA"]

2. L2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
3. L3 = [1, "Ryan"]

If we try to print the type of L1, L2, and L3 then it will come out to be a list.

Lets consider a proper example to define a list and printing its values.

1. emp = ["John", 102, "USA"]

2. Dep1 = ["CS",10];
3. Dep2 = ["IT",11];
4. HOD_CS = [10,"Mr. Holding"]
5. HOD_IT = [11, "Mr. Bewon"]
6. print("printing employee data...");
7. print("Name : %s, ID: %d, Country: %s"%(emp[0],emp[1],emp[2]))
8. print("printing departments...");
9. print("Department 1:\nName: %s, ID: %d\nDepartment 2:\nName: %s, ID: %s"%(Dep1[0],Dep1[1],Dep2[0],Dep2[1]));
10. print("HOD Details ....");
11. print("CS HOD Name: %s, Id: %d"%(HOD_CS[1],HOD_CS[0]));
12. print("IT HOD Name: %s, Id: %d"%(HOD_IT[1],HOD_IT[0]));
13. print(type(emp),type(Dep1),type(Dep2),type(HOD_CS),type(HOD_IT));

Output:

printing employee data...

Name : John, ID: 102, Country: USA
printing departments...
Department 1:
Name: CS, ID: 11
Department 2:
Name: IT, ID: 11
HOD Details ....
CS HOD Name: Mr. Holding, Id: 10
IT HOD Name: Mr. Bewon, Id: 11
<class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'>

List indexing and splitting

The indexing are processed in the same way as it happens with the strings. The elements of the list can be accessed by using
the slice operator [].

The index starts from 0 and goes to length - 1. The first element of the list is stored at the 0th index, the second element of the
list is stored at the 1st index, and so on.

Consider the following example.

Unlike other languages, python provides us the flexibility to use the negative indexing also. The negative indices are counted
from the right. The last element (right most) of the list has the index -1, its adjacent left element is present at the index -2 and
so on until the left most element is encountered.
 Updating List values
Lists are the most versatile data structures in python since they are immutable and their values can be updated by using the
slice and assignment operator.

Python also provide us the append() method which can be used to add values to the string.

Consider the following example to update the values inside the list.

1. List = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
2. print(List)
3. List[2] = 10;
4. print(List)
5. List[1:3] = [89, 78]
6. print(List)

Output:

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
[1, 2, 10, 4, 5, 6]
 [1, 89, 78, 4, 5, 6]

The list elements can also be deleted by using the del keyword. Python also provides us the remove() method if we do not
know which element is to be deleted from the list.

Consider the following example to delete the list elements.

1. List = [0,1,2,3,4]
2. print(List)
3. del List[0]
4. print(List)
5. del List[3]
6. print(List)

Output:

[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3]

Python List Operations

The concatenation (+) and repetition (*) operator work in the same way as they were working with the strings.

Lets see how the list responds to various operators.

1. Consider a List l1 = [1, 2, 3, 4], and l2 = [5, 6, 7, 8]

Operator Description Example

 Repetition The repetition operator enables the list elements to be repeated L1*2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2,
multiple times. 3, 4]

Concatenation It concatenates the list mentioned on either side of the operator. l1+l2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8]

Membership It returns true if a particular item exists in a particular list print(2 in l1) prints
otherwise false. True.

Iteration The for loop is used to iterate over the list elements. for i in l1:
print(i)
Output

1
2
3
4

Length It is used to get the length of the list len(l1) = 4

Iterating a List
A list can be iterated by using a for - in loop. A simple list containing four strings can be iterated as follows.

1. List = ["John", "David", "James", "Jonathan"]

2. for i in List: #i will iterate over the elements of the List and contains each element in each iteration.
3. print(i);

Output:

John
David
James
Jonathan

Adding elements to the list

Python provides append() function by using which we can add an element to the list. However, the append() method can only
add the value to the end of the list.

Consider the following example in which, we are taking the elements of the list from the user and printing the list on the
console.

1. l =[];
2. n = int(input("Enter the number of elements in the list")); #Number of elements will be entered by the user
3. for i in range(0,n): # for loop to take the input
4. [Link](input("Enter the item?")); # The input is taken from the user and added to the list as the item
5. print("printing the list items....");
6. for i in l: # traversal loop to print the list items
7. print(i, end = " ");

Output:

Enter the number of elements in the list 5

Enter the item?1
Enter the item?2
Enter the item?3
Enter the item?4
Enter the item?5
 printing the list items....
1 2 3 4 5

Removing elements from the list

1. List = [0,1,2,3,4]
2. print("printing original list: ");
3. for i in List:
4. print(i,end=" ")
5. [Link](0)
6. print("\nprinting the list after the removal of first element...")
7. for i in List:
8. print(i,end=" ")

Output:

printing original list:

0 1 2 3 4
printing the list after the removal of first element...
1 2 3 4

Python List Built-in functions

Python provides the following built-in functions which can be used with the lists.

SN Function Description

1 cmp(list1, list2) It compares the elements of both the lists.

 2 len(list) It is used to calculate the length of the list.

3 max(list) It returns the maximum element of the list.

4 min(list) It returns the minimum element of the list.

5 list(seq) It converts any sequence to the list.

Python List built-in methods

SN Function Description

1 [Link](obj) The element represented by the object obj is added to the list.

2 [Link]() It removes all the elements from the list.

3 [Link]() It returns a shallow copy of the list.

4 [Link](obj) It returns the number of occurrences of the specified object in the list.

5 [Link](seq) The sequence represented by the object seq is extended to the list.
 6 [Link](obj) It returns the lowest index in the list that object appears.

7 [Link](index, obj) The object is inserted into the list at the specified index.

8 [Link](obj=list[-1]) It removes and returns the last object of the list.

9 [Link](obj) It removes the specified object from the list.

10 [Link]() It reverses the list.

11 [Link]([func]) It sorts the list by using the specified compare function if given.

Python Tuple
Python Tuple is used to store the sequence of immutable python objects. Tuple is similar to lists since the value of the items
stored in the list can be changed whereas the tuple is immutable and the value of the items stored in the tuple can not be
changed.

A tuple can be written as the collection of comma-separated values enclosed with the small brackets. A tuple can be defined as
follows.

1. T1 = (101, "Ayush", 22)

2. T2 = ("Apple", "Banana", "Orange")

Example
1. tuple1 = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)
2. print(tuple1)
3. count = 0
4. for i in tuple1:
5. print("tuple1[%d] = %d"%(count, i));

Output:

(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)

tuple1[0] = 10
tuple1[0] = 20
tuple1[0] = 30
tuple1[0] = 40
tuple1[0] = 50
tuple1[0] = 60

Example 2
1. tuple1 = tuple(input("Enter the tuple elements ..."))
2. print(tuple1)
3. count = 0
4. for i in tuple1:
5. print("tuple1[%d] = %s"%(count, i));

Output:

Enter the tuple elements ...12345

('1', '2', '3', '4', '5')
tuple1[0] = 1
tuple1[0] = 2
tuple1[0] = 3
tuple1[0] = 4
tuple1[0] = 5
 However, if we try to reassign the items of a tuple, we would get an error as the tuple object doesn't support the item
assignment.

An empty tuple can be written as follows.

1. T3 = ()

The tuple having a single value must include a comma as given below.

1. T4 = (90,)

A tuple is indexed in the same way as the lists. The items in the tuple can be accessed by using their specific index value.

We will see all these aspects of tuple in this section of the tutorial.

Tuple indexing and splitting

The indexing and slicing in tuple are similar to lists. The indexing in the tuple starts from 0 and goes to length(tuple) - 1.

The items in the tuple can be accessed by using the slice operator. Python also allows us to use the colon operator to access
multiple items in the tuple.

Consider the following image to understand the indexing and slicing in detail.
 Unlike lists, the tuple items can not be deleted by using the del keyword as tuples are immutable. To delete an entire tuple, we
can use the del keyword with the tuple name.

Consider the following example.

1. tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
2. print(tuple1)
3. del tuple1[0]
4. print(tuple1)
5. del tuple1
6. print(tuple1)

Output:

(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "[Link]", line 4, in <module>
print(tuple1)
NameError: name 'tuple1' is not defined

Like lists, the tuple elements can be accessed in both the directions. The right most element (last) of the tuple can be accessed
by using the index -1. The elements from left to right are traversed using the negative indexing.

Consider the following example.

1. tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
2. print(tuple1[-1])
3. print(tuple1[-4])

Output:

5
2

Basic Tuple operations

The operators like concatenation (+), repetition (*), Membership (in) works in the same way as they work with the list.
Consider the following table for more detail.

Let's say Tuple t = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and Tuple t1 = (6, 7, 8, 9) are declared.

 Operator Description Example

Repetition The repetition operator enables the tuple elements to be T1*2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2,
repeated multiple times. 3, 4, 5)

Concatenation It concatenates the tuple mentioned on either side of the T1+T2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
operator. 8, 9)

Membership It returns true if a particular item exists in the tuple otherwise print (2 in T1) prints True.
false.

Iteration The for loop is used to iterate over the tuple elements. for i in T1:
print(i)
Output

1
2
3
4
5

Length It is used to get the length of the tuple. len(T1) = 5

Python Tuple inbuilt functions

 SN Function Description

1 cmp(tuple1, tuple2) It compares two tuples and returns true if tuple1 is greater than tuple2 otherwise false.

2 len(tuple) It calculates the length of the tuple.

3 max(tuple) It returns the maximum element of the tuple.

4 min(tuple) It returns the minimum element of the tuple.

5 tuple(seq) It converts the specified sequence to the tuple.

Where use tuple

Using tuple instead of list is used in the following scenario.

1. Using tuple instead of list gives us a clear idea that tuple data is constant and must not be changed.

2. Tuple can simulate dictionary without keys. Consider the following nested structure which can be used as a dictionary.

1. [(101, "John", 22), (102, "Mike", 28), (103, "Dustin", 30)]

3. Tuple can be used as the key inside dictionary due to its immutable nature.

List VS Tuple
 SN List Tuple

1 The literal syntax of list is shown by the []. The literal syntax of the tuple is shown by the ().

2 The List is mutable. The tuple is immutable.

3 The List has the variable length. The tuple has the fixed length.

4 The list provides more functionality than tuple. The tuple provides less functionality than the list.

5 The list Is used in the scenario in which we need to The tuple is used in the cases where we need to store the
store the simple collections with no constraints read-only collections i.e., the value of the items can not be
where the value of the items can be changed. changed. It can be used as the key inside the dictionary.

Nesting List and tuple

We can store list inside tuple or tuple inside the list up to any number of level.

Lets see an example of how can we store the tuple inside the list.

1. Employees = [(101, "Ayush", 22), (102, "john", 29), (103, "james", 45), (104, "Ben", 34)]
2. print("----Printing list----");
3. for i in Employees:
4. print(i)
5. Employees[0] = (110, "David",22)
6. print();
7. print("----Printing list after modification----");
8. for i in Employees:
9. print(i)

Output:

----Printing list----
(101, 'Ayush', 22)
(102, 'john', 29)
(103, 'james', 45)
(104, 'Ben', 34)

----Printing list after modification----

(110, 'David', 22)

(102, 'john', 29)
(103, 'james', 45)
(104, 'Ben', 34)

Python Set
The set in python can be defined as the unordered collection of various items enclosed within the curly braces. The elements of
the set can not be duplicate. The elements of the python set must be immutable.

Unlike other collections in python, there is no index attached to the elements of the set, i.e., we cannot directly access any
element of the set by the index. However, we can print them all together or we can get the list of elements by looping through
the set.

Creating a set
The set can be created by enclosing the comma separated items with the curly braces. Python also provides the set method
which can be used to create the set by the passed sequence.
 Example 1: using curly braces
1. Days = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday"}
2. print(Days)
3. print(type(Days))
4. print("looping through the set elements ... ")
5. for i in Days:
6. print(i)

Output:

{'Friday', 'Tuesday', 'Monday', 'Saturday', 'Thursday', 'Sunday', 'Wednesday'}

<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Tuesday
Monday
Saturday
Thursday
Sunday
Wednesday

Example 2: using set() method

1. Days = set(["Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday"])
2. print(Days)
3. print(type(Days))
4. print("looping through the set elements ... ")
5. for i in Days:
6. print(i)

Output:
 {'Friday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Saturday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Sunday'}
<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Wednesday
Thursday
Saturday
Monday
Tuesday
Sunday

Python Set operations

In the previous example, we have discussed about how the set is created in python. However, we can perform various
mathematical operations on python sets like union, intersection, difference, etc.

