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222EME017
Nanomaterials for Energy Applications
Module - IV
Fuel Cells

Prepared by:
Dr. Rejeesh C R, Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Federal Institute of Science and Technology
[Link]

Course Outcomes
After successful completion of this course, students will be able to

CO No: DESCRIPTION

CO 1 To understand the semiconductor physics behind the nanomaterials.

CO 2 To explain the application of nanomaterials for energy applications.

CO 3 To illustrate the use of nano-materials in fuel cell applications.

CO 4 To explain the Synthesis and preparation of nano-materials.

CO 5 To summarize the concepts of nano-materials for solar cells.

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Fuel cell
• A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity without
combustion by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and heat.
• Discovered by German Scientist C F Shoenbein.
• First developed by William Grove
• In 1839, Grove was experimenting on electrolysis (the process by which water is
split into hydrogen and oxygen by an electric current), when he observed that
combining the same elements could also produce an electric current.

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Advantages over conventional energy sources

• They produce zero or very low emissions, especially Green House Gases (GHGs)
depending on the fuel used.
• Have few moving parts and thus require minimal maintenance, reducing life
cycle costs of energy production.
• Modular in design, offering flexibility in size and efficiencies in manufacturing
can be utilized for combined heat and power purposes, further increasing the
efficiency of energy production

Working Principle
• A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to
create electricity by an electrochemical process.
• A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two thin
electrodes (a porous anode and cathode).
• Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to the anode where a catalyst separates
hydrogen's negatively charged electrons from positively charged ions (protons).
• At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases, with species
such as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide ions, respectively.

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Working Principle
• The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the membrane to the
positively charged cathode; they must travel around it via an electrical circuit to
reach the other side of the cell.

• This movement of electrons is an electrical current.

• The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon several factors, such as
fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it operates, and the pressure at which
the gases are supplied to the cell.

• Still, a single fuel cell produces enough electricity for only the smallest applications.
Therefore, individual fuel cells are typically combined in series into a fuel cell stack.

• A typical fuel cell stack may consist of hundreds of fuel cells.

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Classification of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ.
This determines the kind of chemical reactions taking place in the cell, kind of catalysts
required, temperature range in which the cell operates, fuel required, and other factors.
Based on the type of Electrolyte
1. Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)
2. Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)
3. Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
➢ Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) and
➢ Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel cell (PEMFC)
4. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
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Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

• The alkaline fuel cell uses an alkaline electrolyte such as 40% aqueous potassium hydroxide.

• In alkaline fuel cells, negative ions travel through the electrolyte to the anode where they
combine with hydrogen to generate water and electrons.

• Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and they were
the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and water
onboard spacecraft.

• These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use
a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode.

• High-temperature AFCs operate at temperatures between 100ºC and 250ºC (212ºF and
482ºF). However, more-recent AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of roughly 23ºC to
70ºC (74ºF to 158ºF).
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Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

• AFCs are high-performance fuel cells due to the rate at which chemical reactions take place
in the cell. They are also very efficient, reaching efficiencies of 60% in space applications.
• The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide (CO2).
• In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can affect the cell's operation, making it
necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell.
• CO2 can combine with KOH to form potasium carbonate which will increase the resistance.
This purification process is costly. Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime,
further adding to cost.
• Cost is less of a factor for remote locations such as space or under the sea. However, to
effectively compete in most mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have to
become more cost effective.
• AFC stacks have been shown to maintain sufficiently stable operation for more than 8,000
operating hours..
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Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

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Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

• The molten carbonate fuel cell uses a molten carbonate salt as the electrolyte. It has the
potential to be fuelled with coal- derived fuel gases, methane or natural gas.

• These fuel cells can work at up to 60% efficiency. In molten carbonate fuel cells, negative ions
travel through the electrolyte to the anode where they combine with hydrogen to generate
water and electrons.

• MCFCs are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for
electrical utility, industrial, and military applications.

• MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten
carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum
oxide (LiAlO2) matrix.

• Since they operate at high temperatures of 650ºC and above, nonprecious metals can be used
as catalysts at the anode and cathode, to reduce cost.
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Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

• Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and PEM fuel cells, MCFCs don't require an external
reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen.
• Due to the high operating temperatures, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the
fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.
• Although they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, ways to make
MCFCs resistant enough to impurities from coal, such as sulfur and particulates are
under research.
• The primary disadvantage of MCFC is durability. High temperature operation and
corrosive nature of electrolyte accelerates component breakdown and corrosion,
decreasing cell life.
• Corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs are explored to
increase cell life without decreasing performance.

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Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)

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Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)

• The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is considered the "first generation" of modern
fuel cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially.
• They are 85% efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat, but
less efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42%).
• PAFCs are also less powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and
volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also
expensive.
• Like PEM fuel cells, PAFCs require an expensive platinum catalyst, which raises the
cost of the fuel cell.

