BAE602 Aircraft Performance and

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Stability

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2022 SCHEME (VI –semester)
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Prepared By Dr. Ezhilmaran Gopalakrishnan,

Assistant Professor,
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
DETAILS OF COURSE

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All modules syllabus

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All modules syllabus

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All modules syllabus

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 BOOKS
suggested Learning Resources:
Text Books
1. John D. Anderson, Jr. “Aircraft Performance and Design”, McGraw-Hill International Editions,
Aerospace Science/ Technology Editions, 1999.
2. John D. Anderson, Jr., “Introduction to flight” McGraw-Hill International Editions, Aerospace
Science/ Technology Editions, 2000.
3. Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance stability and Control”, John Wiley Son

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Inc, New York, 1988.

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4. Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic Control”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 2007.

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Reference Books
1. Perkins, C.D., and Hage, R.E., “Airplane Performance stability and Control”, John Wiley Son
Inc, New York, 1988. U
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2. Barnes W. McCormick, ` Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics`, John Wiley&
Sons, Inc. 1995. 3. Bandu N. Pamadi, `Performance, Stability, Dynamics and Control of
Airplanes`, AIAA 2nd Edition Series, 2004.
4. John D. Anderson, Jr., “Introduction to flight” McGraw-Hill, International Editions, Aerospace
Science
Technology Editions, 2000.
5. W.J. Duncan, The Principles of the Control and Stability of Aircraft, Cambridge University
Press, 2016.
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[Link]

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Use below code to join the class
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 COURSE OUTCOME

 Apply the Equations of motion for unaccelerated steady

flight, climb and glide flight.
 Calculate the Range and Endurance of propeller driven and

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jet driven airplanes

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 Determine the airplane performance parameters and
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accelerated flights in various maneuvers.
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 Apply the basic concepts of aircraft stability and control.
 Differentiate the static longitudinal and static directional
stability.
 MODULE-1 Syllabus
The Equations of Motion Steady Unaccelerated Flight:
Introduction, four forces of flight, General equation of motion,
Power available and power required curves. Thrust available and
thrust required curves. Conditions for power required and thrust
required minimum. Thrust available and maximum velocity, Power

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available and maximum velocity, Altitude effects on power available

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and power required; thrust available and thrust required.

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Steady Performance – Level Flight, Climb & Glide
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Performance:
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Equation of motion for Rate of climb- graphical and analytical
approach -Absolute ceiling, Service ceiling, Time to climb –
graphical and analytical approach, climb performance graph
(hodograph diagram); maximum climb angle and rate of climb
Gliding flight, Range during glide, minimum rate of sink and
shallowest angle of glide
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MODULE :1 THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
STEADY UNACCELERATED FLIGHT

Prepared By [Link],

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Senior Assistant Professor,

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Department of Aeronautical Engineering
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 Module-1 Syllabus
The Equations of Motion Steady Unaccelerated Flight
Introduction, four forces of flight, General equation of
motion, Power available and power required curves. Thrust
available and thrust required curves. Conditions for power
required and thrust required minimum. Thrust available and

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maximum velocity, Power available and maximum velocity,

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Altitude effects on power available and power required; thrust

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available and thrust required.
Steady Performance – Level Flight, Climb & Glide
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Performance: Equation of motion for Rate of climb-
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graphical and analytical approach -Absolute ceiling, Service
ceiling, Time to climb – graphical and analytical
approach, climb performance graph (hodograph diagram);
maximum climb angle and rate of climb Gliding flight, Range
during glide, minimum rate of sink and shallowest angle of
glide
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steady performance
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS COVERS
THE FOLLOWING

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• Unaccelerated flights
• Accelerated flights AD
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steady performance
 Unaccelerated flights
Steady level flight

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Steady climb
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Descent and glide
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Range and endurance

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steady performance
 Accelerated flights
Accelerated level flight
Accelerated climb

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Manoeuvres like loop and turn
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Take-off
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Landing
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steady performance
EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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Fig 1. Flight path

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steady performance
APPROXIMATE REPRESENTATION OF
FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT

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Fig 2. Steady Level Flight

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steady performance
 TRUE REPRESENTATION OF
FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT

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Fig 2. Steady Level Flight

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steady performance
 STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT

• In this flight the c.g. of the airplane moves along a straight line
at a constant velocity and at a given altitude. The flight path is a
horizontal line. The forces acting on the airplane are shown in
Fig 2. ‘T’ is Thrust, ‘D’ is Drag ,’L’ is lift and ‘W’ is the weight of
the airplane.