Adding items to the set

Python provides the add() method which can be used to add some particular item to the set. Consider the following example.

Example:
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nAdding other months to the set...");
5. [Link]("July");
6. [Link]("August");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)
9. print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
10. for i in Months:
11. print(i)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'June', 'January'}

Adding other months to the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'July', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'August', 'June', 'January'}

looping through the set elements ...

February
July
May
April
March
August
June
January

To add more than one item in the set, Python provides the update() method.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nupdating the original set ... ")
5. [Link](["July","August","September","October"]);
6. print("\nprinting the modified set ... ")
7. print(Months);

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'January', 'February', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'March'}

updating the original set ...

printing the modified set ...

{'January', 'February', 'April', 'August', 'October', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'September', 'March'}

Removing items from the set

Python provides discard() method which can be used to remove the items from the set.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. [Link]("January");
6. [Link]("May");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)
9. print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
10. for i in Months:
11. print(i)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'January', 'March', 'April', 'June', 'May'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'March', 'April', 'June'}

looping through the set elements ...

February
March
April
June

Python also provide the remove() method to remove the items from the set. Consider the following example to remove the
items using remove() method.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. [Link]("January");
6. [Link]("May");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)

Output:
 printing the original set ...
{'February', 'June', 'April', 'May', 'January', 'March'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'June', 'April', 'March'}

We can also use the pop() method to remove the item. However, this method will always remove the last item.

Consider the following example to remove the last item from the set.

1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])

2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. [Link]();
6. [Link]();
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'June', 'January', 'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}

Python provides the clear() method to remove all the items from the set.

Consider the following example.

1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving all the items from the set...");
5. [Link]()
6. print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
7. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'January', 'May', 'June', 'April', 'March', 'February'}

Removing all the items from the set...

Printing the modified set...

set()

Difference between discard() and remove()

Despite the fact that discard() and remove() method both perform the same task, There is one main difference between
discard() and remove().

If the key to be deleted from the set using discard() doesn't exist in the set, the python will not give the error. The program
maintains its control flow.

On the other hand, if the item to be deleted from the set using remove() doesn't exist in the set, the python will give the error.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving items through discard() method...");
5. [Link]("Feb"); #will not give an error although the key feb is not available in the set
6. print("\nprinting the modified set...")
7. print(Months)
8. print("\nRemoving items through remove() method...");
9. [Link]("Jan") #will give an error as the key jan is not available in the set.
10. print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
11. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}

Removing items through discard() method...

printing the modified set...

{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}

Removing items through remove() method...

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "[Link]", line 9, in
[Link]("Jan")
KeyError: 'Jan'

Union of two Sets

The union of two sets are calculated by using the or (|) operator. The union of the two sets contains the all the items that are
present in both the sets.
 Consider the following example to calculate the union of two sets.

Example 1 : using union | operator

1. Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
3. print(Days1|Days2) #printing the union of the sets

Output:

{'Friday', 'Sunday', 'Saturday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Monday', 'Thursday'}

Python also provides the union() method which can also be used to calculate the union of two sets. Consider the following
example.

Example 2: using union() method

1. Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
3. print([Link](Days2)) #printing the union of the sets

Output:

{'Friday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Thursday', 'Wednesday', 'Sunday', 'Saturday'}

Intersection of two sets

The & (intersection) operator is used to calculate the intersection of the two sets in python. The intersection of the two sets are
given as the set of the elements that common in both sets.

Consider the following example.

 Example 1: using & operator
1. set1 = {"Ayush","John", "David", "Martin"}
2. set2 = {"Steve","Milan","David", "Martin"}
3. print(set1&set2) #prints the intersection of the two sets

Output:

{'Martin', 'David'}

Example 2: using intersection() method

1. set1 = {"Ayush","John", "David", "Martin"}
2. set2 = {"Steave","Milan","David", "Martin"}
3. print([Link](set2)) #prints the intersection of the two sets

Output:

{'Martin', 'David'}

The intersection_update() method

The intersection_update() method removes the items from the original set that are not present in both the sets (all the sets if
more than one are specified).

The Intersection_update() method is different from intersection() method since it modifies the original set by removing the
unwanted items, on the other hand, intersection() method returns a new set.

Consider the following example.

1. a = {"ayush", "bob", "castle"}

2. b = {"castle", "dude", "emyway"}
3. c = {"fuson", "gaurav", "castle"}
4.
5. a.intersection_update(b, c)
6.
7. print(a)

Output:

{'castle'}

Difference of two sets

The difference of two sets can be calculated by using the subtraction (-) operator. The resulting set will be obtained by
removing all the elements from set 1 that are present in set 2.

Consider the following example.

Example 1 : using subtraction ( - ) operator

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
3. print(Days1-Days2) #{"Wednesday", "Thursday" will be printed}

Output:

{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}

Example 2 : using difference() method

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
3. print([Link](Days2)) # prints the difference of the two sets Days1 and Days2

Output:

{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}

Set comparisons
Python allows us to use the comparison operators i.e., <, >, <=, >= , == with the sets by using which we can check whether a
set is subset, superset, or equivalent to other set. The boolean true or false is returned depending upon the items present
inside the sets.

Consider the following example.

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}

2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday"}
3. Days3 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Friday"}
4.
5. #Days1 is the superset of Days2 hence it will print true.
6. print (Days1>Days2)
7.
8. #prints false since Days1 is not the subset of Days2
9. print (Days1<Days2)
10.
11. #prints false since Days2 and Days3 are not equivalent
12. print (Days2 == Days3)
 Output:

True
False
False

FrozenSets
The frozen sets are the immutable form of the normal sets, i.e., the items of the frozen set can not be changed and therefore it
can be used as a key in dictionary.

The elements of the frozen set can not be changed after the creation. We cannot change or append the content of the frozen
sets by using the methods like add() or remove().

The frozenset() method is used to create the frozenset object. The iterable sequence is passed into this method which is
converted into the frozen set as a return type of the method.

Consider the following example to create the frozen set.

1. Frozenset = frozenset([1,2,3,4,5])
2. print(type(Frozenset))
3. print("\nprinting the content of frozen set...")
4. for i in Frozenset:
5. print(i);
6. [Link](6) #gives an error since we cannot change the content of Frozenset after creation

Output:

<class 'frozenset'>

printing the content of frozen set...

1
 2
3
4
5
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "[Link]", line 6, in <module>
[Link](6) #gives an error since we can change the content of Frozenset after creation
AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'

Frozenset for the dictionary

If we pass the dictionary as the sequence inside the frozenset() method, it will take only the keys from the dictionary and
returns a frozenset that contains the key of the dictionary as its elements.

Consider the following example.

1. Dictionary = {"Name":"John", "Country":"USA", "ID":101}

2. print(type(Dictionary))
3. Frozenset = frozenset(Dictionary); #Frozenset will contain the keys of the dictionary
4. print(type(Frozenset))
5. for i in Frozenset:
6. print(i)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
<class 'frozenset'>
Name
Country
ID

Python Built-in set methods

Python contains the following methods to be used with the sets.

SN Method Description

add(item)
1 It adds an item to the set. It has no effect if the
item is already present in the set.

2 clear() It deletes all the items from the set.

3 copy() It returns a shallow copy of the set.

4 difference_update(....) It modifies this set by removing all the items

that are also present in the specified sets.

5 discard(item) It removes the specified item from the set.

6 intersection() It returns a new set that contains only the

common elements of both the sets. (all the sets
if more than two are specified).

7 intersection_update(....) It removes the items from the original set that

are not present in both the sets (all the sets if
more than one are specified).
8 Isdisjoint(....) Return True if two sets have a null intersection.

9 Issubset(....) Report whether another set contains this set.

10 Issuperset(....) Report whether this set contains another set.

11 pop() Remove and return an arbitrary set element that

is the last element of the set. Raises KeyError if
the set is empty.

12 remove(item) Remove an element from a set; it must be a

member. If the element is not a member, raise a
KeyError.

13 symmetric_difference(....) Remove an element from a set; it must be a

member. If the element is not a member, raise a
KeyError.

14 symmetric_difference_update(....) Update a set with the symmetric difference of

itself and another.

15 union(....) Return the union of sets as a new set.

(i.e. all elements that are in either set.)
 16 update() Update a set with the union of itself and others.

Python Dictionary
Dictionary is used to implement the key-value pair in python. The dictionary is the data type in python which can simulate the real-life
data arrangement where some specific value exists for some particular key.

In other words, we can say that a dictionary is the collection of key-value pairs where the value can be any python object whereas the
keys are the immutable python object, i.e., Numbers, string or tuple.

Dictionary simulates Java map in [Link]-

Creating the dictionary

The dictionary can be created by using multiple key-value pairs enclosed with the small brackets () and separated by the colon (:). The
collections of the key-value pairs are enclosed within the curly braces {}.

The syntax to define the dictionary is given below.

1. Dict = {"Name": "Ayush","Age": 22}

In the above dictionary Dict, The keys Name, and Age are the string that is an immutable object.

Let's see an example to create a dictionary and printing its content.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
 Output

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Age': 29, 'salary': 25000, 'Name': 'John', 'Company': 'GOOGLE'}

Accessing the dictionary values

We have discussed how the data can be accessed in the list and tuple by using the indexing.

However, the values can be accessed in the dictionary by using the keys as keys are unique in the dictionary.

The dictionary values can be accessed in the following way.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print("Name : %s" %Employee["Name"])
5. print("Age : %d" %Employee["Age"])
6. print("Salary : %d" %Employee["salary"])
7. print("Company : %s" %Employee["Company"])

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
Name : John
Age : 29
Salary : 25000
Company : GOOGLE
 Python provides us with an alternative to use the get() method to access the dictionary values. It would give the same result as given
by the indexing.

Updating dictionary values

The dictionary is a mutable data type, and its values can be updated by using the specific keys.

Let's see an example to update the dictionary values.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Enter the details of the new employee....");
6. Employee["Name"] = input("Name: ");
7. Employee["Age"] = int(input("Age: "));
8. Employee["salary"] = int(input("Salary: "));
9. Employee["Company"] = input("Company:");
[Link]("printing the new data");
[Link](Employee)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Name': 'John', 'salary': 25000, 'Company': 'GOOGLE', 'Age': 29}
Enter the details of the new employee....
Name: David
Age: 19
Salary: 8900
Company:JTP
printing the new data
 {'Name': 'David', 'salary': 8900, 'Company': 'JTP', 'Age': 19}

Deleting elements using del keyword

The items of the dictionary can be deleted by using the del keyword as given below.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Deleting some of the employee data")
6. del Employee["Name"]
7. del Employee["Company"]
8. print("printing the modified information ")
9. print(Employee)
[Link]("Deleting the dictionary: Employee");
[Link] Employee
[Link]("Lets try to print it again ");
[Link](Employee)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Age': 29, 'Company': 'GOOGLE', 'Name': 'John', 'salary': 25000}
Deleting some of the employee data
printing the modified information
{'Age': 29, 'salary': 25000}
Deleting the dictionary: Employee
Lets try to print it again
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "[Link]", line 13, in <module>
 print(Employee)
NameError: name 'Employee' is not defined

Iterating Dictionary
A dictionary can be iterated using the for loop as given below.

Example 1
# for loop to print all the keys of a dictionary

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in Employee:
3. print(x);

Output:

Name
Company
salary
Age

Example 2
#for loop to print all the values of the dictionary

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in Employee:
3. print(Employee[x]);

Output:
 29
GOOGLE
John
25000

Example 3
#for loop to print the values of the dictionary by using values() method.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in [Link]():
3. print(x);

Output:

GOOGLE
25000
John
29

Example 4
#for loop to print the items of the dictionary by using items() method.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in [Link]():
3. print(x);

Output:

('Name', 'John')
('Age', 29)
 ('salary', 25000)
('Company', 'GOOGLE')

Properties of Dictionary keys

1. In the dictionary, we can not store multiple values for the same keys. If we pass more than one values for a single key, then the
value which is last assigned is considered as the value of the key.