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Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)

• A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) consists of an anode and a cathode made of a
finely dispersed platinum catalyst on carbon and a silicon carbide structure that holds
the phosphoric acid electrolyte.
• In PAFC, protons move through the electrolyte to the cathode to combine with oxygen
and electrons, producing water and heat.
• PAFC use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte— the acid is contained in a Teflon-
bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum
catalyst.
• This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs
have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses PAFCs are more tolerant of
impurities.
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Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)

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Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)

• In polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, protons move through the
electrolyte to the cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and
heat.
• PEMFC uses a polymeric membrane as the electrolyte, with platinum electrodes.
These cells operate at relatively low temperatures.
• These cells are best suited for cars, for buildings and smaller applications.
• PEM fuel cells—also called proton exchange membrane fuel cells—deliver high
power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other
fuel cells.
• PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes
containing a platinum catalyst. They only use hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and
water to operate and do not require corrosive fluids like some fuel cells.
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Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)

• Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around
80°C (176°F).
• They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard
reformers.
• Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in
less wear on system components, resulting in better durability.
• However, it requires that a noble metal catalyst (typically platinum) to separate the
hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost.
• The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning, making it necessary to
employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from an
alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel.
• This also adds cost. Developers are currently exploring platinum/ ruthenium catalysts that
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PEM fuel cells (PEMFC)

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Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

• Work at higher temperatures.

• They use a solid ceramic electrolyte, such as zirconium oxide stabilised with yttrium
oxide, instead of a liquid and operate at 800 to 1,000°C.

• In SOFC, negative ions travel through the electrolyte to the anode where they
combine with hydrogen to generate water and electrons.

• Efficiencies of around 60% and are expected to be used for generating electricity
and heat in industry and potentially for providing auxiliary power in vehicles.

• Since electrolyte is a solid, the cells need not be constructed in the plate-like
configuration typical of other fuel cell types.

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Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

• High temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst,
thereby reducing cost.
• They are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO), which can even be used
as fuel.
• Sulphur resistant - This allows SOFCs to use gases made from coal.
• Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-
temperature SOFCs operating at or below 800ºC that have fewer durability
problems and cost less.

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Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

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Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

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Fuel cell power plant

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Carbon Nano-tubes for energy storage

• CNTs revolutionize energy storage by enhancing batteries and supercapacitors
with superior electrical conductivity, high surface area, and mechanical
strength, enabling faster charging, higher capacity, and longer lifespan.

• They are used as conductive additives, electrode materials, and to create

flexible energy storage, with potential to triple the energy density of
conventional lithium-ion batteries.

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Carbon Nano-tubes for energy storage

Key Roles of CNTs in Energy Storage:

➢Lithium-ion Batteries: CNTs act as a conductive network, boosting capacity, improving

charge-discharge speed, and enhancing electrode durability.

➢Supercapacitors: Their high surface area allows for efficient charge storage, offering high
power density.

➢Next-Generation Batteries: They are used in Lithium-Sulfur (Li-S) and solid-state

batteries to mitigate structural degradation.

➢Mechanical Energy Storage: Twisted CNT ropes are capable of storing significant energy,
outperforming conventional technologies in specific scenarios.

➢Thermal Management: Due to high thermal conductivity, CNTs help dissipate heat,
reducing risks of thermal runaway.
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Hydrogen Storage in Carbon Nano-tubes

• CNTs are promising materials for hydrogen storage due to their high surface
area and low weight, allowing for physical adsorption (physisorption) of
hydrogen.

• While pristine CNTs typically require cryogenic temperatures for significant

storage, modification techniques like doping, functionalization, or creating
defects can enhance storage capacities, potentially enabling room-temperature
storage.

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Hydrogen Storage in Carbon Nano-tubes

Key Aspects of Hydrogen Storage in CNTs
• Storage Mechanism: Primarily physisorption, where hydrogen molecules adhere to the
surface (inside, outside, or between tubes) through weak van der Waals forces.
• Storage Capacities: Reported capacities vary widely, with theoretical and
experimental studies suggesting that single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) can
achieve capacities over 4 wt%. Some studies show high-surface-area materials can
reach higher capacities.
• Limitations: Pristine CNTs have low interaction energy (approx. 1 kcal/mol), making
high-pressure and cryogenic conditions necessary.
• Types: Single-walled (SWNTs) and multi-walled (MWNTs) are used, with SWNTs
usually offering higher capacities due to larger internal volumes.
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Hydrogen Storage in Carbon Nano-tubes

Key Aspects of Hydrogen Storage in CNTs
• Enhancement Strategies: Modifying CNTs, such as doping with phosphorus (P-doped)
or introducing metal catalysts (e.g., Platinum), can significantly increase binding
energy and allow for higher storage capacities and potential for room-temperature
applications.
Main Challenges
• Cryogenic Need: Most storage occurs at very low temperatures.
• Low Packing Density: CNT bundles can have low bulk density, requiring compaction (e.g.,
to 800 Kg/m3) without losing porosity to be effective in practical applications.
• Contradictory Data: Initial studies reported very high capacities, but many were later
found to be artifacts, leading to inconsistent performance reports.
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Nano-scale catalysts:
Save energy and increase industrial productivity
➢ Nano-scale catalysts (nanocatalysts) are transforming industrial processes by
offering significantly higher surface-to-volume ratios and unique physicochemical
properties compared to traditional bulk catalysts.
➢ By providing a larger number of active sites, these catalysts
▪ accelerate chemical reactions,
▪ improve selectivity, and
▪ allow for operation under milder conditions
—such as lower temperatures and pressures
— This results in reduced energy consumption and higher productivity.
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