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Equations of Motions in Steady Level Flight:

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• The equations of motion are obtained by resolving, along and
perpendicular to the flight direction, the forces acting on the
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T-D = m ax
L-W = m az
• Where m is the mass of airplane and ax, and az, are the
components of acceleration along and perpendicular flight
path.
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steady performance
 STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
• Since the flight is steady i.e. no acceleration along tangent to
the flight path, ax = 0. Further the flight is straight and level
i.e. no change in altitude, az=0.
• Hence the equations of motion reduce to:
T – D = 0, L – W = 0 1

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Since W=L = (1/2)ρV2 SCL

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We get V= (2W/ρSCL)1/2 2

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and (1/2)ρV2S = W/CL
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We get, Further the thrust required (Tr) is given by:
Tr = D =(1/2) ρ V2 SCD
Substituting for (1/2) ρ V2 S as W/CL, gives
Tr = W (CD/CL) 3

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steady performance
 STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT
The power required (Pr), in kilowatts, is given by
Pr = Tr V/1000 ,
where Tr is in Newton and V in m/s.
Substituting for V and Tr from Eqs. 2 and 3

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i) Equations 1 to 4 are the basic equations for steady level flight and would be used
in subsequent analysis of this case.
ii) To fly in a steady level flight at chosen values of h and V, the pilot should adjust (a) the
angle of attack of the airplane to get the desired lift coefficient so that L equals W and (b)
engine setting so that thrust equals drag at desired angle of attack.
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steady performance
 STALLING SPEED
• From Eq. 2 we note that for an airplane with a given
weight (W) , wing area (S) and flying at an altitude (h),
the flight velocity (V) is proportional to 1/CL1/2 . Thus
the value of CL required would increase as the flight

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speed decreases.

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• Since CL cannot exceed CLmax, there is a flight speed
below which level flight is not possible.
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• The flight speed at which CL equals CLmax is called the
stalling speed and is denoted by Vs.
Vs= (2W/ρSCLmax)1/2 5

• It is evident from Eq. 5 that Vs increases with

altitude since theModule_1_Steady
density unaccelerated
(ρ) decreases
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with height.
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steady performance
 EQUIVALENT AIR SPEED
Equivalent air speed (Ve) is defined as :

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NOTE:
From Eq. 6 it is evident that for a given wing loading (W/S), the
equivalent air speed in steady level flight is proportional to (1/CL)1/2
and is independent of altitude. Thus the stalling speed, for a given
airplane configuration, when expressed as equivalent speed is
independent of altitude. Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight & 13
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 EQUIVALENT AIR SPEED

• To avoid confusion between equivalent airspeed (Ve)

and the actual speed of the airplane relative to the
free stream (V), the latter is generally referred to as

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true airspeed.

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• The significance of equivalent airspeed in reducing
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the work involve in performance estimation will be
clear from subsequent sections.

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steady performance
 THRUST REQUIRED AND POWER
REQUIRED IN LEVEL FLIGHT

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CD depends on CL and Mach number. The relationship between CD and CL,
the drag polar, is known from the estimation of the aerodynamic
characteristics of the airplane.

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steady performance
 THE STEPS TO CALCULATE PR AND TR
GRAPHICAL METHOD
i) Choose an altitude (h).
ii) Choose a flight velocity (V).
iii) For chosen values of V and h, and given values of the weight of
airplane (W) and the wing area (S) calculate CL as :

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where ρ corresponds to density at the chosen ‘h’.
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iv) Calculate Mach number from M = V/a, where ‘a’ is the speed of
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sound at the chosen altitude.
v) For the values of CL and M, calculated in steps (iii) and (iv),
obtain CD from the drag polar.
vi) Knowing CD, The thrust required (Tr) and power required (Pr)
can now be calculated using Eqs. 3 & 4
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steady performance
 REMARKS
• When the Mach number is less than about 0.7, the drag polar
is generally independent of Mach number. In this case,
plotting CD/CL versus CL and CD/CL3/2 versus CL, we get the
curves.
• From these curves we find that CD/CL is minimum at a certain

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value of CL . This CL is denoted by CLmd as the drag is minimum

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at this CL.