Consider the following example.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "Salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE","Name":"Johnn"}

2. for x,y in [Link]():
3. print(x,y)

Output:

Salary 25000
Company GOOGLE
Name Johnn
Age 29

2. In python, the key cannot be any mutable object. We can use numbers, strings, or tuple as the key but we can not use any mutable
object like the list as the key in the dictionary.

Consider the following example.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE",[100,201,301]:"Department ID"}

2. for x,y in [Link]():
3. print(x,y)

Output:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "[Link]", line 1, in
Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE",[100,201,301]:"Department ID"}
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Built-in Dictionary functions

The built-in python dictionary methods along with the description are given below.

SN Function Description

1 cmp(dict1, It compares the items of both the dictionary and returns true if the first dictionary
dict2) values are greater than the second dictionary, otherwise it returns false.

2 len(dict) It is used to calculate the length of the dictionary.

3 str(dict) It converts the dictionary into the printable string representation.

4 type(variable) It is used to print the type of the passed variable.

Built-in Dictionary methods

The built-in python dictionary methods along with the description are given below.
SN Method Description

1 [Link]() It is used to delete all the items of the dictionary.

2 [Link]() It returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

3 [Link](iterable, value = Create a new dictionary from the iterable with the values equal
None, /) to value.

4 [Link](key, default = "None") It is used to get the value specified for the pass ed key.

5 dict.has_key(key) It returns true if the dictionary contains the specified key.

6 [Link]() It returns all the key-value pairs as a tuple.

7 [Link]() It returns all the keys of the dictionary.

8 [Link](key,default= "None") It is used to set the key to the default value if the key is not
specified in the dictionary

9 [Link](dict2) It updates the dictionary by adding the key-value pair of dict2 to

this dictionary.
 10 [Link]() It returns all the values of the dictionary.

len()

popItem()

pop()

count()

index()

Python Functions
Functions are the most important aspect of an application. A function can be defined as the organized block of reusable code
which can be called whenever required.

Python allows us to divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as function. The function contains the set of
programming statements enclosed by {}. A function can be called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the
python program.

In other words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The function is also known as procedure or
subroutine in other programming languages.

Python provide us various inbuilt functions like range() or print(). Although, the user can create its functions which can be
called user-defined functions.
 Advantage of functions in python
There are the following advantages of C functions.

o By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a program.
o We can call python functions any number of times in a program and from any place in a program.
o We can track a large python program easily when it is divided into multiple functions.
o Reusability is the main achievement of python functions.
o However, Function calling is always overhead in a python program.

Creating a function
In python, we can use def keyword to define the function. The syntax to define a function in python is given below.

1. def my_function():
2. function-suite
3. return <expression>

The function block is started with the colon (:) and all the same level block statements remain at the same indentation.

A function can accept any number of parameters that must be the same in the definition and function calling.

Function calling
In python, a function must be defined before the function calling otherwise the python interpreter gives an error. Once the
function is defined, we can call it from another function or the python prompt. To call the function, use the function name
followed by the parentheses.

A simple function that prints the message "Hello Word" is given below.
1. def hello_world():
2. print("hello world")
3.
4. hello_world()

Output:

hello world

Parameters in function
The information into the functions can be passed as the parameters. The parameters are specified in the parentheses. We can
give any number of parameters, but we have to separate them with a comma.

Consider the following example which contains a function that accepts a string as the parameter and prints it.

Example 1
1. #defining the function
2. def func (name):
3. print("Hi ",name);
4.
5. #calling the function
6. func("Ayush")

Example 2
1. #python function to calculate the sum of two variables
2. #defining the function
3. def sum (a,b):
4. return a+b;
5.
6. #taking values from the user
7. a = int(input("Enter a: "))
8. b = int(input("Enter b: "))
9.
10. #printing the sum of a and b
11. print("Sum = ",sum(a,b))

Output:

Enter a: 10
Enter b: 20
Sum = 30

Call by reference in Python

In python, all the functions are called by reference, i.e., all the changes made to the reference inside the function revert back to
the original value referred by the reference.

However, there is an exception in the case of mutable objects since the changes made to the mutable objects like string do not
revert to the original string rather, a new string object is made, and therefore the two different objects are printed.

Example 1 Passing Immutable Object (List)

1. #defining the function
2. Def change_list(l1):
3. [Link](20,30)
4. Print(l1)
5.
6. #defining the list
7. list1 = [10,30,40,50]
8.
9. #calling the function
10. change_list(list1);
11. print("list outside function = ",list1);

Output:

list inside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

list outside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

Example 2 Passing Mutable Object (String)

1. #defining the function
2. def change_string (str):
3. str = str + " Hows you";
4. print("printing the string inside function :",str);
5.
6. string1 = "Hi I am there"
7.
8. #calling the function
9. change_string(string1)
10.
11. print("printing the string outside function :",string1)

Output:

printing the string inside function : Hi I am there Hows you

printing the string outside function : Hi I am there
 Types of arguments
There may be several types of arguments which can be passed at the time of function calling.

1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

Required Arguments
Till now, we have learned about function calling in python. However, we can provide the arguments at the time of function
calling. As far as the required arguments are concerned, these are the arguments which are required to be passed at the time
of function calling with the exact match of their positions in the function call and function definition. If either of the arguments
is not provided in the function call, or the position of the arguments is changed, then the python interpreter will show the error.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #the argument name is the required argument to the function func
2. def func(name):
3. message = "Hi "+name;
4. return message;
5. name = input("Enter the name?")
6. print(func(name))

Output:
 Enter the name?John
Hi John

Example 2
1. #the function simple_interest accepts three arguments and returns the simple interest accordingly
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. p = float(input("Enter the principle amount? "))
5. r = float(input("Enter the rate of interest? "))
6. t = float(input("Enter the time in years? "))
7. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(p,r,t))

Output:

Enter the principle amount? 10000

Enter the rate of interest? 5
Enter the time in years? 2
Simple Interest: 1000.0

Example 3
1. #the function calculate returns the sum of two arguments a and b
2. def calculate(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. calculate(10) # this causes an error as we are missing a required arguments b.

Output:

TypeError: calculate() missing 1 required positional argument: 'b'

 Keyword arguments
Python allows us to call the function with the keyword arguments. This kind of function call will enable us to pass the arguments
in the random order.

The name of the arguments is treated as the keywords and matched in the function calling and definition. If the same match is
found, the values of the arguments are copied in the function definition.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #function func is called with the name and message as the keyword arguments
2. def func(name,message):
3. print("printing the message with",name,"and ",message)
4. func(name = "John",message="hello") #name and message is copied with the values John and hello respectively

Output:

printing the message with John and hello

Example 2 providing the values in different order at the calling

1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments the order of arguments doesn't matter in this case
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(t=10,r=10,p=1900))

Output:

Simple Interest: 1900.0

 If we provide the different name of arguments at the time of function call, an error will be thrown.

Consider the following example.

Example 3
1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments.
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4.
5. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(time=10,rate=10,principle=1900)) # doesn?t find the exact match of the name of the
arguments (keywords)

Output:

TypeError: simple_interest() got an unexpected keyword argument 'time'

The python allows us to provide the mix of the required arguments and keyword arguments at the time of function call.
However, the required argument must not be given after the keyword argument, i.e., once the keyword argument is
encountered in the function call, the following arguments must also be the keyword arguments.

Consider the following example.

Example 4
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello",name2="David") #the first argument is not the keyword argument

Output:
 printing the message with John , hello ,and David

The following example will cause an error due to an in-proper mix of keyword and required arguments being passed in the
function call.

Example 5
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello","David")

Output:

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

Default Arguments
Python allows us to initialize the arguments at the function definition. If the value of any of the argument is not provided at the
time of function call, then that argument can be initialized with the value given in the definition even if the argument is not
specified at the function call.

Example 1
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the default value of age is considered in the
function

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

 Example 2
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the default value of age is considered in the
function
4. printme(age = 10,name="David") #the value of age is overwritten here, 10 will be printed as age

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

My name is David and age is 10

Variable length Arguments

In the large projects, sometimes we may not know the number of arguments to be passed in advance. In such cases, Python
provides us the flexibility to provide the comma separated values which are internally treated as tuples at the function call.

However, at the function definition, we have to define the variable with * (star) as *<variable - name >.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. def printme(*names):
2. print("type of passed argument is ",type(names))
3. print("printing the passed arguments...")
4. for name in names:
5. print(name)
6. printme("john","David","smith","nick")
 Output:

type of passed argument is

printing the passed arguments...
john
David
smith
nick

Scope of variables
The scopes of the variables depend upon the location where the variable is being declared. The variable declared in one part of
the program may not be accessible to the other parts.

In python, the variables are defined with the two types of scopes.

1. Global variables
2. Local variables

The variable defined outside any function is known to have a global scope whereas the variable defined inside a function is
known to have a local scope.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. def print_message():
2. message = "hello !! I am going to print a message." # the variable message is local to the function itself
3. print(message)
4. print_message()
5. print(message) # this will cause an error since a local variable cannot be accessible here.

Output:

hello !! I am going to print a message.

File "/root/PycharmProjects/PythonTest/[Link]", line 5, in
print(message)
NameError: name 'message' is not defined

Example 2
1. def calculate(*args):
2. sum=0
3. for arg in args:
4. sum = sum +arg
5. print("The sum is",sum)
6. sum=0
7. calculate(10,20,30) #60 will be printed as the sum
8. print("Value of sum outside the function:",sum) # 0 will be printed

Output:

The sum is 60
Value of sum outside the function: 0

Python Lambda Functions

Python allows us to not declare the function in the standard manner, i.e., by using the def keyword. Rather, the anonymous
functions are declared by using lambda keyword. However, Lambda functions can accept any number of arguments, but they
can return only one value in the form of expression.
 The anonymous function contains a small piece of code. It simulates inline functions of C and C++, but it is not exactly an inline
function.

The syntax to define an Anonymous function is given below.

1. lambda arguments : expression

Example 1
1. x = lambda a:a+10 # a is an argument and a+10 is an expression which got evaluated and returned.
2. print("sum = ",x(20))

Output:

sum = 30

Example 2
Multiple arguments to Lambda function

1. x = lambda a,b:a+b # a and b are the arguments and a+b is the expression which gets evaluated and returned.
2. print("sum = ",x(20,10))

Output:

sum = 30

Why use lambda functions?

 The main role of the lambda function is better described in the scenarios when we use them anonymously inside another
function. In python, the lambda function can be used as an argument to the higher order functions as arguments. Lambda
functions are also used in the scenario where we need a Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #the function table(n) prints the table of n
2. def table(n):
3. return lambda a:a*n; # a will contain the iteration variable i and a multiple of n is returned at each function call
4. n = int(input("Enter the number?"))
5. b = table(n) #the entered number is passed into the function table. b will contain a lambda function which is called again and a
gain with the iteration variable i
6. for i in range(1,11):
7. print(n,"X",i,"=",b(i)); #the lambda function b is called with the iteration variable i,

Output:

Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100

Example 2
Use of lambda function with filter
1. #program to filter out the list which contains odd numbers
2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. Oddlist = list(filter(lambda x:(x%3 == 0),List)) # the list contains all the items of the list for which the lambda function evalua
tes to true
4. print(Oddlist)

Output:

[3, 123]

Example 3
Use of lambda function with map

1. #program to triple each number of the list using map

2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. new_list = list(map(lambda x:x*3,List)) # this will return the triple of each item of the list and add it to new_list
4. print(new_list)

Output:

[3, 6, 9, 12, 30, 66, 369]

Python File Handling

Till now, we were taking the input from the console and writing it back to the console to interact with the user.

Sometimes, it is not enough to only display the data on the console. The data to be displayed may be very large, and only a
limited amount of data can be displayed on the console, and since the memory is volatile, it is impossible to recover the
programmatically generated data again and again.
 However, if we need to do so, we may store it onto the local file system which is volatile and can be accessed every time. Here,
comes the need of file handling.

