Unit 2 Notes: Physical Layer
Computer Networks – Tanenbaum (5th Edition)
1. Physical Layer Introduction
The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for the transmission of raw bits
over a communication channel. Functions: • Transmission of bits • Encoding and signaling • Data rate
control • Physical topology • Transmission mode management
2. Data Communication
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between devices through a transmission medium.
Components: • Sender • Receiver • Medium • Message • Protocol Characteristics: • Accuracy • Delivery
• Timeliness
3. Transmission Media
Transmission media are the communication paths through which data travels. Types: 1. Guided Media
2. Unguided Media Guided media use cables whereas unguided media use wireless communication.
4. Guided Transmission Media
Guided media use physical cables. Types: • Twisted Pair Cable • Coaxial Cable • Fiber Optic Cable
Advantages: • Secure communication • Higher reliability
5. Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. Types: • UTP (Unshielded
Twisted Pair) • STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Advantages: • Cheap • Easy installation Disadvantages: •
Noise interference • Limited bandwidth
6. Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable consists of a central conductor surrounded by insulation and shielding. Features: •
Better noise immunity • Higher bandwidth than twisted pair Applications: • Cable TV • Internet
connections
7. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cable transmits data using light signals. Advantages: • Very high bandwidth • Long-distance
communication • Immune to electromagnetic interference Disadvantages: • Expensive • Difficult
installation
8. Wireless Transmission
Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves. Types: • Radio waves • Microwaves • Infrared
waves Advantages: • Mobility • Easy installation
9. Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of different frequency ranges used for communication. Types
include: • Radio • Microwave • Infrared • Visible light Higher frequencies provide higher bandwidth.
10. Radio Transmission
Radio waves are widely used for wireless communication. Features: • Omnidirectional • Long-distance
communication Applications: • Radio broadcasting • Mobile communication
11. Microwave Transmission
Microwaves are high-frequency electromagnetic waves. Characteristics: • Line-of-sight communication •
High bandwidth Applications: • Satellite communication • Mobile towers
12. Infrared Transmission
Infrared communication uses infrared light waves. Advantages: • Secure communication • No
interference through walls Applications: • TV remotes • Short-range communication
13. Communication Satellites
Satellites relay signals between Earth stations. Types: • Geostationary satellites • Medium Earth Orbit
satellites • Low Earth Orbit satellites Applications: • GPS • Television broadcasting • Internet services
14. Geostationary Satellites
These satellites rotate with Earth and remain fixed relative to a location. Advantages: • Wide coverage
area Disadvantages: • High latency
15. Low Earth Orbit Satellites
LEO satellites are closer to Earth. Advantages: • Low delay • Better signal quality Applications: •
Modern internet systems
16. Fourier Analysis
Fourier analysis states that any signal can be represented as a combination of sine waves. Importance:
• Signal analysis • Bandwidth calculation • Communication design
17. Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies a channel can transmit. Higher bandwidth means: • Faster
communication • More data transfer
18. Data Rate
Data rate is the speed of data transmission. Measured in: • bits per second (bps) Examples: • Kbps •
Mbps • Gbps
19. Nyquist Theorem
Nyquist theorem gives the maximum data rate for a noiseless channel. Factors: • Bandwidth • Number
of signal levels
20. Shannon Capacity
Shannon theorem defines the maximum data rate of a noisy channel. Formula depends on: • Bandwidth
• Signal-to-noise ratio
21. Analog and Digital Signals
Analog signals are continuous. Digital signals are discrete. Digital communication is more reliable and
widely used in modern systems.
22. Modulation
Modulation is the process of converting digital data into signals suitable for transmission. Types: •
Amplitude Modulation • Frequency Modulation • Phase Modulation
23. Digital Modulation
Digital modulation techniques: • ASK • FSK • PSK • QAM Applications: • Mobile communication • Wi■Fi
24. Multiplexing
Multiplexing allows multiple signals to share a communication channel. Types: • Frequency Division
Multiplexing • Time Division Multiplexing • Wavelength Division Multiplexing
25. Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM divides bandwidth into multiple frequency channels. Applications: • Radio broadcasting •
Television systems
26. Time Division Multiplexing
TDM divides time into slots for different users. Advantages: • Efficient utilization • Digital communication
support
27. Code Division Multiplexing
CDM allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously using unique codes. Applications: • 3G mobile
communication
28. Public Switched Telephone Network
PSTN is the traditional telephone system. Components: • Local loops • Switching offices • Trunks
29. Mobile Telephone System
Mobile communication systems evolved from: • 1G • 2G • 3G • 4G • 5G Each generation improved
speed and services.
30. Summary of Unit 2
Unit 2 explains the physical layer, transmission media, wireless communication, satellites, modulation,
multiplexing, bandwidth, and telephone systems. It forms the foundation of data communication
systems.