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• The power required is minimum when CD/CL3/2 is minimum.
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The CL at which this occurs is denoted by CLmp .
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Thus in steady level flight.
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steady performance
VARIATION OF CD/CL WITH CL

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Fig 3.a
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steady performance
VARIATION OF CD/CL3/2 VS CL

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Fig 3.b Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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steady performance
 SPEEDS
• The speeds at which the drag and the power required
are minimum, are denoted by Vmd and Vmp
respectively. The expressions for Vmd and Vmp are:

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Note:
i) CLmd and CLmp are not same and the corresponding speeds are
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different. Equation shows that these speeds increase with altitude.
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(ii) Since for Mach numbers lower than about 0.7,the drag polar is
assumed to be independent of Mach number, the values of CLmd ,
CLmp , (CD/CL) min and (CD/CL3/2)MIN are also independent of Mach
number. It is seen that Trmin is independent of altitude whereas Prmin
increases with altitude in proportion to 1/ σ1/2.
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steady performance
 NOTE

From Eqs 7 and 8 it is seen that Trmin is independent of

altitude whereas Prmin increases with altitude in proportion to
1/ σ1/2.
iii) As seen in Fig.3 a, a line drawn parallel to the X-axis cuts the
curve at two points A and B. This shows that for the same value

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of CD/CL or the thrust {Tr=(CD/CL) }, an airplane can have steady

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level flight at two values of lift coefficients viz. CLA and CLB. From

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Eq. 2 each value of CL corresponds to a velocity. Hence for the
same amount of thrust, in general, flight is possible at two
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These speeds are: VA= (2W/ρSCLA)1/2 , VB= (2W/ρSCLB)1/2 9a
• Similarly from Fig.3.b we observe that with the same power, in
general, level flight is possible at two values of lift coefficient
viz. CLA and CLB and correspondingly two flight speeds viz. VA and
VB .
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THRUST REQUIRED AND THRUST AVAILABLE
FOR SUBSONIC JET AIRPLANE

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Fig 4.
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 OBSERVATIONS
• iv) Typical variations of thrust required with flight speed and
altitude are shown in Fig.4. Following interesting observations
can be made. From Eq.(7) the minimum drag depends only on
W and (CD/CL)min and is independent of altitude when the drag
polar is independent of Mach number. This is the case for

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subsonic airplanes especially at CL=CLmd.

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• However the speed corresponding to minimum drag (Vmd)
increases with altitude (Eq.9). Hence the thrust required curves
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at various altitudes have the same minimum at all altitudes and
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the curves have a
• horizontal line, corresponding to T=Tmin , as common tangent
(See Fig.4). This feature should be kept in mind when thrust
required curves for subsonic airplanes are plotted.

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steady performance
POWER REQUIRED AND POWER AVAILABLE
CURVES

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Fig 5. a
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POWER REQUIRED AND POWER AVAILABLE AT
AN ALTITUDE NEAR CEILING

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Fig 5. b
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 OBSERVATIONS
• iv) Typical variations of power required with flight speed and
altitude are shown in Fig. 5.a Interesting observations can be
made in this case also. From Eq.(5.8) the minimum power
required (Prmin) depends on W3/2 , (CD/CL 3/2)min and ρ-1/2 . From
Eq.(9) we observe that Vmp depends on ρ-1/2 . Noting that for

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airplanes with piston engine or turboprop engine, the flight

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Mach number is less than 0.7, the drag polar is independent of
Mach number . However due to dependence on ρ-1/2 , the Prmin
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and Vmp increase with altitude (Fig.5.a) .
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• It may be added that the slope of a line, joining a point on the
Pr vs. V curve and the origin, is Pr/V or Tr . However Tr has a
minimum which is independent of altitude. Hence all Pr vs. V
curves have a common tangent passing through the origin.

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 EXPRESSION FOR THRUST REQUIRED MINIMUM(TR)

• The earlier discussion was with reference to a general drag polar

given in the form of a table or a curve. Now we consider the
parabolic polar given by
CD=CD0+KCL2 10

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• we will assume that CD0 and K are constant with Mach number.