In this section of the tutorial, we will learn all about file handling in python including, creating a file, opening a file, closing a
file, writing and appending the file, etc.

Opening a file
Python provides the open() function which accepts two arguments, file name and access mode in which the file is accessed. The
function returns a file object which can be used to perform various operations like reading, writing, etc.

The syntax to use the open() function is given below.

1. file object = open(<file-name>, <access-mode>, <buffering>)

The files can be accessed using various modes like read, write, or append. The following are the details about the access mode
to open a file.

SN Access Description
mode

1 r It opens the file to read-only. The file pointer exists at the beginning. The file is by default open in this
mode if no access mode is passed.

2 rb It opens the file to read only in binary format. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

3 r+ It opens the file to read and write both. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.
4 rb+ It opens the file to read and write both in binary format. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the
file.

5 w It opens the file to write only. It overwrites the file if previously exists or creates a new one if no file
exists with the same name. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

6 wb It opens the file to write only in binary format. It overwrites the file if it exists previously or creates a
new one if no file exists with the same name. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

7 w+ It opens the file to write and read both. It is different from r+ in the sense that it overwrites the
previous file if one exists whereas r+ doesn?t overwrite the previously written file. It creates a new
file if no file exists. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

8 wb+ It opens the file to write and read both in binary format. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the
file.

9 a It opens the file in the append mode. The file pointer exists at the end of the previously written file if
exists any. It creates a new file if no file exists with the same name.

10 ab It opens the file in the append mode in binary format. The pointer exists at the end of the previously
written file. It creates a new file in binary format if no file exists with the same name.
 11 a+ It opens a file to append and read both. The file pointer remains at the end of the file if a file exists. It
creates a new file if no file exists with the same name.

12 ab+ It opens a file to append and read both in binary format. The file pointer remains at the end of the
file.

Let's look at the simple example to open a file named "[Link]" (stored in the same directory) in read mode and printing its content on the
console.

Example
1. #opens the file [Link] in read mode
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","r")
3.
4. if fileptr:
5. print("file is opened successfully")

Output:

<class '_io.TextIOWrapper'>
file is opened successfully

The close() method

Once all the operations are done on the file, we must close it through our python script using the close() method. Any unwritten
information gets destroyed once the close() method is called on a file object.
 We can perform any operation on the file externally in the file system is the file is opened in python, hence it is good practice to close
the file once all the operations are done.

The syntax to use the close() method is given below.

1. [Link]()

Consider the following example.

Example
1. # opens the file [Link] in read mode
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","r")
3.
4. if fileptr:
5. print("file is opened successfully")
6.
7. #closes the opened file
8. [Link]()

Reading the file

To read a file using the python script, the python provides us the read() method. The read() method reads a string from the file. It can
read the data in the text as well as binary format.

The syntax of the read() method is given below.

1. [Link](<count>)
 Here, the count is the number of bytes to be read from the file starting from the beginning of the file. If the count is not specified, then
it may read the content of the file until the end.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. #open the [Link] in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","r");
3.
4. #stores all the data of the file into the variable content
5. content = [Link](9);
6.
7. # prints the type of the data stored in the file
8. print(type(content))
9.
10.#prints the content of the file
[Link](content)
12.
13.#closes the opened file
[Link]()

Output:

<class 'str'>
Hi, I am

Read Lines of the file

 Python facilitates us to read the file line by line by using a function readline(). The readline() method reads the lines of the file from
the beginning, i.e., if we use the readline() method two times, then we can get the first two lines of the file.

Consider the following example which contains a function readline() that reads the first line of our file "[Link]" containing three
lines.

Example
1. #open the [Link] in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","r");
3.
4. #stores all the data of the file into the variable content
5. content = [Link]();
6.
7. # prints the type of the data stored in the file
8. print(type(content))
9.
10.#prints the content of the file
[Link](content)
12.
13.#closes the opened file
[Link]()

Output:

<class 'str'>
Hi, I am the file and being used as

Looping through the file

 By looping through the lines of the file, we can read the whole file.

Example
1. #open the [Link] in read mode. causes an error if no such file exists.
2.
3.
4. fileptr = open("[Link]","r");
5.
6. #running a for loop
7. for i in fileptr:
8. print(i) # i contains each line of the file

Output:

Hi, I am the file and being used as

an example to read a
file in python.

Writing the file

To write some text to a file, we need to open the file using the open method with one of the following access modes.

a: It will append the existing file. The file pointer is at the end of the file. It creates a new file if no file exists.

w: It will overwrite the file if any file exists. The file pointer is at the beginning of the file.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #open the [Link] in append mode. Creates a new file if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","a");
3.
4. #appending the content to the file
5. [Link]("Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.")
6.
7.
8. #closing the opened file
9. [Link]();

Now, we can see that the content of the file is modified.

[Link]:

1. Hi, I am the file and being used as

2. an example to read a
3. file in python.
4. Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

Example 2
1. #open the [Link] in write mode.
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","w");
3.
4. #overwriting the content of the file
5. [Link]("Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.")
6.
7.
8. #closing the opened file
9. [Link]();

Now, we can check that all the previously written content of the file is overwritten with the new text we have passed.

[Link]:

1. Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

Creating a new file

The new file can be created by using one of the following access modes with the function open().

x: it creates a new file with the specified name. It causes an error a file exists with the same name.

a: It creates a new file with the specified name if no such file exists. It appends the content to the file if the file already exists with the
specified name.

w: It creates a new file with the specified name if no such file exists. It overwrites the existing file.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. #open the [Link] in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","x");
3.
4. print(fileptr)
5.
6. if fileptr:
7. print("File created successfully");
 Output:

File created successfully

Using with statement with files

The with statement was introduced in python 2.5. The with statement is useful in the case of manipulating the files. The with
statement is used in the scenario where a pair of statements is to be executed with a block of code in between.

The syntax to open a file using with statement is given below.

1. with open(<file name>, <access mode>) as <file-pointer>:

2. #statement suite

The advantage of using with statement is that it provides the guarantee to close the file regardless of how the nested block exits.

It is always suggestible to use the with statement in the case of file s because, if the break, return, or exception occurs in the nested
block of code then it automatically closes the file. It doesn't let the file to be corrupted.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. with open("[Link]",'r') as f:
2. content = [Link]();
3. print(content)

Output:

Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

 File Pointer positions
Python provides the tell() method which is used to print the byte number at which the file pointer exists. Consider the following
example.

Example
1. # open the file [Link] in read mode
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","r")
3.
4. #initially the filepointer is at 0
5. print("The filepointer is at byte :",[Link]())
6.
7. #reading the content of the file
8. content = [Link]();
9.
10.#after the read operation file pointer modifies. tell() returns the location of the fileptr.
11.
[Link]("After reading, the filepointer is at:",[Link]())

Output:

The filepointer is at byte : 0

After reading, the filepointer is at 26

Modifying file pointer position

In the real world applications, sometimes we need to change the file pointer location externally since we may need to read or write the
content at various locations.
 For this purpose, the python provides us the seek() method which enables us to modify the file pointer position externally.

The syntax to use the seek() method is given below.

1. <file-ptr>.seek(offset[, from)

The seek() method accepts two parameters:

offset: It refers to the new position of the file pointer within the file.

from: It indicates the reference position from where the bytes are to be moved. If it is set to 0, the beginning of the file is used as the
reference position. If it is set to 1, the current position of the file pointer is used as the reference position. If it is set to 2, the end of the
file pointer is used as the reference position.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. # open the file [Link] in read mode
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","r")
3.
4. #initially the filepointer is at 0
5. print("The filepointer is at byte :",[Link]())
6.
7. #changing the file pointer location to 10.
8. [Link](10);
9.
10.#tell() returns the location of the fileptr.
[Link]("After reading, the filepointer is at:",[Link]())
 Output:

The filepointer is at byte : 0

After reading, the filepointer is at 10

Python os module
The os module provides us the functions that are involved in file processing operations like renaming, deleting, etc.

Let's look at some of the os module functions.

Renaming the file

The os module provides us the rename() method which is used to rename the specified file to a new name. The syntax to use the
rename() method is given below.

1. rename(?current-name?, ?new-name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #rename [Link] to [Link]
4. [Link]("[Link]","[Link]")

Removing the file

The os module provides us the remove() method which is used to remove the specified file. The syntax to use the remove() method is
given below.
1. remove(?file-name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #deleting the file named [Link]
4. [Link]("[Link]")

Creating the new directory

The mkdir() method is used to create the directories in the current working directory. The syntax to create the new directory is given
below.

1. mkdir(?directory name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #creating a new directory with the name new
4. [Link]("new")

Changing the current working directory

The chdir() method is used to change the current working directory to a specified directory.

The syntax to use the chdir() method is given below.

1. chdir("new-directory")

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #changing the current working directory to new
4.
5. [Link]("new")

The getcwd() method

This method returns the current working directory.

The syntax to use the getcwd() method is given below.

1. [Link]()

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #printing the current working directory
4. print([Link]())

Deleting directory
The rmdir() method is used to delete the specified directory.
 The syntax to use the rmdir() method is given below.

1. [Link](?directory name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #removing the new directory
4. [Link]("new")

Writing python output to the files

In python, there are the requirements to write the output of a python script to a file.

The check_call() method of module subprocess is used to execute a python script and write the output of that script to a file.

The following example contains two python scripts. The script [Link] executes the script [Link] and writes its output to the text
file [Link]

[Link]:

1. temperatures=[10,-20,-289,100]
2. def c_to_f(c):
3. if c< -273.15:
4. return "That temperature doesn't make sense!"
5. else:
6. f=c*9/5+32
7. return f
8. for t in temperatures:
9. print(c_to_f(t))

[Link]:

1. import subprocess
2.
3. with open("[Link]", "wb") as f:
4. subprocess.check_call(["python", "[Link]"], stdout=f)

Output:

50
-4
That temperature doesn't make sense!
212

The file related methods

The file object provides the following methods to manipulate the files on various operating systems.

SN Method Description

1 [Link]() It closes the opened file. The file once closed, it can?t be read or write any more.

2 [Link]() It flushes the internal buffer.

3 [Link]() It returns the file descriptor used by the underlying implementation to request I/O
from the OS.

4 [Link]() It returns true if the file is connected to a TTY device, otherwise returns false.

5 [Link]() It returns the next line from the file.

6 [Link]([size]) It reads the file for the specified size.

7 [Link]([size]) It reads one line from the file and places the file pointer to the beginning of the new
line.

8 [Link]([sizehint]) It returns a list containing all the lines of the file. It reads the file until the EOF occurs
using readline() function.

9 [Link](offset[,from) It modifies the position of the file pointer to a specified offset with the specified
reference.

10 [Link]() It returns the current position of the file pointer within the file.

11 [Link]([size]) It truncates the file to the optional specified size.

12 [Link](str) It writes the specified string to a file

 13 [Link](seq) It writes a sequence of the strings to a file.

Python Modules
A python module can be defined as a python program file which contains a python code including python functions, class, or
variables. In other words, we can say that our python code file saved with the extension (.py) is treated as the module. We
may have a runnable code inside the python module.

Modules in Python provides us the flexibility to organize the code in a logical way.

To use the functionality of one module into another, we must have to import the specific module.

Example
In this example, we will create a module named as [Link] which contains a function func that contains a code to print some
message on the console.

Let's create the module named as [Link].

1. #displayMsg prints a message to the name being passed.

2. def displayMsg(name)
3. print("Hi "+name);

Here, we need to include this module into our main module to call the method displayMsg() defined in the module named file.

Loading the module in our python code

We need to load the module in our python code to use its functionality. Python provides two types of statements as defined
below.
 1. The import statement
2. The from-import statement

The import statement

The import statement is used to import all the functionality of one module into another. Here, we must notice that we can use
the functionality of any python source file by importing that file as the module into another python source file.

We can import multiple modules with a single import statement, but a module is loaded once regardless of the number of
times, it has been imported into our file.

The syntax to use the import statement is given below.

1. import module1,module2,........ module n

Hence, if we need to call the function displayMsg() defined in the file [Link], we have to import that file as a module into our
module as shown in the example below.

Example:
1. import file;
2. name = input("Enter the name?")
3. [Link](name)

Output:

Enter the name?John

Hi John

The from-import statement

 Instead of importing the whole module into the namespace, python provides the flexibility to import only the specific attributes
of a module. This can be done by using from? import statement. The syntax to use the from-import statement is given below.

1. from < module-name> import <name 1>, <name 2>..,<name n>

Consider the following module named as calculation which contains three functions as summation, multiplication, and divide.

[Link]:

1. #place the code in the [Link]

2. def summation(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. def multiplication(a,b):
5. return a*b;
6. def divide(a,b):
7. return a/b;

[Link]:

1. from calculation import summation

2. #it will import only the summation() from [Link]
3. a = int(input("Enter the first number"))
4. b = int(input("Enter the second number"))
5. print("Sum = ",summation(a,b)) #we do not need to specify the module name while accessing summation()

Output:

Enter the first number10

Enter the second number20
Sum = 30
 The from...import statement is always better to use if we know the attributes to be imported from the module in advance. It
doesn't let our code to be heavier. We can also import all the attributes from a module by using *.

Consider the following syntax.

1. from <module> import *

Renaming a module
Python provides us the flexibility to import some module with a specific name so that we can use this name to use that module
in our python source file.

The syntax to rename a module is given below.

1. import <module-name> as <specific-name>

Example
1. #the module calculation of previous example is imported in this example as cal.
2. import calculation as cal;
3. a = int(input("Enter a?"));
4. b = int(input("Enter b?"));
5. print("Sum = ",[Link](a,b))

Output:

Enter a?10
Enter b?20
Sum = 30

Using dir() function

 The dir() function returns a sorted list of names defined in the passed module. This list contains all the sub-modules, variables
and functions defined in this module.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import json
2.
3. List = dir(json)
4.
5. print(List)

Output:

['JSONDecoder', 'JSONEncoder', '__all__', '__author__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__',

'__file__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__path__', '__spec__', '__version__',
'_default_decoder', '_default_encoder', 'decoder', 'dump', 'dumps', 'encoder', 'load', 'loads', 'scanner']

The reload() function

As we have already stated that, a module is loaded once regardless of the number of times it is imported into the python
source file. However, if you want to reload the already imported module to re-execute the top-level code, python provides us
the reload() function. The syntax to use the reload() function is given below.

1. reload(<module-name>)

for example, to reload the module calculation defined in the previous example, we must use the following line of code.

1. reload(calculation)
 Scope of variables
In Python, variables are associated with two types of scopes. All the variables defined in a module contain the global scope
unless or until it is defined within a function.

All the variables defined inside a function contain a local scope that is limited to this function itself. We can not access a local
variable globally.

If two variables are defined with the same name with the two different scopes, i.e., local and global, then the priority will
always be given to the local variable.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. name = "john"
2. def print_name(name):
3. print("Hi",name) #prints the name that is local to this function only.
4. name = input("Enter the name?")
5. print_name(name)

Output:

Hi David

Python packages
The packages in python facilitate the developer with the application development environment by providing a hierarchical
directory structure where a package contains sub-packages, modules, and sub-modules. The packages are used to categorize
the application level code efficiently.
 Let's create a package named Employees in your home directory. Consider the following steps.

1. Create a directory with name Employees on path /home.

2. Create a python source file with name [Link] on the path /home/Employees.

[Link]

1. def getITNames():
2. List = ["John", "David", "Nick", "Martin"]
3. return List;

3. Similarly, create one more python file with name [Link] and create a function getBPONames().

4. Now, the directory Employees which we have created in the first step contains two python modules. To make this directory a
package, we need to include one more file here, that is __init__.py which contains the import statements of the modules
defined in this directory.

__init__.py

1. from ITEmployees import getITNames

2. from BPOEmployees import getBPONames

5. Now, the directory Employees has become the package containing two python modules. Here we must notice that we must
have to create __init__.py inside a directory to convert this directory to a package.

6. To use the modules defined inside the package Employees, we must have to import this in our python source file. Let's
create a simple python source file at our home directory (/home) which uses the modules defined in this package.

[Link]

1. import Employees
2. print([Link]())
Output:

['John', 'David', 'Nick', 'Martin']

We can have sub-packages inside the packages. We can nest the packages up to any level depending upon the application
requirements.

The following image shows the directory structure of an application Library management system which contains three sub-
packages as Admin, Librarian, and Student. The sub-packages contain the python modules.

Python Exceptions
 An exception can be defined as an abnormal condition in a program resulting in the disruption in the flow of the program.

Whenever an exception occurs, the program halts the execution, and thus the further code is not executed. Therefore, an
exception is the error which python script is unable to tackle with.

Python provides us with the way to handle the Exception so that the other part of the code can be executed without any
disruption. However, if we do not handle the exception, the interpreter doesn't execute all the code that exists after the that.

Common Exceptions
A list of common exceptions that can be thrown from a normal python program is given below.

1. ZeroDivisionError: Occurs when a number is divided by zero.

2. NameError: It occurs when a name is not found. It may be local or global.
3. IndentationError: If incorrect indentation is given.
4. IOError: It occurs when Input Output operation fails.
5. EOFError: It occurs when the end of the file is reached, and yet operations are being performed.

Problem without handling exceptions

As we have already discussed, the exception is an abnormal condition that halts the execution of the program. Consider the
following example.

Example
1. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
2. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
3. c = a/b;
4. print("a/b = %d"%c)
5.
6. #other code:
7. print("Hi I am other part of the program")

Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "[Link]", line 3, in <module>
c = a/b;
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Exception handling in python

If the python program contains suspicious code that may throw the exception, we must place that code in the try block. The try
block must be followed with the except statement which contains a block of code that will be executed if there is some
exception in the try block.
 Syntax
1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except Exception1:
5. #block of code
6.
7. except Exception2:
8. #block of code
9.
10. #other code

We can also use the else statement with the try-except statement in which, we can place the code which will be executed in the
scenario if no exception occurs in the try block.
 The syntax to use the else statement with the try-except statement is given below.

1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except Exception1:
5. #block of code
6.
7. else:
8. #this code executes if no except block is executed
 Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
4. c = a/b;
5. print("a/b = %d"%c)
6. except Exception:
7. print("can't divide by zero")
8. else:
9. print("Hi I am else block")

Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:2
a/b = 5
Hi I am else block

The except statement with no exception

Python provides the flexibility not to specify the name of exception with the except statement.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
4. c = a/b;
5. print("a/b = %d"%c)
6. except:
7. print("can't divide by zero")
8. else:
9. print("Hi I am else block")

Output:

Enter a:10
 Enter b:0
can't divide by zero

Points to remember
1. Python facilitates us to not specify the exception with the except statement.
2. We can declare multiple exceptions in the except statement since the try block may contain the statements which throw
the different type of exceptions.
3. We can also specify an else block along with the try-except statement which will be executed if no exception is raised in
the try block.
4. The statements that don't throw the exception should be placed inside the else block.

Example
1. try:
2. #this will throw an exception if the file doesn't exist.
3. fileptr = open("[Link]","r")
4. except IOError:
5. print("File not found")
6. else:
7. print("The file opened successfully")
8. [Link]()

Output:

File not found

Declaring multiple exceptions

 The python allows us to declare the multiple exceptions with the except clause. Declaring multiple exceptions is useful in the
cases where a try block throws multiple exceptions.

Syntax
1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except (<Exception 1>,<Exception 2>,<Exception 3>,...<Exception n>)
5. #block of code
6.
7. else:
8. #block of code
Example
1. try:
2. a=10/0;
3. except ArithmeticError:
4. print "Arithmetic Exception"
5. else:
6. print "Successfully Done"

Output:

Arithmetic Exception

The finally block

We can use the finally block with the try block in which, we can pace the important code which must be executed before the try
statement throws an exception.
 The syntax to use the finally block is given below.

syntax
1. try:
2. # block of code
3. # this may throw an exception
4. finally:
5. # block of code
6. # this will always be executed
 Example
1. try:
2. fileptr = open("[Link]","r")
3. try:
4. [Link]("Hi I am good")
5. finally:
6. [Link]()
7. print("file closed")
8. except:
9. print("Error")

Output:

file closed
Error

Raising exceptions
An exception can be raised by using the raise clause in python. The syntax to use the raise statement is given below.

syntax
1. raise Exception_class,<value>

Points to remember
1. To raise an exception, raise statement is used. The exception class name follows it.
2. An exception can be provided with a value that can be given in the parenthesis.
 3. To access the value "as" keyword is used. "e" is used as a reference variable which stores the value of the exception.

Example
1. try:
2. age = int(input("Enter the age?"))
3. if age<18:
4. raise ValueError;
5. else:
6. print("the age is valid")
7. except ValueError:
8. print("The age is not valid")

Output:

Enter the age?17

The age is not valid

Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a?"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b?"))
4. if b is 0:
5. raise ArithmeticError;
6. else:
7. print("a/b = ",a/b)
8. except ArithmeticError:
9. print("The value of b can't be 0")

Output:
 Enter a?10
Enter b?0
The value of b can't be 0

Custom Exception
The python allows us to create our exceptions that can be raised from the program and caught using the except clause.
However, we suggest you read this section after visiting the Python object and classes.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class ErrorInCode(Exception):
2. def __init__(self, data):
3. [Link] = data
4. def __str__(self):
5. return repr([Link])
6.
7. try:
8. raise ErrorInCode(2000)
9. except ErrorInCode as ae:
10. print("Received error:", [Link])

Output:

Received error: 2000

Python Date and time

In the real world applications, there are the scenarios where we need to work with the date and time. There are the examples
in python where we have to schedule the script to run at some particular timings.
 In python, the date is not a data type, but we can work with the date objects by importing the module named with datetime,
time, and calendar.

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss how to work with the date and time objects in python.

Tick
In python, the time instants are counted since 12 AM, 1st January 1970. The function time() of the module time returns the
total number of ticks spent since 12 AM, 1st January 1970. A tick can be seen as the smallest unit to measure the time.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #prints the number of ticks spent since 12 AM, 1st January 1970
4.
5. print([Link]())

Output:

1545124460.9151757

How to get the current time?

The localtime() functions of the time module are used to get the current time tuple. Consider the following example.
 Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #returns a time tuple
4.
5. print([Link]([Link]()))

Output:

time.struct_time(tm_year=2018, tm_mon=12, tm_mday=18, tm_hour=15, tm_min=1,

tm_sec=32, tm_wday=1, tm_yday=352, tm_isdst=0)

Time tuple
The time is treated as the tuple of 9 numbers. Let's look at the members of the time tuple.

Index Attribute Values

0 Year 4 digit (for example 2018)

1 Month 1 to 12

2 Day 1 to 31
 3 Hour 0 to 23

4 Minute 0 to 59

5 Second 0 to 60

6 Day of weak 0 to 6

7 Day of year 1 to 366

8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1 , or -1

Getting formatted time

The time can be formatted by using the asctime() function of time module. It returns the formatted time for the time tuple
being passed.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #returns the formatted time
4.
5. print([Link]([Link]([Link]())))
 Output:

Tue Dec 18 15:31:39 2018

Python sleep time

The sleep() method of time module is used to stop the execution of the script for a given amount of time. The output will be
delayed for the number of seconds given as float.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time
2. for i in range(0,5):
3. print(i)
4. #Each element will be printed after 1 second
5. [Link](1)

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

The datetime Module

 The datetime module enables us to create the custom date objects, perform various operations on dates like the comparison,
etc.

To work with dates as date objects, we have to import datetime module into the python source code.

Consider the following example to get the datetime object representation for the current time.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the current datetime object
4.
5. print([Link]())

Output:

2018-12-18 16:16:45.462778

Creating date objects

We can create the date objects by passing the desired date in the datetime constructor for which the date objects are to be
created.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the datetime object for the specified date
4.
5. print([Link](2018,12,10))

Output:

2018-12-10 00:00:00

We can also specify the time along with the date to create the datetime object. Consider the following example.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the datetime object for the specified time
4.
5. print([Link](2018,12,10,14,15,1 0))

Output:

2018-12-10 14:15:10

Comparison of two dates

We can compare two dates by using the comparison operators like >, >=, <, and <=.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. from datetime import datetime as dt
2. #Compares the time. If the time is in between 8AM and 4PM, then it prints working hours otherwise it prints fun hours
3. if dt([Link]().year,[Link]().month,[Link]().day,8)<[Link]()<dt([Link]().year,[Link]().month,[Link]().day,16):
4. print("Working hours....")
5. else:
6. print("fun hours")

Output:

fun hours

The calendar module

Python provides a calendar object that contains various methods to work with the calendars.