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Substituting for CD in expression for thrust required gives :

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• Since we now have an equation for the drag polar, it is possible
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to obtain mathematical expressions for the power required and
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thrust required. Presently we will assume that CD0 and K are
constant with Mach number.
• Substituting for CD in expression for thrust required gives :
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steady performance
EXPRESSION FOR THRUST REQUIRED MINIMUM(TR)

Substituting for CL as W/{(1/2)ρV2S} in Eq.(11) yields:

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In Eq. (12) the first term(½)ρV2SCD0 is called parasite drag. The
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second term 2KW2/(ρV2S) is called induced drag. The variations
of parasite drag and induced drag and the total drag are shown in
Fig.6. The parasite drag, being proportional to V2, increases
rapidly with speed.

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steady performance
EXPRESSION FOR THRUST REQUIRED MINIMUM(TR)

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Fig .6 Variation of Drag with flight speed.

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steady performance
 EXPRESSION FOR THRUST REQUIRED MINIMUM(TR)

The induced drag being proportional to 1/V2 is high at low speeds

but decreases rapidly as speed increases. The total drag, the
sum of the induced drag and the parasite drag, is approximately
equal to induced drag at low speeds and approaches parasite
drag at high speeds. It has a minimum at a speed () where the

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parasite drag and induced drag are equal to each other (Fig.6).

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This can be verified by differentiating Eq.(12) with respect to V

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and equating it to zero i.e.
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 EXPRESSION FOR THRUST REQUIRED MINIMUM(TR)

Substituting Vmd in Eq.(12) gives minimum thrust required i.e.

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 EXPRESSION FOR POWER REQUIRED WITH PARABOLIC
POLAR: (PR)

Substituting for CD from Eq.10 gives :

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The first term in Eq. (15) is called the parasite power and the
second term is called the induced power. The variations of
induced power, parasite power and the total power required
are shown in Fig. 7.
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steady performance
EXPRESSION FOR POWER REQUIRED WITH PARABOLIC
POLAR: (PR)

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Fig .7 Variation of Power required with Flight speed

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steady performance
EXPRESSION FOR POWER REQUIRED WITH PARABOLIC
POLAR: (PR)

It is seen that the minimum power occurs at a speed, Vmp, at

which the induced power is three times the parasite power.
This verification, which can be done by differentiating Eq. (15)
with respect to V and equating it to zero, is left as an exercise
to the student.

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 ALTERNATE METHOD FOR TR & PR MINIMUM EXPRESSION
i) The expressions given in Eqs. (13) and (14) can be obtained in the
following alternative way:

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But for a parabolic polar

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The value of CL at which (CD/CL) is minimum i.e. (CLmd) is given by

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The corresponding Drag coefficient , CDmd

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steady performance
 ALTERNATE METHOD FOR TR & PR MINIMUM EXPRESSION

• Equation (21) shows that when Tr equals Tmin, both parasite

drag coefficient and induced drag coefficient are equal to CD0.
Hence under this condition the parasite drag and induced drag
are each equal to (1/2)ρV2SCD0.
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• which are same as Eqs.(14) & (13).

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 ALTERNATE METHOD FOR TR & PR MINIMUM EXPRESSION
• ii) Similarly, expressions given in Eqs. (16) and (17) can be
obtained in the following alternate manner.

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 ALTERNATE METHOD FOR TR & PR MINIMUM EXPRESSION

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Then the drag coefficient , corresponding to CLmd is given by:

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Equation (24) shows that when Pr equals Prmin the parasite drag

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coefficient is equal to CD0 and the induced drag coefficient is
equal to 3CD0. Consequently the parasite power is
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(1/2)ρV3SCD0 and induced power is 3 times of that.
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steady performance
 ALTERNATE METHOD FOR TR & PR MINIMUM EXPRESSION

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The above expression for Vmp is same as in Eq.(16).

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NOTE:

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• (a) The low speed airplanes are powered by engines delivering BHP/ESHP. In
this case the major portion of the power required is induced power, power,
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which depends on the factor K in drag polar (Eq.10). This factor is given as 1 /
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(π Ae) where A is the aspect ratio of the wing and ‘e’ is the Oswald’s efficiency
factor
• Hence the low speed airplanes and gliders have high aspect ratio wings. It may
be added that personal airplanes have aspect ratio between 6 to 8 as hanger
space is also a consideration. However medium speed commercial airplanes
have aspect ratio between 10 to 12. Gliders have aspect ratio has high as 16 to
20.
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steady performance
 TR & PR MINIMUM EXPRESSION-OBSERVATIONS
(b) For high subsonic airplanes most of the drag is parasite drag which
depends on CD0.
• Hence high speed airplanes have features like smooth surfaces, thin
wings, streamlined fuselage, smooth fairings at wing-fuselage joint
and retractable landing gear. They also have high wing loading
(W/S) to reduce the wing area. Manufacturing techniques have