Consider the following example to print the Calendar of the last month of 2018.

Example
1. import calendar;
2. cal = [Link](2018,12)
3. #printing the calendar of December 2018
4. print(cal)

Output:
 Printing the calendar of whole year
The prcal() method of calendar module is used to print the calendar of the whole year. The year of which the calendar is to be
printed must be passed into this method.

Example
1. import calendar
2.
3. #printing the calendar of the year 2019
4. [Link](2019)
Output:
Python OOPs Concepts
Like other general purpose languages, python is also an object-oriented language since its beginning. Python is an object-
oriented programming language. It allows us to develop applications using an Object Oriented approach. In Python, we can
easily create and use classes and objects.

Major principles of object-oriented programming system are given below.

o Object
o Class
o Method
o Inheritance
o Polymorphism
o Data Abstraction
o Encapsulation

Object
The object is an entity that has state and behavior. It may be any real-world object like the mouse, keyboard, chair, table, pen,
etc.

Everything in Python is an object, and almost everything has attributes and methods. All functions have a built-in attribute
__doc__, which returns the doc string defined in the function source code.

Class
 The class can be defined as a collection of objects. It is a logical entity that has some specific attributes and methods. For
example: if you have an employee class then it should contain an attribute and method, i.e. an email id, name, age, salary, etc.

Syntax
1. class ClassName:
2. <statement-1>
3. .
4. .
5. <statement-N>

Method
The method is a function that is associated with an object. In Python, a method is not unique to class instances. Any object
type can have methods.

Inheritance
Inheritance is the most important aspect of object-oriented programming which simulates the real world concept of inheritance.
It specifies that the child object acquires all the properties and behaviors of the parent object.

By using inheritance, we can create a class which uses all the properties and behavior of another class. The new class is known
as a derived class or child class, and the one whose properties are acquired is known as a base class or parent class.

It provides re-usability of the code.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism contains two words "poly" and "morphs". Poly means many and Morphs means form, shape. By polymorphism,
we understand that one task can be performed in different ways. For example You have a class animal, and all animals speak.
But they speak differently. Here, the "speak" behavior is polymorphic in the sense and depends on the animal. So, the abstract
"animal" concept does not actually "speak", but specific animals (like dogs and cats) have a concrete implementation of the
action "speak".

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is also an important aspect of object-oriented programming. It is used to restrict access to methods and
variables. In encapsulation, code and data are wrapped together within a single unit from being modified by accident.

Data Abstraction
Data abstraction and encapsulation both are often used as synonyms. Both are nearly synonym because data abstraction is
achieved through encapsulation.

Abstraction is used to hide internal details and show only functionalities. Abstracting something means to give names to things
so that the name captures the core of what a function or a whole program does.

Object-oriented vs Procedure-oriented Programming languages

Index Object-oriented Programming Procedural Programming

1. Object-oriented programming is the problem-solving Procedural programming uses a list of instructions to

approach and used where computation is done by using do computation step by step.
objects.
 2. It makes the development and maintenance easier. In procedural programming, It is not easy to
maintain the codes when the project becomes
lengthy.

3. It simulates the real world entity. So real-world It doesn't simulate the real world. It works on step
problems can be easily solved through oops. by step instructions divided into small parts called
functions.

4. It provides data hiding. So it is more secure than Procedural language doesn't provide any proper way
procedural languages. You cannot access private data for data binding, so it is less secure.
from anywhere.

5. Example of object-oriented programming languages is Example of procedural languages are: C, Fortran,

C++, Java, .Net, Python, C#, etc. Pascal, VB etc.

Python Class and Objects

As we have already discussed, a class is a virtual entity and can be seen as a blueprint of an object. The class came into
existence when it instantiated. Let's understand it by an example.

Suppose a class is a prototype of a building. A building contains all the details about the floor, doors, windows, etc. we can
make as many buildings as we want, based on these details. Hence, the building can be seen as a class, and we can create as
many objects of this class.

On the other hand, the object is the instance of a class. The process of creating an object can be called as instantiation.
 In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss creating classes and objects in python. We will also talk about how an attribute is
accessed by using the class object.

Creating classes in python

In python, a class can be created by using the keyword class followed by the class name. The syntax to create a class is given
below.

Syntax
1. class ClassName:
2. #statement_suite

In python, we must notice that each class is associated with a documentation string which can be accessed by using <class-
name>.__doc__. A class contains a statement suite including fields, constructor, function, etc. definition.

Consider the following example to create a class Employee which contains two fields as Employee id, and name.

The class also contains a function display() which is used to display the information of the Employee.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. id = 10;
3. name = "ayush"
4. def display (self):
5. print([Link],[Link])

Here, the self is used as a reference variable which refers to the current class object. It is always the first argument in the
function definition. However, using self is optional in the function call.
 Creating an instance of the class
A class needs to be instantiated if we want to use the class attributes in another class or method. A class can be instantiated by
calling the class using the class name.

The syntax to create the instance of the class is given below.

1. <object-name> = <class-name>(<arguments>)

The following example creates the instance of the class Employee defined in the above example.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. id = 10;
3. name = "John"
4. def display (self):
5. print("ID: %d \nName: %s"%([Link],[Link]))
6. emp = Employee()
7. [Link]()

Output:

ID: 10
Name: ayush

Python Constructor
A constructor is a special type of method (function) which is used to initialize the instance members of the class.

Constructors can be of two types.

 1. Parameterized Constructor
2. Non-parameterized Constructor

Constructor definition is executed when we create the object of this class. Constructors also verify that there are enough
resources for the object to perform any start-up task.

Creating the constructor in python

In python, the method __init__ simulates the constructor of the class. This method is called when the class is instantiated. We
can pass any number of arguments at the time of creating the class object, depending upon __init__ definition. It is mostly
used to initialize the class attributes. Every class must have a constructor, even if it simply relies on the default constructor.

Consider the following example to initialize the Employee class attributes.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. def __init__(self,name,id):
3. [Link] = id;
4. [Link] = name;
5. def display (self):
6. print("ID: %d \nName: %s"%([Link],[Link]))
7. emp1 = Employee("John",101)
8. emp2 = Employee("David",102)
9.
10. #accessing display() method to print employee 1 information
11.
12. [Link]();
13.
14. #accessing display() method to print employee 2 information
15. [Link]();

Output:

ID: 101
Name: John
ID: 102
Name: David

Example: Counting the number of objects of a class

1. class Student:
2. count = 0
3. def __init__(self):
4. [Link] = [Link] + 1
5. s1=Student()
6. s2=Student()
7. s3=Student()
8. print("The number of students:",[Link])

Output:

The number of students: 3

Python Non-Parameterized Constructor Example

1. class Student:
2. # Constructor - non parameterized
3. def __init__(self):
4. print("This is non parametrized constructor")
5. def show(self,name):
6. print("Hello",name)
7. student = Student()
8. [Link]("John")

Output:

This is non parametrized constructor

Hello John

Python Parameterized Constructor Example

1. class Student:
2. # Constructor - parameterized
3. def __init__(self, name):
4. print("This is parametrized constructor")
5. [Link] = name
6. def show(self):
7. print("Hello",[Link])
8. student = Student("John")
9. [Link]()

Output:

This is parametrized constructor

Hello John
 Python In-built class functions
The in-built functions defined in the class are described in the following table.

SN Function Description

1 getattr(obj,name,default) It is used to access the attribute of the object.

2 setattr(obj, name,value) It is used to set a particular value to the specific attribute of an object.

3 delattr(obj, name) It is used to delete a specific attribute.

4 hasattr(obj, name) It returns true if the object contains some specific attribute.

Example
1. class Student:
2. def __init__(self,name,id,age):
3. [Link] = name;
4. [Link] = id;
5. [Link] = age
6.
7. #creates the object of the class Student
8. s = Student("John",101,22)
9.
10. #prints the attribute name of the object s
11. print(getattr(s,'name'))
12.
13. # reset the value of attribute age to 23
14. setattr(s,"age",23)
15.
16. # prints the modified value of age
17. print(getattr(s,'age'))
18.
19. # prints true if the student contains the attribute with name id
20.
21. print(hasattr(s,'id'))
22. # deletes the attribute age
23. delattr(s,'age')
24.
25. # this will give an error since the attribute age has been deleted
26. print([Link])

Output:

John
23
True
AttributeError: 'Student' object has no attribute 'age'

Built-in class attributes

Along with the other attributes, a python class also contains some built-in class attributes which provide information about the
class.
 The built-in class attributes are given in the below table.

SN Attribute Description

1 __dict__ It provides the dictionary containing the information about the class namespace.

2 __doc__ It contains a string which has the class documentation

3 __name__ It is used to access the class name.

4 __module__ It is used to access the module in which, this class is defined.

5 __bases__ It contains a tuple including all base classes.

Example
1. class Student:
2. def __init__(self,name,id,age):
3. [Link] = name;
4. [Link] = id;
5. [Link] = age
6. def display_details(self):
7. print("Name:%s, ID:%d, age:%d"%([Link],[Link]))
8. s = Student("John",101,22)
9. print(s.__doc__)
10. print(s.__dict__)
11. print(s.__module__)

Output:

None
{'name': 'John', 'id': 101, 'age': 22}
__main__

Python Inheritance
Inheritance is an important aspect of the object-oriented paradigm. Inheritance provides code reusability to the program
because we can use an existing class to create a new class instead of creating it from scratch.

In inheritance, the child class acquires the properties and can access all the data members and functions defined in the parent
class. A child class can also provide its specific implementation to the functions of the parent class. In this section of the
tutorial, we will discuss inheritance in detail.

In python, a derived class can inherit base class by just mentioning the base in the bracket after the derived class name.
Consider the following syntax to inherit a base class into the derived class.
 Syntax
1. class derived-class(base class):
2. <class-suite>

A class can inherit multiple classes by mentioning all of them inside the bracket. Consider the following syntax.

Syntax
1. class derive-class(<base class 1>, <base class 2>, ..... <base class n>):
2. <class - suite>

Example 1
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("Animal Speaking")
4. #child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
5. class Dog(Animal):
6. def bark(self):
7. print("dog barking")
8. d = Dog()
9. [Link]()
10. [Link]()

Output:

dog barking
Animal Speaking

Python Multi-Level inheritance

 Multi-Level inheritance is possible in python like other object-oriented languages. Multi-level inheritance is archived when a
derived class inherits another derived class. There is no limit on the number of levels up to which, the multi-level inheritance is
archived in python.

The syntax of multi-level inheritance is given below.

Syntax
1. class class1:
2. <class-suite>
3. class class2(class1):
4. <class suite>
5. class class3(class2):
6. <class suite>
7. .
8. .

Example
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("Animal Speaking")
4. #The child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
5. class Dog(Animal):
6. def bark(self):
7. print("dog barking")
8. #The child class Dogchild inherits another child class Dog
9. class DogChild(Dog):
10. def eat(self):
11. print("Eating bread...")
12. d = DogChild()
13. [Link]()
14. [Link]()
15. [Link]()

Output:

dog barking
Animal Speaking
Eating bread...

Python Multiple inheritance

 Python provides us the flexibility to inherit multiple base classes in the child class.

The syntax to perform multiple inheritance is given below.

Syntax
1. class Base1:
2. <class-suite>
3.
4. class Base2:
5. <class-suite>
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. class BaseN:
10. <class-suite>
11.
12. class Derived(Base1, Base2, ...... BaseN):
13. <class-suite>

Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print([Link](10,20))
12. print([Link](10,20))
13. print([Link](10,20))

Output:

30
200
0.5

The issubclass(sub,sup) method

The issubclass(sub, sup) method is used to check the relationships between the specified classes. It returns true if the first
class is the subclass of the second class, and false otherwise.

Consider the following example.

 Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(issubclass(Derived,Calculation2))
12. print(issubclass(Calculation1,Calculation2))

Output:

True
False

The isinstance (obj, class) method

The isinstance() method is used to check the relationship between the objects and classes. It returns true if the first parameter,
i.e., obj is the instance of the second parameter, i.e., class.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(isinstance(d,Derived))

Output:

True

Method Overriding
We can provide some specific implementation of the parent class method in our child class. When the parent class method is
defined in the child class with some specific implementation, then the concept is called method overriding. We may need to
perform method overriding in the scenario where the different definition of a parent class method is needed in the child class.

Consider the following example to perform method overriding in python.

Example
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("speaking")
4. class Dog(Animal):
5. def speak(self):
6. print("Barking")
7. d = Dog()
8. [Link]()

Output:

Barking

Real Life Example of method overriding

1. class Bank:
2. def getroi(self):
3. return 10;
4. class SBI(Bank):
5. def getroi(self):
6. return 7;
7.
8. class ICICI(Bank):
9. def getroi(self):
10. return 8;
11. b1 = Bank()
12. b2 = SBI()
13. b3 = ICICI()
14. print("Bank Rate of interest:",[Link]());
15. print("SBI Rate of interest:",[Link]());
16. print("ICICI Rate of interest:",[Link]());

Output:

Bank Rate of interest: 10

 SBI Rate of interest: 7
ICICI Rate of interest: 8

Data abstraction in python

Abstraction is an important aspect of object-oriented programming. In python, we can also perform data hiding by adding the
double underscore (___) as a prefix to the attribute which is to be hidden. After this, the attribute will not be visible outside of
the class through the object.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. __count = 0;
3. def __init__(self):
4. Employee.__count = Employee.__count+1
5. def display(self):
6. print("The number of employees",Employee.__count)
7. emp = Employee()
8. emp2 = Employee()
9. try:
10. print(emp.__count)
11. finally:
12. [Link]()

Output:

The number of employees 2

AttributeError: 'Employee' object has no attribute '__count'
 Python program to print "Hello Python"
This is the most basic Python program. It specifies how to print any statement in Python.

In old python (up to Python 2.7.0), print command is not written in parenthesis but in new python software (Python 3.4.3), it is
mandatory to add a parenthesis to print a statement.

See this example:

1. print ('Hello Python')

Output:

Python program to do arithmetical operations

The arithmetic operations are performed by calculator where we can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
This example shows the basic arithmetic operations i.e.

o Addition
o Subtraction
o Multiplication
o Division
 See this example:

1. # Store input numbers:

2. num1 = input('Enter first number: ')
3. num2 = input('Enter second number: ')
4.
5. # Add two numbers
6. sum = float(num1) + float(num2)
7. # Subtract two numbers
8. min = float(num1) - float(num2)
9. # Multiply two numbers
10. mul = float(num1) * float(num2)
11. #Divide two numbers
12. div = float(num1) / float(num2)
13. # Display the sum
14. print('The sum of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, sum))
15.
16. # Display the subtraction
17. print('The subtraction of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, min))
18. # Display the multiplication
19. print('The multiplication of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, mul))
20. # Display the division
21. print('The division of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, div))

Note: Here input numbers are 10 and 20.

Output:
Python program to solve quadratic equation
Quadratic equation:

Quadratic equation is made from a Latin term "quadrates" which means square. It is a special type of equation having the form
of:
 ax2+bx+c=0

Here, "x" is unknown which you have to find and "a", "b", "c" specifies the numbers such that "a" is not equal to 0. If a = 0
then the equation becomes liner not quadratic anymore.

In the equation, a, b and c are called coefficients.

Let's take an example to solve the quadratic equation 8x2 + 16x + 8 = 0

See this example:

1. # import complex math module

2. import cmath
3. a = float(input('Enter a: '))
4. b = float(input('Enter b: '))
5. c = float(input('Enter c: '))
6.
7. # calculate the discriminant
8. d = (b**2) - (4*a*c)
9.
10. # find two solutions
11. sol1 = (-[Link](d))/(2*a)
12. sol2 = (-b+[Link](d))/(2*a)
13. print('The solution are {0} and {1}'.format(sol1,sol2))

Output:
 Python program to swap two variables
Variable swapping:

In computer programming, swapping two variables specifies the mutual exchange of values of the variables. It is generally
done by using a temporary variable.

For example:

1. data_item x := 1
2. data_item y := 0
3. swap (x, y)

After swapping:
1. data_item x := 0
2. data_item y := 1

See this example:

1. # Python swap program

2. x = input('Enter value of x: ')
3. y = input('Enter value of y: ')
4.
5. # create a temporary variable and swap the values
6. temp = x
7. x = y
8. y = temp
9.
10. print('The value of x after swapping: {}'.format(x))
11. print('The value of y after swapping: {}'.format(y))

Output:
 Python program to generate a random number
In Python programming, you can generate a random integer, doubles, longs etc . in various ranges by importing a "random"
class.

Syntax:

First you have to import the random module and then apply the syntax:

1. import random
2. [Link](a,b)

See this example:

1. import random
2. print([Link](100,500))

Output:

Python program to convert kilometers to miles

Here, we are going to see the python program to convert kilometers to miles. Let's understand kilometers and miles first.

Kilometer:

The kilometer is a unit of length in the metric system. It is equivalent to 1000 meters.

Miles:

Mile is also the unit of length. It is equal to 1760 yards.

Conversion formula:

1 kilometer is equal to 0.62137 miles.

1. Miles = kilometer * 0.62137
2. Kilometer = Miles / 0.62137

See this example:

1. # Collect input from the user

2. kilometers = float(input('How many kilometers?: '))
3. # conversion factor
4. conv_fac = 0.621371
5. # calculate miles
6. miles = kilometers * conv_fac
7. print('%0.3f kilometers is equal to %0.3f miles' %(kilometers,miles))

Output:

Python program to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit

 Celsius:

Celsius is a unit of measurement for temperature. It is also known as centigrade. It is a SI derived unit used by most of the
countries worldwide.

It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius.

Fahrenheit:

Fahrenheit is also a temperature scale. It is named on Polish-born German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. It uses degree
Fahrenheit as a unit for temperature.

Conversion formula:

T(℉) = T(℃) x 9/5 + 32

Or,

T(℉) = T(℃) x 1.8 + 32

See this example:

1. # Collect input from the user

2. celsius = float(input('Enter temperature in Celsius: '))
3.
4. # calculate temperature in Fahrenheit
5. fahrenheit = (celsius * 1.8) + 32
6. print('%0.1f Celsius is equal to %0.1f degree Fahrenheit'%(celsius,fahrenheit))

Output:
 Python program to display calendar
It is simple in python programming to display calendar. To do so, you need to import the calendar module which comes with
Python.

1. import calendar
2. And then apply the syntax
3. ([Link](yy,mm))

See this example:

1. import calendar
2. # Enter the month and year
3. yy = int(input("Enter year: "))
4. mm = int(input("Enter month: "))
5.
6. # display the calendar
7. print([Link](yy,mm))

Output:
 Python Program to Add Two Matrices
What is Matrix?

In mathematics, matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols or expressions arranged in the form of rows and columns.
For example: if you take a matrix A which is a 2x3 matrix then it can be shown like this:

1. 2 3 5
2. 8 12 7

Image representation:
 In Python, matrices can be implemented as nested list. Each element of the matrix is treated as a row. For example X = [[1,
2], [3, 4], [5, 6]] would represent a 3x2 matrix. First row can be selected as X[0] and the element in first row, first column can
be selected as X[0][0].

Let's take two matrices X and Y, having the following value:

1. X = [[1,2,3],
2. [4,5,6],
3. [7,8,9]]
4.
5. Y = [[10,11,12],
6. [13,14,15],
7. [16,17,18]]

Create a new matrix result by adding them.

See this example:

1. X = [[1,2,3],
2. [4,5,6],
3. [7,8,9]]
4.
5. Y = [[10,11,12],
6. [13,14,15],
7. [16,17,18]]
8.
9. Result = [[0,0,0],
10. [0,0,0],
11. [0,0,0]]
12. # iterate through rows
13. for i in range(len(X)):
14. # iterate through columns
15. for j in range(len(X[0])):
16. result[i][j] = X[i][j] + Y[i][j]
17. for r in result:
18. print(r)

Output:
Python Program to Multiply Two Matrices
This Python program specifies how to multiply two matrices, having some certain values.

Matrix multiplication:

Matrix multiplication is a binary operation that uses a pair of matrices to produce another matrix. The elements within the
matrix are multiplied according to elementary arithmetic.
 See this example:

1.
2. X = [[1,2,3],
3. [4,5,6],
4. [7,8,9]]
5.
6. Y = [[10,11,12],
7. [13,14,15],
8. [16,17,18]]
9.
10. Result = [[0,0,0],
11. [0,0,0],
12. [0,0,0]]
13.
14. # iterate through rows of X
15. for i in range(len(X)):
16. for j in range(len(Y[0])):
17. for k in range(len(Y)):
18. result[i][j] += X[i][k] * Y[k][j]
19. for r in result:
20. print(r)

Output:
Python Program to Transpose a Matrix
Transpose Matrix:

If you change the rows of a matrix with the column of the same matrix, it is known as transpose of a matrix. It is denoted as
X'. For example: The element at ith row and jth column in X will be placed at jth row and ith column in X'.

Let's take a matrix X, having the following elements:

1. X = [[1,2],
2. [4,5],
3. [7,8]]

See this example:

1. X = [[1,2],
2. [4,5],
3. [7,8]]
4.
5. Result = [[0,0,0],
6. [0,0,0]]
7.
8. # iterate through rows
9. for i in range(len(X)):
10. for j in range(len(X[0])):
11. result[j][i] = X[i][j]
12.
13. for r in result:
14. print(r)

Output:
 Python Program to Sort Words in Alphabetic Order
Sorting:

Sorting is a process of arrangement. It arranges data systematically in a particular format. It follows some algorithm to sort
data.

See this example:

1. my_str = input("Enter a string: ")

2. # breakdown the string into a list of words
3. words = my_str.split()
4. # sort the list
5. [Link]()
6. # display the sorted words
7. for word in words:
8. print(word)

Output:
 Python Program to Remove Punctuation from a String
Punctuation:

The practice, action, or system of inserting points or other small marks into texts, in order to aid interpretation; division of text
into sentences, clauses, etc., is called punctuation. -Wikipedia

Punctuation are very powerful. They can change the entire meaning of a sentence.

See this example:

o "Woman, without her man, is nothing" (the sentence boasting about men's importance.)
o "Woman: without her, man is nothing" (the sentence boasting about women?s importance.)

This program is written to remove punctuation from a statement.

See this example:

1. # define punctuation
2. punctuation = '''''!()-[]{};:'"\,<>./?@#$%^&*_~'''
3. # take input from the user
4. my_str = input("Enter a string: ")
5. # remove punctuation from the string
6. no_punct = ""
7. for char in my_str:
8. if char not in punctuation:
9. no_punct = no_punct + char
10. # display the unpunctuated string
11. print(no_punct)
Output:

Python Program to check if a Number is Positive, Negative or Zero

We can use a Python program to distinguish that if a number is positive, negative or zero.

Positive Numbers: A number is known as a positive number if it has a greater value than zero. i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.

Negative Numbers: A number is known as a negative number if it has a lesser value than zero. i.e. -1, -2, -3, -4 etc.
 See this example:

1. num = float(input("Enter a number: "))

2.
3. if num > 0:
4. print("{0} is a positive number".format(num))
5. elif num == 0:
6. print("{0} is zero".format(num))
7. else:
8. print("{0} is negative number".format(num))

Output:
 Note:In the above example, elif statement is used. The elif statement is used to check multiple expressions for TRUE and
executes a block of code when one of the conditions becomes TRUE.

It is always followed by if statement.

Python Program to Check if a Number is Odd or Even

Odd and Even numbers:

If you divide a number by 2 and it gives a remainder of 0 then it is known as even number, otherwise an odd number.

Even number examples: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc.

Odd number examples:1, 3, 5, 7, 9 etc.