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been improved to achieve smooth surface finish. At supersonic

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speeds thin wings ( thickness ratio around 3 to 5%) are used to

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reduce CD0.
• The reciprocal of (CD/CL) is (CL/ CD). It is called Lift-Drag ratio (L/D).
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The maximum value of this ratio, (L/D)max, is an indication of the
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aerodynamic efficiency of the airplane. (L/D)max lies between 12 to
20 for a subsonic airplanes and between 5 to 8 for supersonic
airplanes.
• When the weight of an airplane increases the thrust required
increases in proportion to W and the power required increases in
proportion to W3/2 (see Eqs. 3 and 4).
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steady performance
 STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH A GIVEN ENGINE

• In steady level flight the thrust must be equal to drag (Eq.1). The
thrust is provided by the engine or the engine-propeller
combination. we know that the thrust or power output varies
with engine RPM, flight speed and altitude. Typical variations,
with altitude and speed, of the maximum thrust available (Ta) and
the maximum thrust horse power available (THP)a are shown in

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Figs. 4 and 5.

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• For airplanes with piston engine or turboprop engine the output

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is the power available at the engine shaft. Hence to estimate the
performance such airplanes we work in terms of BHP or THP.
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• For airplanes with turbofan or turbojet engines the output is in
terms of engine thrust and we work with that quantity for
estimation of their performance.
• The thrust required and power required are also shown in the
Figs.(4) & (5 a). It is seen that near the sea level the power or
thrust available is much more than the minimum power or thrust
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STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH A GIVEN ENGINE

• Hence flights over a wide range of speeds are

possible by controlling the engine output with the
help of throttle. However, as the speed increases
above the speed for minimum power or thrust (Vmp
or Vmd), the power or thrust required increases and at

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a certain speed the power or thrust required is equal

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to the maximum available engine output (point A in
Figs. 4 & 5.a). This speed is called the maximum
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speed Vmax.
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• Similar intersections between power available and

power required curves or thrust available and thrust
required curves are seen at higher altitudes ( points
B,C and D in Fig.5.5, point B in Fig.5.a and point C in
Fig.5. b). Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &
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STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH A GIVEN ENGINE

• Similarly, when the flight speed decreases below Vmp or Vmd

the power or thrust required increases and there is a speed at
which the power or thrust required is equal to the available
power or thrust - points D’ in Fig.4 and point C’ in Fig.5b. It
may be added that Fig.5 b has been drawn separately from

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Fig.5.a to show the points C and C’ clearly.

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• Thus, the minimum speed can be limited by available output.
We denote it by (Vmin)e. However in level flight the lift must be
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equal to weight and hence level flight is not be possible below
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stalling speed. Thus two factors viz. the power available and
the stalling, limit the minimum flight speed of an airplane.
Satisfying both these requirements, the minimum speed of
the airplane at an altitude will be the higher of the speeds
limited by the engine output (Vmin)e and the stalling speed VS.
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 STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH A GIVEN ENGINE

• From the thrust available (Ta) and thrust required (Tr) charts, the
maximum speeds at various altitudes can be obtained as the
intersection of the Ta and Tr curves for a given altitudes (Fig. 4).
• Typical variations of Vmax, (Vmin)e and Vstall are shown for a jet engined
airplane in Fig. 8. Similarly typical variations of these speeds in case of

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a piston engined airplane are shown in Fig.9

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• It is seen that for a jet airplane the Vmax may slightly increase with

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altitude initially and then decrease. However there is an altitude at
which the thrust required curve is tangential to the thrust available
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curve and flight is possible only at one speed. This altitude is called
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ceiling and denoted by hmax. Above hmax the thrust available is lower
than the minimum thrust required and level flight is not possible.
• The minimum speed at low altitudes is limited by stalling. However
near the ceiling the minimum level flight speed is limited by thrust
available.
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 STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH A GIVEN ENGINE

• In the case of piston engined airplane, the maximum speed

seems to decrease with altitude. In this case also there is a
ceiling altitude beyond which the power available is lower
than the minimum power required. The ceiling in this case is
lower than in the case of jet airplane because the piston

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engine looses power rapidly with altitude. As regards the

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minimum speed it is also limited by stalling at low altitudes
and by power available near the ceiling altitude.
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STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH A GIVEN ENGINE

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Fig. 8 Vmax and Vmin for jet airplane

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STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE WITH A GIVEN ENGINE

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Fig. 5.9 Vmax , (Vmin)e and Vs for airplane with engine propeller combination
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TUTORIALS

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Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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steady performance
ASSIGNMENT-I
Submission Date :

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Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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steady performance
ASSIGNMENT-I
Submission Date :

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Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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steady performance
TUTORIALS

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Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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steady performance
TUTORIALS

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Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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steady performance
TUTORIALS

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Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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Module_1_Steady unaccelerated Flight &

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BAE602 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
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2022 SCHEME (VI –semester)
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Prepared By [Link],
Assistant Professor,
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
RATE OF CLIMB

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 Variation of rate of climb with
velocity at a given altitude.

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Analytical Approach jet-propelled airplane

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maximum climb angle
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optimize climb performance can be obtained by studying the cases for
and maximum rate of climb (R/ C)max,
Maximum Climb Angle- jet-propelled airplane

the maximum climb angle will

occur When the lift-to-drag ratio is
a maximum, that is for a jet-

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propelled airplane.

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jet-propelled airplane
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The flight velocity corresponding to is obtained as follows
Maximum Climb Angle- jet-propelled airplane

jet-propelled airplane

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Finally, the rate of climb that corresponds to the maximum climb

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angle is given by

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Maximum Climb Angle- propeller-driven airplane.

where is the propeller efficiency and P is the shaft power from the reciprocating
piston engine

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calculate θmax
Maximum Rate of Climb- jet-propelled airplane.

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Maximum Rate of Climb- propeller-
driven airplane

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Figure. Hodograph diagram for climb performance at a given Altitude.
 Gliding(Unpowered Flight)

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Range covered in an equilibrium guide. Sketch of !he variation of Cl and LID versus angle of
attack for a given airplane.
 Gliding(Unpowered Flight)
• The rate of descent, sometimes called the sink rate,
is the downward vertical velocity of the airplane Vv .

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It is, for unpowered flight, the analog of rate of climb
for powered flight.
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• Rate of descent = Vv = V∞ sinθ
• Rate of descent is a positive number in the
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downward direction.

By making the assumption of cosθ = 1

 Gliding(Unpowered Flight)
• Clearly, minimum sink rate occurs at the flight
velocity for minimum power required. Hence
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• the conditions for minimum sink rate are the
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same as those for (PR)min,
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 Gliding(Unpowered Flight)
• This sketch is shown just to emphasize that the minimum sink
rate does not correspond to the minimum glide angle.

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• The flight velocity for the minimum sink rate ( corresponding
to maximum CL3/2 /CD) is less than that for minimum glide

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angle (corresponding to maximum CL/ CD).

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• An analytical expression for the sink rate Vv can be obtained
as follows.

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 Gliding(Unpowered Flight)

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Hodograph for unpowered Flight.
Rate of descent versus equilibrium guide velocity.
Gliding(Unpowered Flight)

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 SUMMARY
1. For steady, level flight, the equations of
motion are the simple equilibrium relations.
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2. The basic aerodynamics needed for a
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performance analysis is the drag polar.
 SUMMARY
• 3. A thrust required curve is a plot of TR = D versus
velocity for a given airplane at a given altitude. A
thrust available curve is a plot of TA versus
velocity for a given airplane at a given altitude.
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4. The design parameters TR/ W and W /S play a
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strong role in airplane performance. An analytical

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expression for the resulting airplane velocity for a
given TR/Wand W/S is
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 SUMMARY
5. A power required curve is a plot of PR versus
velocity for a given airplane at a given
altitude. A power available curve is a plot of
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PA versus velocity for a given airplane at a

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given altitude.
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 SUMMARY
6. The following aerodynamic relations are
important for a static performance analysis.
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a. Maximum LID occurs when the zero-lift drag
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equals the drag due to lift:
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b. The value of (L/ D)max depends only on CD,o
and K.
 SUMMARY
• The flight velocity at which (L/D)max is
achieved for a given airplane depends on the
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altitude and wing loading:

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• Minimum TR occurs when L/ D is maximum.
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