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2. if (num % 2) == 0:
3. print("{0} is Even number".format(num))
4. else:
5. print("{0} is Odd number".format(num))

Output:
Python Program to Check Leap Year
Leap Year:

A year is called a leap year if it contains an additional day which makes the number of the days in that year is 366. This
additional day is added in February which makes it 29 days long.

A leap year occurred once every 4 years.

How to determine if a year is a leap year?

You should follow the following steps to determine whether a year is a leap year or not.
 1. If a year is evenly divisible by 4 means having no remainder then go to next step. If it is not divisible by 4. It is not a
leap year. For example: 1997 is not a leap year.
2. If a year is divisible by 4, but not by 100. For example: 2012, it is a leap year. If a year is divisible by both 4 and 100,
go to next step.
3. If a year is divisible by 100, but not by 400. For example: 1900, then it is not a leap year. If a year is divisible by both,
then it is a leap year. So 2000 is a leap year.

See this example:

1. year = int(input("Enter a year: "))

2. if (year % 4) == 0:
3. if (year % 100) == 0:
4. if (year % 400) == 0:
5. print("{0} is a leap year".format(year))
6. else:
7. print("{0} is not a leap year".format(year))
8. else:
9. print("{0} is a leap year".format(year))
10. else:
11. print("{0} is not a leap year".format(year))

Output:
Python Program to Check Prime Number
Prime numbers:

A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 and having no positive divisor other than 1 and itself.

For example: 3, 7, 11 etc are prime numbers.

Composite number:

Other natural numbers that are not prime numbers are called composite numbers.

For example: 4, 6, 9 etc. are composite numbers.

 See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2.
3. if num > 1:
4. for i in range(2,num):
5. if (num % i) == 0:
6. print(num,"is not a prime number")
7. print(i,"times",num//i,"is",num)
8. break
9. else:
10. print(num,"is a prime number")
11.
12. else:
13. print(num,"is not a prime number")

Output:
 Python Program to Print all Prime Numbers between an Interval
We have already read the concept of prime numbers in the previous program. Here, we are going to print the prime numbers
between given interval.

See this example:

1. #Take the input from the user:

2. lower = int(input("Enter lower range: "))
3. upper = int(input("Enter upper range: "))
4.
5. for num in range(lower,upper + 1):
6. if num > 1:
7. for i in range(2,num):
8. if (num % i) == 0:
9. break
10. else:
11. print(num)

This example will show the prime numbers between 10 and 50.

Output:
Python Program to Find the Factorial of a Number
What is factorial?

Factorial is a non-negative integer. It is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to that number for which you ask
for factorial. It is denoted by exclamation sign (!).
 For example:

1. 4! = 4x3x2x1 = 24

The factorial value of 4 is 24.

Note: The factorial value of 0 is 1 always. (Rule violation)

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2. factorial = 1
3. if num < 0:
4. print("Sorry, factorial does not exist for negative numbers")
5. elif num == 0:
6. print("The factorial of 0 is 1")
7. else:
8. for i in range(1,num + 1):
9. factorial = factorial*i
10. print("The factorial of",num,"is",factorial)

The following example displays the factorial of 5 and -5.

Output:
next →← prev

Python Program to Display the multiplication Table

 In Python, you can make a program to display the multiplication table of any number. The following program displays the
multiplication table (from 1 to 10) according to the user input.

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Show the multiplication table of? "))

2. # using for loop to iterate multiplication 10 times
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. print(num,'x',i,'=',num*i)

The following example shows the multiplication table of 18.

Output:
 Python Program to Print the Fibonacci sequence
Fibonacci sequence:

The Fibonacci sequence specifies a series of numbers where the next number is found by adding up the two numbers just
before it.

For example:

1.
2. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on....

See this example:

1. nterms = int(input("How many terms you want? "))
2. # first two terms
3. n1 = 0
4. n2 = 1
5. count = 2
6. # check if the number of terms is valid
7. if nterms <= 0:
8. print("Plese enter a positive integer")
9. elif nterms == 1:
10. print("Fibonacci sequence:")
11. print(n1)
12. else:
13. print("Fibonacci sequence:")
14. print(n1,",",n2,end=', ')
15. while count < nterms:
16. nth = n1 + n2
17. print(nth,end=' , ')
18. # update values
19. n1 = n2
20. n2 = nth
21. count += 1

Output:
Python Program to Check Armstrong Number
Armstrong number:

A number is called Armstrong number if it is equal to the sum of the cubes of its own digits.
 For example: 153 is an Armstrong number since 153 = 1*1*1 + 5*5*5 + 3*3*3.

The Armstrong number is also known as narcissistic number.

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2. sum = 0
3. temp = num
4.
5. while temp > 0:
6. digit = temp % 10
7. sum += digit ** 3
8. temp //= 10
9.
10. if num == sum:
11. print(num,"is an Armstrong number")
12. else:
13. print(num,"is not an Armstrong number")

Output:
 Python Program to Find Armstrong Number between an Interval
We have already read the concept of Armstrong numbers in the previous program. Here, we print the Armstrong numbers
within a specific given interval.

See this example:

1. lower = int(input("Enter lower range: "))

2. upper = int(input("Enter upper range: "))
3.
4. for num in range(lower,upper + 1):
5. sum = 0
6. temp = num
7. while temp > 0:
8. digit = temp % 10
9. sum += digit ** 3
10. temp //= 10
11. if num == sum:
12. print(num)

This example shows all Armstrong numbers between 100 and 500.

Output:
Python Program to Find the Sum of Natural Numbers
Natural numbers:

As the name specifies, a natural number is the number that occurs commonly and obviously in the nature. It is a whole, non-
negative number.

Some mathematicians think that a natural number must contain 0 and some don't believe this theory. So, a list of natural
number can be defined as:
1.
2. N= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .... and so on}
3. N= {1, 2, 3, 4, .... and so on}

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2.
3. if num < 0:
4. print("Enter a positive number")
5. else:
6. sum = 0
7.
8. # use while loop to iterate un till zero
9. while(num > 0):
10. sum += num
11. num -= 1
12. print("The sum is",sum)

This example shows the sum of the first 100 positive numbers (0-100)

Output:
 Python Program to Find LCM
LCM: Least Common Multiple/ Lowest Common Multiple

LCM stands for Least Common Multiple. It is a concept of arithmetic and number system. The LCM of two integers a and b is
denoted by LCM (a,b). It is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both "a" and "b".

For example: We have two integers 4 and 6. Let's find LCM

Multiples of 4 are:

1. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36,... and so on...

Multiples of 6 are:
1. 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42,... and so on....

Common multiples of 4 and 6 are simply the numbers that are in both lists:

1. 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72,.... and so on....

LCM is the lowest common multiplier so it is 12.

See this example:

1. def lcm(x, y):

2. if x > y:
3. greater = x
4. else:
5. greater = y
6. while(True):
7. if((greater % x == 0) and (greater % y == 0)):
8. lcm = greater
9. break
10. greater += 1
11. return lcm
12.
13.
14. num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
15. num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
16. print("The L.C.M. of", num1,"and", num2,"is", lcm(num1, num2))

The following example will show the LCM of 12 and 20 (according to the user input)

Output:
Python Program to Find HCF
HCF: Highest Common Factor

Highest Common Factor or Greatest Common Divisor of two or more integers when at least one of them is not zero is the
largest positive integer that evenly divides the numbers without a remainder. For example, the GCD of 8 and 12 is 4.

For example:

We have two integers 8 and 12. Let's find the HCF.

 The divisors of 8 are:

1. 1, 2, 4, 8

The divisors of 12 are:

1. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12

HCF /GCD is the greatest common divisor. So HCF of 8 and 12 are 4.

See this example:

1. def hcf(x, y):

2. if x > y:
3. smaller = y
4. else:
5. smaller = x
6. for i in range(1,smaller + 1):
7. if((x % i == 0) and (y % i == 0)):
8. hcf = i
9. return hcf
10.
11. num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
12. num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
13. print("The H.C.F. of", num1,"and", num2,"is", hcf(num1, num2))

The following example shows the HCF of 24 and 54. (according to user input)

Output:
Python Program to Convert Decimal to Binary, Octal and
Hexadecimal
Decimal System: The most widely used number system is decimal system. This system is base 10 number system. In this
system, ten numbers (0-9) are used to represent a number.

Binary System: Binary system is base 2 number system. Binary system is used because computers only understand binary
numbers (0 and 1).

Octal System: Octal system is base 8 number system.

 Hexadecimal System: Hexadecimal system is base 16 number system.

This program is written to convert decimal to binary, octal and hexadecimal.

See this example:

1. dec = int(input("Enter a decimal number: "))

2.
3. print(bin(dec),"in binary.")
4. print(oct(dec),"in octal.")
5. print(hex(dec),"in hexadecimal."

Output:

Python Program To Find ASCII value of a character

ASCII: ASCII is an acronym stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. In ASCII, a specific
numerical value is given to different characters and symbols, for computers to store and manipulate.
 It is case sensitive. Same character, having different format (upper case and lower case) has different value. For example: The
ASCII value of "A" is 65 while the ASCII value of "a" is 97.

See this example:

1. c = input("Enter a character: ")

2.
3. print("The ASCII value of '" + c + "' is",ord(c))

Output:

Python Program to Make a Simple Calculator

In Python, you can create a simple calculator, displaying the different arithmetical operations i.e. addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.

The following program is intended to write a simple calculator in Python:

See this example:

1. # define functions
2. def add(x, y):
3. """This function adds two numbers""
4. return x + y
5. def subtract(x, y):
6. """This function subtracts two numbers"""
7. return x - y
8. def multiply(x, y):
9. """This function multiplies two numbers"""
10. return x * y
11. def divide(x, y):
12. """This function divides two numbers"""
13. return x / y
14. # take input from the user
15. print("Select operation.")
16. print("[Link]")
17. print("[Link]")
18. print("[Link]")
19. print("[Link]")
20.
21. choice = input("Enter choice(1/2/3/4):")
22.
23. num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
24. num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
25.
26. if choice == '1':
27. print(num1,"+",num2,"=", add(num1,num2))
28.
29. elif choice == '2':
30. print(num1,"-",num2,"=", subtract(num1,num2))
31.
32. elif choice == '3':
33. print(num1,"*",num2,"=", multiply(num1,num2))
34. elif choice == '4':
35. print(num1,"/",num2,"=", divide(num1,num2))
36. else:
37. print("Invalid input")

Output:
 Python Function to Display Calendar
In Python, we can display the calendar of any month of any year by importing the calendar module.

See this example:

1. # First import the calendar module

2. import calendar
3. # ask of month and year
4. yy = int(input("Enter year: "))
5. mm = int(input("Enter month: "))
6. # display the calendar
7. print([Link](yy,mm))

Output:
 Python Program to Display Fibonacci Sequence Using Recursion
Fibonacci sequence:

A Fibonacci sequence is a sequence of integers which first two terms are 0 and 1 and all other terms of the sequence are
obtained by adding their preceding two numbers.

For example: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 and so on...

See this example:

1. def recur_fibo(n):
2. if n <= 1:
3. return n
4. else:
5. return(recur_fibo(n-1) + recur_fibo(n-2))
6. # take input from the user
7. nterms = int(input("How many terms? "))
8. # check if the number of terms is valid
9. if nterms <= 0:
10. print("Plese enter a positive integer")
11. else:
12. print("Fibonacci sequence:")
13. for i in range(nterms):
14. print(recur_fibo(i))

Output:
Python Program to Find Factorial of Number Using Recursion
 Factorial: Factorial of a number specifies a product of all integers from 1 to that number. It is defined by the symbol
explanation mark (!).

For example: The factorial of 5 is denoted as 5! = 1*2*3*4*5 = 120.

See this example:

1. def recur_factorial(n):
2. if n == 1:
3. return n
4. else:
5. return n*recur_factorial(n-1)
6. # take input from the user
7. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
8. # check is the number is negative
9. if num < 0:
10. print("Sorry, factorial does not exist for negative numbers")
11. elif num == 0:
12. print("The factorial of 0 is 1")
13. else:
14. print("The factorial of",num,"is",recur_factorial(num))

Output: