C HAPTER

10 100–1500

African
Kingdoms The early peoples of Africa
adapted to many different
environments and created a
variety of societies. As these societies grew,
different forms of government arose to lead
them. In time, great trading kingdoms and
empires developed in West and East Africa.
In addition to trade, strong rulers and reli-
gion shaped the accomplishments, charac-
teristics, and culture of African kingdoms
and empires.

.#
North Carolina Standards
Social Studies Objectives
2.07 Describe the rise and achievements of African civi-
lizations, including but not limited to Axum, Ghana, Kush,
Mali, Nubia, and Songhai.
Language Arts Objective
2.01.4 Demonstrate the ability to read, listen to and view a
variety of increasingly complex print and non-print informa-
tion texts appropriate to grade level and course by demon-
strating comprehension of main idea and supporting details.

TIME LINE

c. 200s c. 350 c. 800 c. 1100

The camel has The kingdom Empire of Ghana Kilwa becomes a
CHAPTER been introduced of Aksum controls trade leading coastal
EVENTS into North Africa. defeats Kush. in West Africa. trade center.
200 500 800

WORLD 320 476 c. 710 1096

EVENTS The Gupta Empire The Western Roman Muslim Arabs The Crusades
begins a Golden Empire falls. control almost all begin in Europe.
Age in India. of North Africa.

280 CHAPTER 10

w8ncfs_afk_opener.indd 280 2/15/07 7:52:08 AM

 History's Impact video program
Watch the video to understand the impact of
the salt trade.

Reading
like a This photo shows the
Historian Djenné Mosque, located in
the city of Djenné in the West African nation of Mali.
Founded in the 1200s, Djenné was a center of trade
c. 1230s 1324 1464
Empire of Mali Mansa Musa Sunni Ali becomes
and Muslim learning. The Djenné Mosque blends
controls trade begins a hajj ruler of the imported Muslim styles with mud-building styles
in West Africa. to Mecca. Songhai Empire. native to West Africa.
1200 Analyzing Visuals Based on the image, what are
1325 1453 some features of West African mud-building?
Aztecs found The Ottoman See Skills Handbook, p. H26
the city of Empire conquers
Tenochtitlán. Constantinople.

AFRICAN KINGDOMS 281

w8nafs_afk_opener.indd 281 2/27/07 8:45:43 PM

 Geography Starting Points
Interactive

Environments of Africa
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Savanna Much of Africa is savanna, open
grasslands with scattered shrubs and trees.

Africa, the world’s 1. Analyze In what vegetation zone was

second-largest continent, has a broad range Benin City located? How do you think Listen to History
of environments, from barren deserts to lush that location affected life there?
Go online to listen to an
tropical rain forests. These environments played 2. Predict Iron working slowly spread from explanation of the starting
a role in shaping the many cultures that arose in North Africa throughout the rest of the points for this chapter.
early Africa. In addition, Africa has a wealth of continent. Based on the map, how do
mineral resources, such as iron ore, which some you think the knowledge of iron working [Link]

Africans were forging into iron by 400 BC. might have spread throughout Africa? Keyword: SHL AFK

282 Chapter 10
 Section

1 Early Civilizations
in Africa
As you
Before You Read read,
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms use a graphic orga-
nizer like this one
Africa’s earliest people 1. How does Africa’s diverse Sahel
to take notes on the
adapted to a wide range of geography shape life on the savanna
geography, early
geographic conditions to continent? griots
societies, and Iron
establish societies based 2. What cultural patterns did Nok
Age of Africa.
on family ties, religion, iron Africa’s early societies share? Bantu
technology, and trade. Early
3. What major changes
Africa
affected societies during
Africa’s Iron Age?

Why might a storyteller be history was passed down orally by storytellers. Called griots,
highly respected? “Listen to my word, these storytellers memorized the tales of heroic kings and
you who want to know; by my mouth deeds and passed the information on from generation to
you will learn the history of Mali.” A storyteller named Djeli generation. Because of their important role in passing on
Mamoudou Kouyaté began to relate the tale of the great knowledge, griots were highly respected. The storyteller
warrior and king Sundiata, founder of the Mali Empire. Kouyaté explained that “without us the names of kings
“He was a lad full of strength; his arms had the strength of would vanish into oblivion, we are the memory of mankind.”
ten and his biceps inspired fear in his companions. He had Traditions such as storytelling were part of the cultural land-
already that authoritative way of speaking which belongs scape of early Africa.
to those who are destined to command.” Most early African
civilizations did not develop a written language. Instead,

Keeper of the A storyteller called a griot

passes a legend on to the next

Memories generation in a village in Côte

d’Ivoire in West Africa.

283
 African Cultural Traditions
Early Africans developed Dance
varied and rich cultural Many African traditions involve
traditions. What do dance and masks. These Dogon
the two sculptures dancers wear masks decorated
on the far right with cowrie shells for a harvest
have in common? ceremony in Mali.

Music

Africains et Océaniens/Dagli Orti

The Art Archive/Musée des Arts
Traditional African music
was performed with a vari-
ety of instruments, including
stringed and wind instru-
ments as well as drums, such
as this one from Guinea.

The Geography of Africa rocky plateaus, barren gravel plains, and sand
dunes. Temperatures in the desert can climb
Africa’s location and large size—more than above 120˚F, and rain is rare. However, scat-
three times the size of the United States—have tered throughout the desert are oases, or fertile
resulted in a wide variety of climates and vege- areas, some large enough to support villages.
tation. Each region of the continent has its own Just south of the Sahara, mighty rivers flow
terrain and provides different resources for the across plains. These rivers include the Congo,
people who live there. As a result, distinct cul- Zambezi, and Niger. This region of Africa is
tures and ways of life developed. called the Sahel (sah-hel), a strip of land that
divides the desert from wetter areas. Although
Landforms If you look at a physical map the Sahel is fairly dry, it has enough vegetation
of Africa you will see that the continent has a to support hardy grazing animals.
varied landscape. Low, wide plains run across Farther south is a band of tropical savanna,
Africa’s northern and western interior. Vast or open grassland, which extends east from
plateaus, or high plains, cover much of Africa’s Central Africa before wrapping back toward
central and southern interior. Farther east is the south. Tall grasses, shrubs, and a few trees
the Great Rift Valley, a region of deep valleys, or grow there. A variety of wild herd animals live
rifts, and narrow lakes. Around the outer part on the savanna, as do the meat-eating animals
of Africa are several mountain ranges, such that prey upon them. The majority of Africa’s
as the Ethiopian Highlands in the northeast. people live on the savannas as well.
Near the coastline, however, the land drops off Near the equator and on Madagascar, an
sharply to coastal plains. Some of these coastal island off the southeast coast, are tropical rain
plains provide fertile farmland, while others forests. The hot and humid climate and year-
are areas of desert, swamp, or sandy beaches. round rainfall of the rain forests supports a
broad range of plant and animal life. Farther
Climate and Vegetation Africa’s climate
south, southern Africa consists mainly of hilly
and vegetation are also quite varied. Northern
grasslands, deserts, and a high coastal strip of
Africa is dominated by the Sahara, the larg-
land. This region experiences a mild Mediter-
est desert in the world. Stretching about 3,000
ranean climate characterized by warm temper-
miles east to west and from 800 to 1,200 miles
atures and both summer and winter rains.
north to south, the Sahara includes mountains,

284 Chapter 10
 Art Early African Societies
Early Africans excelled in sculpture. Benin Based on excavations from Olduvai Gorge and
artists made superb bronze sculptures, such other sites in the Great Rift Valley, anthropolo-
as the head below right from the 1700s. gists think that the first humans lived in East
Nok artists made terra-cotta Africa. Over thousands of years, people spread
figurines, such as the one out from that region into other parts of the con-
below from the 500s. tinent to form distinct cultures and societies.

Early Farming Societies During the early ACADEMIC

phase of their history, Africans lived as hunter- VOCABULARY
gatherers. Around 9,000 years ago, though, phase a period or
some Africans began to farm, growing native stage within a
longer process
crops such as sorghum, cotton, and yams.
The Art Archive/Musée du Quai

In some parts of Africa, pastoralism, or the

practice of raising herd animals, arose before
Branly Paris/Dagli Orti

farming. Archaeological evidence shows that

Africa’s first farmers were likely pastoralists of
The Art Archive/Musée des Arts the Sahara. About 8,000 years ago the Sahara’s
Africains et Océaniens/Dagli Orti climate was much wetter than it is now.
About 5,000 years ago the climate changed,
however; and the Sahara became drier. As
more land became desert, people left areas
Adapting to Africa’s Environment The where they could no longer survive. Pastoral-
first people to live in Africa had to adapt to the ists from the Sahara migrated to the Mediter-
continent’s varied climates and features. Insuf- ranean coast, the Nile Valley, and parts of West
ficient water supplies and poor soil in some Africa. By about 2500 BC many people in these
places made farming difficult. Rainfall—either regions practiced herding and mixed farming.
too much or too little—presented problems
that Africa’s farmers continue to struggle with Social Structures Despite the diversity of
in modern times. Heavy rains can erode the early African societies, many of them shared
soil and wash away nutrients important for some common features. For example, many
growing crops. Insufficient rainfall can lead early African societies developed village-
to drought and poor grazing land. As a result, based cultures built around clans, or families
farmers must decide which crops to grow based with common ancestors. Family ties were
on the rainfall they expect to receive in a year. extremely important, and all family members
When rainfall is uncertain, such decisions were expected to be loyal to their clan. Often,
become more difficult. extended family members—parents, children,
Another danger is caused by parasites, or and other close relatives—lived together.
small organisms, that thrive in Africa’s tropical In some areas people took part in another
areas. Insects such as mosquitoes can transmit type of group called age-sets. In these groups
the parasites to humans or animals, leading men who had been born within the same two
to deadly diseases such as malaria. Another or three years formed special bonds. Men in
insect, the tsetse (tset-see) fly, lives in some the same age-set had a duty to help each other.
wooded areas and near lakes and streams in Women, too, sometimes formed age-sets.
sub-Saharan Africa. This fly carries a parasite Loyalty to family and age-sets helped village
that can kill livestock and infect humans with members work together. Everyone had specific
sleeping sickness, a potentially fatal illness. duties. The men hunted and farmed. Women
The threat of disease makes areas inhabited cared for children, farmed, collected firewood,
by the tsetse fly unsuitable for settlement. ground grain, and carried water. Even the very
old and very young had their own tasks. For
Analyze What challenges example, elders often taught traditions to the
can Africa’s environment pose to people living there? younger generations.

African Kingdoms 285

Reading Religion and Culture Many early Africans, and proverbs. The task of remembering and
Skills shared similar religious beliefs. For example, passing on oral traditions was entrusted to sto-
Identifying
many Africans believed that the unseen spir- rytellers called griots (gree-ohz). Griots helped
Supporting
Details What its of their ancestors stayed nearby. To honor keep history alive for each new generation and
details support the these spirits, families marked certain places as were highly respected in their communities.
statement that sacred spaces by putting specially carved stat- Early Africans shared common features
early African ues there. Family members gathered in these in the arts as well. In many African societies,
societies shared
some features? places to share news and food with the ances- music and dance were central to celebrations
tors. Through these practices they hoped the and rituals. In addition, elaborately carved
spirits would protect them. masks were often worn during dances and
Many Africans also practiced a form of a other rituals.
religion called animism—the belief that bod-
Generalize What role did
ies of water, animals, trees, and other natural
family ties play in early African societies?
objects have spirits. Animism reflected Afri-
cans’ close ties to the natural world.
Many early African societies did not develop
systems of writing either. Instead, they main-
Africa’s Iron Age
tained their sense of identity and continuity Iron technology spread to parts of sub-Saharan
with the past through oral traditions. These Africa around the 500s BC. The development of
oral traditions included stories, songs, poems, Africa’s Iron Age changed many aspects of life.

F orensics
in History
Can a Mutant Cell
Stop a Killer Disease?
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a genetic mutation that affects red blood cells resulted in a disease
called sickle-cell anemia. The mutation has helped protect some Afri-
cans from another deadly disease—malaria.
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must inherit the sickle-cell trait from both parents. Normal red blood
cells are smooth, flexible, and shaped like doughnuts. By contrast,
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286 Chapter 10
Iron Technology Changes in technology Bantu Migrations

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not before. For example, with iron blades, peo- GEOGRAPHY
ple could cut down trees to clear land for farm- SKILLS Interpreting Maps
ing. With more places to live and more land for
1. Location Where was the Bantu homeland located?
growing food, Africa’s population increased.
2. Movement In general, in which directions did the
The Bantu Migrations Agriculture and Bantu-speaking people migrate from their homeland?
iron working technology spread throughout
Africa in part because of migration. A number
of groups in Africa spoke related languages.
These languages all originated from one lan- Section 1 Assessment
[Link]
Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL AFK HP
guage called Proto-Bantu, which developed in
what is now Cameroon and Nigeria. Over time, Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
hundreds of Bantu languages developed. 1. a. Recall What are three vegetation regions found in Africa?
Beginning in the first century AD Bantu- b. Explain How did geography contribute to the development of many
speaking peoples gradually began to migrate diverse cultures in early Africa?
east and south. Experts do not know why c. Rate In your opinion, which African region has the most favorable
these migrations occurred. Perhaps as farming living conditions? Why?
spread and West Africa’s population grew, peo- 2. a. Define What important societal role did griots fulfill in early Africa?
ple needed more land. As they traveled, Bantu b. Summarize What characteristics and cultural patterns did many early
speakers spread their knowledge of farming. African societies share?
c. Elaborate How did family ties shape life in early Africa?
Later Bantu-speakers acquired the skill of iron
working and helped spread this technology as 3. a. Identify Who were the Nok, and why are they significant?
well. In southern Africa, Bantu-speaking peo- b. Identify Cause and Effect What were the main effects of the Bantu
migrations?
ples soon became the dominant groups.
By the AD 900s Bantu-speaking peoples Critical Thinking
had developed complex social systems. Women 4. Categorize Using your notes and a
farmed, while men mainly tended cattle. In graphic organizer like the one at right,
East Africa
fact, cattle were the most important resource identify the common social and cultural
in most Bantu societies. Cattle were an impor- features of early societies in Africa. Add
tant food source and were used for ritual sacri- or delete circles as necessary.
fices. In addition, status in Bantu societies was
often based on the size of one’s cattle herds.
5. Description You are going to be leading an African tour that will go
Summarize How did African through two different vegetation regions of Africa. Write a paragraph
societies change with the spread of iron working? describing some of the sights people can expect to see on the tour.

African Kingdoms 287

 Section

2 Trading States of
East Africa
Before You Read As you
read,
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms and People use a graphic
organizer like the
The growth of trade led to 1. How did trade and religion Ezana
one below to take
the development of wealthy influence the development Ge’ez
notes on Aksum and
kingdoms and city-states in of Aksum and Ethiopia? Lalibela
Ethiopia, the coastal
East Africa. 2. How did trade lead to the Swahili
city-states, and Great
rise of coastal city-states Zimbabwe.
in East Africa?
3. What do historians know
about the African kingdom
of Great Zimbabwe?

Why did early Ethiopians build

A ksum
stone towers? By the AD 200s the
East African kingdom of Kush, which had
once ruled the great civilization of ancient Egypt, had fallen

A xes into decline. Meanwhile, to the south, the early Ethiopian

kingdom of Aksum was rising in power. As the two kingdoms

Kush
competed for control of the region’s trade, Kush’s existence
increasingly became a thorn in Aksum’s side.
The Aksum king Ezana finally decided to eliminate Kush
as a rival once and for all. Around AD 350, Aksum marched
on Kush and inflicted a crushing defeat. In keeping with
Aksum’s kings tradition, King Ezana had a record of the conquest inscribed
often had records on a stone monument called a stelae. “And [the Aksumites]
of their conquests slew and took prisoners and threw them into the water and
inscribed on stone [the Aksumites] returned safe and sound, after they had ter-
monuments, known
rified their enemies and had conquered through the power
as stelae.
of the Lord of the Land.” With the defeat of Kush, Aksum
became the most powerful kingdom in East Africa.

Aksum and Ethiopia

In East Africa, the kingdom of Aksum (ahk-soom) began
to grow in power around the first century AD. Located
mainly in what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea, Aksum lay
south of Egypt and Kush and alongside the Red Sea.
Thus, Aksum was ideally situated to control the Red
Sea trade. Because of this trade, at its height Aksum
was the most powerful kingdom in East Africa.

288
The Rise of Aksum The people of Aksum Aksum and Ethiopia
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GEOGRAPHY
became not only a wealthy trading kingdom
SKILLS Interpreting Maps
but also a strong military power. The kingdom
began to reach its height under King Ezana, 1. Location Where was the kingdom of Aksum located in
whose reign began about 320. Like other kings relation to Egypt and Kush?
of Aksum, Ezana’s authority was mainly lim- 2. Human-Environment Interaction Based on the map,
ited to the capital city. Outside of this city, the what do you think the Swahili city-states relied on for their
king collected tribute from the local rulers of economic livelihood?
other parts of Aksum but had little authority.
Under Ezana’s rule, Aksum attacked and
defeated the rival trading kingdom of Kush in
about 350. This defeat gave Aksum control of Historians know about Ezana’s statement
trade in the region, and Aksum soon became because it was inscribed on a stone monument
the greatest power in East Africa. called a stelae (stee-lee). Aksum’s kings often
inscribed these stelae with records of important
Culture of Aksum Because of its thriving events. Several of Aksum’s stelae still stand.
overseas trade, Aksum developed a diverse The stelae inscriptions provide examples
culture. The many merchants who came to of Ge’ez (gee-ez), the written and spoken lan-
Aksum from other areas brought new ideas guage of Aksum. Ge’ez was one of the first writ-
with them as well as goods. Among the new ten languages developed in Africa and is the
ideas and beliefs brought to Aksum in the 300s basis of the written language used in Ethiopia
was Christianity. King Ezana converted to today. Although no longer spoken, Ge’ez is still
Christianity and made it the official religion of used in Ethiopian religious ceremonies.
Aksum. As a Christian ruler, Ezana recorded In addition to developing a written lan-
that he would “rule the people with righteous- guage, Aksum was the first African kingdom
ness and justice and will not oppress them, and south of the Sahara to mint its own coins.
may they preserve this Throne which I have Because of Aksum’s thriving trade, merchants
set up for the Lord of Heaven.” found it practical to use coins.

African Kingdoms 289

 The Decline of Aksum During the 600s Ethiopia The name Ethiopia came to refer to
Aksum began to decline primarily because of the larger region around the kingdom of Aksum.
the arrival of Muslim invaders. In the 600s By the 1100s the descendants of Aksum had
and 700s these invaders conquered parts of established a new kingdom in Ethiopia. This
East and North Africa, although Aksum itself kingdom began to truly develop under the rule
was never conquered. As nearby areas became of the Zagwe dynasty, which gained power
Muslim, Christian Aksum was isolated. In time, around 1150.
Muslims destroyed Adulis, Aksum’s port city, The most famous of the Zagwe kings was
and took over the Red Sea trade. Cut off from King Lalibela, who ruled during the 1200s.
trade, Aksum lost its main source of wealth. He is known for building 11 stone Christian
The people of Aksum eventually retreated churches, many of which still stand. These
Christianity inland into the mountains and settled in what Lalibela churches are carved out of solid rock
remains the
main religion
is now northern Ethiopia. Although Aksum’s and are impressive works of architecture. The
in the nation of kingdom ended, its legacy lived on, shaping churches show the remarkable technical knowl-
Ethiopia today. Ethiopia’s later history. edge and skill of Ethiopians at that time.
In addition, the Lalibela churches showed
the continuing importance in Ethiopia of Chris-
tianity. Because many other peoples in East
Lalibela’s Stone Churches Africa were Muslim, Christianity provided
a unifying identity for the Ethiopian people.
Over time, Ethiopian Christianity developed
its own unique characteristics, which included
elements of local African customs.
In 1270 a second dynasty of Christian
kings came to rule Ethiopia. In a text called
“The Glory of Kings,” these kings claimed to
be descendants of the Hebrew king Solomon
and the Queen of Sheba. For this reason,
the dynasty is also known as the Solomonid
dynasty. This long-lasting dynasty continued
to rule Ethiopia for 700 years until 1974.
During the first centuries of Solomonid
rule, the kings engaged in various religious
wars. Although Ethiopia was Christian, Jews
called Beta Israel lived there as well. During
the 1400s Ethiopia’s Christian kings began to
fight the Beta Israel and make them leave. The
effort was mostly unsuccessful. Jews remained
in Ethiopia but faced continued persecution.
Meanwhile, a rival Muslim kingdom was
forming to the east of Ethiopia near the Horn
of Africa. This region of Africa juts out into the
In the 1200s highly skilled
Indian Ocean south of the Arabian Peninsula.
Ethiopian architects and
Muslim Arab merchants had settled in this
artisans carved 11 Christian
region, which became known as the kingdom of
churches out of solid rock in
Adal by the 1300s. Muslim Adal and Christian
Lalibela. Some of the churches
Ethiopia soon came into conflict and fought
are set into the ground, and
each other for many years. In the end, how-
stairways provide access. The
ever, Muslim forces never conquered Ethiopia,
images here show the Church
which remained independent.
of St. George. What Christian
symbol does the shape of the Summarize What religions
church above resemble? had an effect upon Ethiopia during this period?

290 Chapter 10
Coastal City-States Primary Sources

Ibn Battutah in Kilwa

South of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, a
number of Muslim city-states developed along
the East African coast. Like the kingdom of An Arab named Ibn Battutah became famous for his extensive travels
Aksum, these coastal city-states made their during the 1300s to Africa, China, and much of the Muslim world.
wealth from overseas trade. From 1330 to 1332 Ibn Battutah sailed with a group along the east-
ern African coast. Below, he describes the trading city-state of Kilwa.
Rise of City-States Africa’s East coast had
drawn overseas traders from early times. The Then I set off by sea from the town of Mogadishu for
main reason was the influence of the Indian the land of the Swahili and the town of Kilwa, . . . the
Ocean and its monsoon winds. Between Novem- principal town on the coast, the greater part of whose
ber and March, the monsoons blew southwest inhabitants are Zanj . . . Kilwa is one of the most beauti-
from the coast of India toward Africa. From ful and well-constructed towns in the world. The whole
April to October, the monsoons reversed and of it is elegantly built. The roofs are built with mangrove
blew northeast toward India and the Persian poles. There is very much rain. The people are engaged
Gulf. Over time, sailors learned to take advan- in a holy war, for their country lies beside that of pagan
tage of these winds to move around the Indian [non-Muslim] Zanj. The chief qualities are devotion and
Ocean. A trade network soon developed that piety [goodness].
linked East Africa with Persia, Arabia, India,
—Translated by G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville,
and even Southeast Asia. Market towns sprang from The East African Coast, Select Documents
up along the East African coast to take advan-
tage of that trade.
Arab traders called this East African coastal Skills
FOCUS Reading Like a Historian
region the land of Zanj and used the monsoon
winds to visit these port towns. By AD 1100 1. Identify Supporting Details How did the
several of these coastal market towns had people of Kilwa differ from some of the people
grown into wealthy and thriving city-states. living around them?
The main city-states were Mogadishu, Mom- 2. Analyze Primary Sources What do you think
basa, Kilwa, and Sofala. was Ibn Battutah’s overall impression of Kilwa?
The coastal city-states linked merchants See Skills Handbook, p. H25
from overseas with traders from Africa’s inte-
rior. In the city-states’ markets, merchants
from overseas sold luxury items such as glass- Trade along East Africa’s coast reached
ware, East Asian porcelain, and silk and cotton its peak during the 1300s and 1400s. By this
from China and India. In exchange for these time, Kilwa had become the wealthiest and
manufactured luxury items, foreign merchants most powerful of the coastal city-states. Kilwa
obtained raw materials from Africa’s interior. became a prosperous trading center because it
These goods included coconut oil, copper, leop- was located at the southernmost point on East
ard skins, and shells. African ivory, which was Africa’s coast that a ship could reach in a single
highly prized in many countries, was another monsoon season. All African goods from south
valuable trade item along with gold from of Kilwa, therefore, were exported from Kilwa’s
southern Africa. market. Kilwa’s power increased further in the
In addition, enslaved Africans captured in late 1200s when it gained control of Sofala,
the interior were exported through the coastal through which much gold was exported.
city-states to slave markets in Arabia, Persia,
and India. These enslaved Africans were then Swahili Trade led to a blending of African,
sent to regions across Asia, many to work as Arab, and Asian cultural influences along
domestic servants. The trade of enslaved Afri- East Africa’s coast. Over time, many Muslim
cans would later increase substantially after Arabs and Persians settled in Africa’s coastal
Europeans began coming to Africa. Many of the city-states. These groups intermarried with
enslaved Africans in this later European slave the local African population and gradually
trade would be exported to the Americas. influenced the local culture and ways of life.

African Kingdoms 291

 Reading
like a Historian The writer gives one interpretation
of the purpose of the walls of the
Great Enclosure at Great Zimbabwe.
Great Zimbabwe’s
Walls Speak The enormous walls are the best-preserved
testaments of Great Zimbabwe’s past . . . The
Analyzing Secondary Sources A secondary function of these stone walls, however, has
source is a historical account produced by people often been misinterpreted. At first glance, these
who were not present at the time. For instance, this massive nonsupportive walls appear purely
textbook is a secondary source. Often, secondary defensive. But scholars doubt they ever served
sources contain summaries, analyses, and interpre-
a martial [warlike] purpose . . . The walls are
tations of historical events, people, and periods.
thought to have been a symbolic show of author-
The passage at right about Great Zimbabwe is
from a secondary source. To analyze this passage, ity, designed to preserve the privacy of royal
think about families and set them apart from and above
commoners . . . The remaining stone walls pro-
• the author or source of the information.
vide only partial evidence of the architecture’s
• the facts and summaries provided. original appearance.
• the objectivity of any interpretations made. ­­—from “Great Zimbabwe (11th–15th Century),”
Time Line of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Skills The source of the text

FOCUS Reading Like a Historian is shown here.
1. Author or Source What is the source of the
passage provided above about Great Zimbabwe?
2. Interpretations What interpretation does the
passage provide about the purpose of the walls
that surrounded the Great Enclosure at Great
Zimbabwe? What support does the passage pro-
vide for this interpretation?
See Skills Handbook, p. H30

For example, local architecture featured coral

stone walls and roofs of mangrove poles as well
Great Zimbabwe
as Arab influences such as carved doors and The growing wealth of Africa’s overseas trade
decorative niches. In addition, local Africans, stimulated developments in Africa’s interior
who spoke a Bantu language, adopted many as well. There, ancestors of the Shona people
Arab words. As the two languages blended, established a kingdom called Great Zimbabwe
a new language called Swahili (swah-hee-lee) (zihm-bah-bway) around the 1100s. This king-
developed. The term Swahili has also come to dom was located between the Limpopo and
refer to the blended African-Arab culture that Zambezi rivers in southeastern Africa. This
developed along East Africa’s coast. area is now part of the nation of Zimbabwe,
Because many foreign traders were Muslim, which was named for Great Zimbabwe.
Reading Islam gained hold along the East African coast Scholars think that Great Zimbabwe was
Skills as well. Many African rulers who governed the part of Africa’s thriving trade network because
Identifying coastal city-states adopted Islam, and mosques of the kingdom’s location. Great Zimbabwe lay
Supporting along a trade route linking Africa’s interior gold
appeared in cities and towns. At the same time,
Details What
details support the many Africans continued to practice local tra- mines to the city-states on the coast. In this
statement that ditional religions such as animism. location, Great Zimbabwe served as a middle-
trade shaped life man between gold miners and ivory hunters in
along the East Analyze How did trade
southern Africa and the traders on the coast.
African coast? shape life in the East African coastal city-states?

292 Chapter 10
A middleman is a person who buys something The Mutapa Empire At its height, Great
from one person and sells it to another, making Zimbabwe may have had as many as 18,000
a profit on the sale. people. Yet, sometime during the 1400s they
Archaeological discoveries support this role abandoned the area. Scholars are not certain
for Great Zimbabwe. For example, archaeolo- exactly why this occurred. Because the people ACADEMIC
gists have found glass beads from India and a of Great Zimbabwe raised cattle, one plausible VOCABULARY
coin minted in Kilwa at the site of Great Zim- reason is that the land became overgrazed. The plausible believ-
babwe. The kingdom’s rulers likely taxed the soil may have lost its fertility as well leading able, reasonable
trade goods that passed through their territory. to poor harvests. Whatever the reason, by the
Through this control of trade, Great Zimbabwe time the first Europeans saw the site in the
rose to prosperity between 1200 and 1400. 1500s, Great Zimbabwe was already in ruins.
With Great Zimbabwe’s abandonment,
The Great Enclosure The Shona word zim- power in the region shifted to the Mutapa
babwe means “stone houses,” and today all that Empire. Based on oral tradition, this empire
remains of Great Zimbabwe are mainly stone was founded by a former resident of Great Zim-
ruins. The largest and most impressive of these babwe named Mutota. The oral tradition states
ruins is a structure called the Great Enclosure. that Mutota had gone north, where he founded
This structure, which is shown in the image on a new kingdom. In the 1400s he gained control
the left, includes a thick, circular, outer stone of much of the surrounding territory and built
wall about 35 feet high. An inner wall runs an empire. As a result, Mutota became known
along part of this outer wall and forms a narrow as Mwene Mutapa, meaning “master pillager”
passage about 180 feet long. The stones used to or “conqueror.” His successors took the same
build the walls were so well fitted together that title, from which the empire gained its name.
no mortar was needed in the construction. By 1500 the Mutapa Empire controlled
Inside the walls of the Great Enclosure is a much of what is now Zimbabwe. The empire
33-foot-high stone tower. In addition, archaeol- grew wealthy by exporting gold and controlling
ogists have discovered soapstone bird figurines trade through its territory. Eventually, though,
The bird on the
within the enclosure. Experts are not certain of flag of present-day
Europeans would take control of the empire. Zimbabwe symbol-
the purpose of the Great Enclosure, but think it
izes the soapstone
may have been built to show the rulers’ power Find the Main Idea How do birds found at
or as an astronomical observatory. scholars think Great Zimbabwe participated in trade? Great Zimbabwe.

[Link]
Section 2 Assessment Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL AFK HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Identify Who was King Ezana, and how did he contribute 4. Compare and Contrast Using your notes and a graphic
to the history of Aksum? organizer like the one below, compare and contrast the
b. Identify Cause and Effect How did the spread of Islam kingdom of Aksum with the later kingdom of Ethiopia.
contribute to the decline of Aksum?
c. Elaborate How did the legacy of Aksum shape later Ethio-
pian society? Aksum Ethiopia
2. a. Recall What were four of the trading city-states that arose
along the East African coast?
b. Explain How was the development of Swahili an example
of cultural blending?
c. Evaluate Do you think that the spread of Islam to East
Africa affected Aksum or the coastal city-states more? Provide
5. Narration You are a visitor to East Africa’s coastal city-state
of Kilwa at its height. Write a short journal entry in which you
reasons to support your opinion.
describe your tour of the city-state. Include information about
3. a. Describe What remains of Great Zimbabwe? the source of the city’s wealth, some of the activities that are
b. Summarize What role do scholars think that Great Zimba- taking place there, and the culture there.
bwe played in the East Africa trading network?

African Kingdoms 293

Focus on Themes

Economic
Systems
Early societies in Africa, as in much of the world, bartered
instead of using money to trade. Barter is the direct trade
of goods or services for other goods or services without
the use of money. In early West Africa, for example, mer-
chants often traded gold for salt. As trade increased in
Africa, people began to use items such as gold dust and
cowrie shells as money. Rulers began to regulate and tax
trade as well. Much trade remained untaxed and informal,
though, as people bartered for what they needed to live.
Now A street vendor sells bananas in Harare,
Zimbabwe, in southern Africa.

Barter and Alternative Economies Then Barter and Alternative Economies Now
In early West Africa, merchants often used a process Today all nations use money as currency and have
called silent barter to trade gold and salt, both of formal economies. In formal economies, the state
which were highly valuable. In silent barter, people regulates aspects of the economy and taxes goods and
exchange goods without contacting each other directly. trade. In addition, people work for wages.
This method ensured that trade took place peacefully Informal, or alternative, economic activity still
and kept the exact location of the gold mines a secret. takes place, however. For example, in parts of Africa,
In the silent barter process, salt traders went to a much of the economic activity takes place outside of
specified location near the gold mines and left their the control of the state. In other words, this economic
salt. The traders then beat a drum to tell the gold min- activity is not regulated, reported, or taxed. In small
ers that trading had begun. Afterward, the salt traders villages, people still use barter to exchange crafts and
moved back several miles. surplus crops. People may work for food or other goods
Next, the gold miners arrived and left what they instead of for wages. In informal marketplaces, people
considered a fair amount of gold in exchange for the sell and trade goods that are not reported or taxed.
salt. Then the gold miners also moved back several While most governments try to stop such activity, it
miles so that the salt traders could return. If the salt enables poorer and less educated people to survive.
traders were happy with the amount of gold, they beat
the drum again and left with the gold. The gold miners
then returned and picked up their salt. Trading contin- Skills
ued until both sides were happy with the result. FOCUS Understanding Themes
1. Find the Main Idea What role did barter play in early
African societies?
2. Contrast How does a formal economy differ from an
informal, or alternative, economy?
3. Draw Conclusions Why do you think that govern-
ments try to stop alternative economic activity?

Then At left are African cowrie

shells and a box and spoon for storing
and measuring gold dust.

294 Chapter 10
 Section

3 Kingdoms of West Africa

As you
Before You Read read,
Main Idea Reading Focus Key People use a graphic orga-
nizer like this one to
The expansion of trade 1. How did trade contribute to Sundiata
take notes on early
across the Sahara led to the rise of Ghana? Mansa Musa
West Africa.
the development of great 2. How did strong rulers build Sunni Ali
empires and other states in the empire of Mali? Askia Muhammad
West Africa. Ghana Mali
3. What were the greatest
achievements of the Songhai
Empire? Songhai Other

4. What other states developed

in West Africa?

The Land of
Gold
Was there really a kingdom of
gold? In the 1700s stories began to cir-
culate around Europe about a fabulous
kingdom of gold in West Africa. One visitor noted that the
king wore so much heavy gold jewelry on one hand that he
had to support that hand on the head of a small boy. The
kingdom thus described was ruled by the Asante people,
who did indeed have huge amounts of gold.
The Asante were not the first West African kingdom
to be known for their golden treasures, however. Centuries
earlier, the rulers of Ghana surrounded themselves with gold
as a sign of their power. A Muslim visitor to Ghana at that
time described the gold displayed by the king’s attendants:
golden swords and shields, gold braided into people’s hair,
even gold and silver collars for the king’s dogs.

Empire of Ghana
As in the other kingdoms you have studied, trade was
vital to the societies of West Africa. The region of West
Africa produced valuable resources—most notably The rulers of Ghana gained great wealth by
gold—that brought high prices. By the 800s, the rulers controlling the vast amounts of gold traded in
of Ghana had used the wealth from these products to their empire. The West African woman above is
create a huge, powerful empire. wearing gold jewelry and gold dust on her face.

African Kingdoms 295

 The Rise of Ghana Although Ghana had Once traders began to cross the Sahara,
many resources, its location delayed its devel- Ghana became a key player in African trade.
opment as a trading empire. Unlike the king- Berber traders from the north went to Ghana
doms of East Africa, Ghana had no easy access in search of gold, for which they traded food,
to the sea. In addition, a major obstacle blocked manufactured goods, and copper. The Berber
overland routes to potential trade partners— traders also brought salt, which was produced
the Sahara. The largest desert in the world, in the desert of what is now Morocco. The peo-
the Sahara blocked travel between Ghana and ple of Ghana then traded this salt to people to
other parts of Africa for centuries. the south, where salt was scarce.
It was not until the first few centuries AD
that North African traders learned how to cross A Trading Empire By about AD 800, the
the Sahara. Eventually, these traders began to kingdom of Ghana controlled nearly all trade
travel in large caravans with camels, which of salt and gold in sub-Saharan Africa. Because
were able to carry supplies over long distances. Ghana’s capital, Koumbi-Saleh, was located
Because camels did not need much water, they between Ghana’s gold mines and the desert
could survive the trip across the harsh desert. trade routes, it was a preferred trading place.

H ISTORY Supply and Demand

and Economics supply > demand = price falls

demand >
Scarcity, Supply, supply = price rises

and Demand
supply = amount available
demand = amount people want or need

Scarcity, the lack of a particular resource, exists Scarcity, Supply, and Demand Today
because the world’s resources are limited. The Consider how scarcity affects the world today. What
scarcity of resources affects everyone, but not countries benefit from supplying and controlling a lim-
always in the same way. For example, scarcity ited resource just as Ghana did in the past? The world’s
benefits those who can supply a desired limited oil-rich countries are a good example. These countries
resource, if those who demand the resource can have greatly increased their wealth and global influ-
pay the price. ence over the past 100 years by filling the demand
Scarcity, Supply, and Demand in History for a single valuable resource that cannot be found in
Ghana was a kingdom rich in gold—so rich that other places. As you study world history, look for ways
even the ruler’s dogs wore gold-plated collars. that scarcity of resources affects supply and demand.
This abundance of wealth lured traders from
Explain How are some people able to benefit
North Africa, where gold was scarce but in high
economically from scarcity?
demand. In exchange for the gold, the North
Africans offered salt, which the people of West
Africa needed in their diets to survive.
Ghana’s kings gained wealth and power
from the gold-salt trade. Major trade routes ran Raw salt is often
through the kingdom of Ghana, which enabled formed into slabs
Ghana’s kings to control and collect taxes on the for ease of trans-
trade. In addition, all of Ghana’s gold was the port. Here, a worker
kings’ property. They kept all gold nuggets for in a market in
themselves but allowed gold dust to be traded. Mopti, Mali, in West
In this way, the kings controlled the supply of Africa stacks slabs
gold and its price. of salt to sell.

296 Chapter 10
 Ghana’s kings built great wealth by taxing
the goods that were brought to their empire’s
West African
markets. The majority of these taxes were
Kingdoms
charged on salt. The kings charged a fee for

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empire, splendidly clad and with gold plaited into SKILLS Interpreting Maps 5SBEF
HPPET

”
their hair.
—al Bakri, The Book of Routes and Kingdoms, c. 1067
1. Location Which empire controlled the
greatest area: Ghana, Mali, or Songhai?
To protect their wealth, Ghana’s kings worked 2. Regions What were the main trade goods
to keep the trade routes free from bandits. being produced in southern West Africa?
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other peoples in the area. Captives were sold Mali Empire
as slaves to Muslim traders. For about 150 years after Ghana’s decline, no
one kingdom controlled trans-Saharan trade.
Ghana’s Decline By the mid-1000s, the
Then in the 1230s, a new empire, Mali, rose to
empire of Ghana was rich and powerful. When
power. Built on the same territory Ghana had
the king tried to expand the empire to the
ruled, Mali expanded to the Atlantic Ocean and
north, however, Ghana came into conflict with
became a wealthy and sophisticated empire.
the Almoravids, a Muslim Berber kingdom.
This conflict led to a long war. Rise of Mali The founders of Mali, the
In 1076 the Almoravids captured Koumbi- Malinke people, had been active in Ghana’s
Saleh, Ghana’s capital. Although Almoravid gold trade. Around 1230 the Malinke grew frus-
control of the city did not last long, it left the trated with the policies of neighboring peoples
empire of Ghana weakened. When people in and rose up to conquer them. As a result, Mali
part of the empire later rebelled, Ghana’s king became the leading power in West Africa.
was unable to stop them. As Ghana fell into The leader of Mali’s rise to power was a
decline, a new empire rose to take its place. king named Sundiata (soohn-jaht-ah). After
Summarize How did the the conquest, Sundiata ruled for 25 years. The
kings of Ghana become wealthy? story of his reign and accomplishments is told
in a great epic, also called Sundiata.

African Kingdoms 297

 Mansa Musa Mali reached its height in they met with their lavish clothing and gen-
the 1300s under the reign of a mansa, or king, erous gifts. According to one Cairo official, the
named Musa. A relative of Sundiata, Mansa visitors gave away so much gold that the met-
Musa came to power in 1307. During his reign, al’s value was severely reduced:
Mali’s territory expanded, and its population
HISTORY’S VOICES
may have reached as many as 40 million.
Also during Mansa Musa’s reign, Mali grew “orThere was no person, officer of the [Cairo] court
holder of any office of the [Cairo] sultanate
wealthier than ever before. Much of this wealth
who did not receive a sum of gold from him . . . So
came from taxation of the gold-salt trade. Like much gold was current in Cairo that it ruined the
Ghana, Mali kept order along the Saharan
trade routes by using a large army. This army
value of money.
” —Ibn Fadl Allah al-Omari,
also kept life in Mali relatively peaceful. from Sight-Seeing Journeys, c. 1300s
Like many of Mali’s rulers after Sundiata,
In addition to fulfilling Mansa Musa’s
Mansa Musa was a devout Muslim. Islam had
religious obligation, the trip to Mecca led to
actually been introduced into West Africa by
great changes in Mali. When he returned to
Muslim traders in Ghana, but it had never
Reading his empire, Mansa Musa brought along art-
Skills taken hold in the earlier empire. In Mali, how-
ists and architects who designed beautiful
Identifying ever, the situation was different. Islam became
mosques, some of which still stand. He also
Supporting a powerful influence there, especially among
built schools and libraries where people could
Details What the ruling class.
details support the study the Qur’an and other Islamic writings.
In 1324 Mansa Musa set out on a hajj, or
statement that Many of these schools were located in the city
Mansu Musa was
pilgrimage, to Mecca. He took along a huge
of Timbuktu, which became West Africa’s chief
one of Mali’s entourage—more than 60,000 people. As they
center of education, religion, and culture.
greatest rulers? traveled, the pilgrims impressed the people

Interactive

History Close-Up

Mansa Musa’s Pilgrimage The baggage included huge

amounts of gold to give away
Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 brought the wealth as gifts—gold valued at about
of Mali to the attention of the Muslim world and even medieval $100 million today.
Europe. Based on historical accounts, Mansa Musa’s impressive
caravan included more than 60,000 people.

Some 500 people in the

caravan carried staffs
heavily decorated with
gold to show Mali’s wealth.

298 Chapter 10
 Mansa Musa’s hajj also had effects outside
of Africa. For example, it brought Mali to the
Empire of Songhai
attention of people in Europe, and Mali began Songhai had existed as a small kingdom for cen-
to appear on European maps for the first time. turies, paying tribute to the leaders of Ghana
Within a century, Europeans began to search and Mali. Located in the eastern part of what
West Africa for the source of Mali’s riches. had been Mali, Songhai grew wealthy trading
goods along the Niger River. During this trade,
The Decline of Mali The rulers who fol- the people of Songhai came into contact with
lowed Mansa Musa were not as strong as he Muslim traders who had settled in the city
had been. A series of weak mansas left Mali’s of Gao. As a result of this contact, Islam was
government in shambles in the 1300s. Without introduced into Songhai, where it soon became
a strong authority in control, several peoples a major influence on culture.
broke away from the empire and set up inde-
pendent kingdoms. At the same time, peoples The Rise of Songhai By the 1460s the
from outside of Mali invaded. Among these kingdom of Songhai had become strong and
invaders were the Tuareg of North Africa. In wealthy enough to begin to rival the empire of
1433 the Tuareg captured Timbuktu, a blow Mali. Songhai’s rise took place largely under
from which Mali never recovered. The empire the leadership of a military leader, or sunni,
slowly slipped into decline. named Sunni Ali. Ali’s first act as leader was to
take Timbuktu from the Tuareg. He then led
Analyze What effects did a number of campaigns against neighboring
Mansa Musa’s travels have in Mali and in Europe? peoples to build an empire.

Faces of History
Mansa Musa rode near
the front. During his
journey, he gained fame
Mansa Musa
unknown–1332?
for his generosity.
Mansa Musa was a descendant of
Sundiata, the first emperor to rule
a united Mali. Mansa Musa became
emperor of Mali in 1307 and earned a reputation as
an able administrator. He increased the territory of
Mali and was a patron of education and the arts.
Summarize Why is Mansa Musa remembered as a
great ruler?

Called “ships of the desert,”

camels could go for long
periods without water and
could withstand heat better
than horses and donkeys.

Skills
FOCUS Interpreting Visuals
Draw Conclusions During his pilgrimage, Mansa Musa
had to cross part of the Sahara. How do you think he pre-
pared for this part of his journey? [Link]
Could You
Go online for a closer look Have Survived?
at survival and this event. Keyword: SHL AFK

African Kingdoms 299

 TRADING Empires OF WEST AFRICA To secure his control of the trans-Saharan
trade, Askia Muhammad extended Songhai’s
EMPIRE KEY FACTS borders north into the desert, the home of the
Tuareg. He did not want raiders to interfere
GHANA • Location: Near Niger and Senegal rivers with traveling merchants. He also reformed
(800s–1070s) • Key cities: Koumbi Saleh (capital) Songhai’s government to help keep order in the
• Trade: Controlled gold-salt trade routes empire. For example, while he ruled the east-
• Beliefs: Local beliefs; some Muslim influences ern part of the empire personally, he appointed
an official called the kurmina fari to manage
MALI • Location: Along upper Niger River the western part. He also built offices in the
(1230s–1430s) • Key Cities: Niani (capital), Timbuktu capital city of Gao to oversee trade, agriculture,
• Key Rulers: Sundiata; Mansa Musa and the military.
• Trade: Controlled gold-salt trade routes Eventually, however, Askia Muhammad
• Beliefs: Islam; local beliefs was overthrown by his son, who became king.
He and the later kings did not manage the
SONGHAI • Location: Near Niger River empire as well as Askia Muhammad had, and in
(1460s–1591) • Key Cities: Gao (capital), Timbuktu 1591 the empire was conquered by Morocco.
• Key Rulers: Sunni Ali; Askia Muhammad
• Trade: Trans-Saharan trade Describe What kind of
• Beliefs: Islam; local beliefs government did Askia Muhammad create in Songhai?

Other West African States

Ali’s military success was due to his army of Although the trading empires of Ghana, Mali,
skilled cavalry and navy of war canoes. Accord- and Songhai were the largest and wealthiest
ing to oral tradition, his forces never lost a societies in West Africa, they were not the only
battle. As he conquered new territories, Sunni ones. If you look at the map at the beginning
Ali replaced local leaders with his own loyal of this chapter, you will see that other societ-
followers. This made revolts among conquered ies developed to the east and south of those
peoples, which had contributed to the downfall empires. Though these other societies did not
of Ghana and Mali, less likely. rival the size or power of the trading kingdoms,
they made significant advances of their own.
Askia Muhammad Songhai reached its
cultural height under Askia Muhammad, whose Hausa City-States To the east of Songhai
reign is considered a golden age. During the 35 lived a people called the Hausa. The Hausa
years of his rule, Askia Muhammad expanded built a society based on independent city-
Songhai and strengthened its government. states, which gained regional power between
Askia Muhammad was Songhai’s first Mus- 1000 and 1200. Each city-state included a
lim ruler as well. Islam had been introduced group of villages surrounded by wooden walls
into Songhai earlier, but Sunni Ali had never and extensive fields. These city-states never
become a Muslim. To show his commitment to united into an empire, though they cooperated
Islam, Askia Muhammad decided to make a and traded with each other.
grand pilgrimage to Mecca. Like Mansa Musa The economy of the Hausa city-states was
before him, he traveled through Egypt, where based on farming, manufacturing, and trade.
he gained the support of the Muslim rulers. Much of the labor for farming was performed
During Askia Muhammad’s pilgrimage, he by enslaved people. Slave labor was also used
made contact with traders from North Africa. to build new cities, and enslaved people became
As a result, the trans-Saharan trade that had one of the Hausa’s exports. Other important
ACADEMIC slowed after the fall of Mali resumed once again. exports included cloth and leather goods. The
VOCABULARY This increased commerce made Songhai a very Hausa were known as skilled weavers and
commerce trade, wealthy kingdom. Askia Muhammad used his dyers, and cotton cloth dyed in a dark blue
or the exchange of new wealth to once again make Timbuktu a color by Hausa artisans was in high demand
goods or services
center of culture and Islamic scholarship. throughout much of West Africa.

300 Chapter 10
Yoruba Kingdoms Another complex soci-
ety developed to the south of Songhai among
the Yoruba. The Yoruba were actually several
peoples who lived in the same area and spoke
related languages. Over time, the Yoruba
established a number of strong kingdoms. The Yoruba Art
most powerful of these kingdoms were Ife and Yoruba artists
Oyo. Ife reached its height around the 1100s produced beauti-
to 1400s, while Oyo rose in power around the ful sculptures out
1400s to 1600s and eventually surpassed Ife. of brass and other
The people of the Yoruba kingdoms were materials. This brass
widely admired for their artistic skill. Yoruba head of a king was
artists produced realistic sculptures out of made in Ife during
terra-cotta, bronze, brass, and copper. Many of the 1100s to 1200s.
these sculptures depict Yoruba leaders, or onis.
The Yoruba imported the materials for these
statues, especially copper, from Sahara traders,
who also brought salt to the region. In return, Ife brass sculpture, c. 1100s–1200s, Ancient Art &
Architecture/[Link]
the Yoruba sent food and ivory north.

Kingdom of Benin Southwest of the Yoruba

kingdoms was the powerful kingdom of Benin.
Located deep in the forests of the Niger delta,
Benin grew into a powerful state perhaps as
Section 3 Assessment
[Link]
Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL AFK HP
early as the 1000s. At the heart of the kingdom
lay the capital city, also called Benin. Several Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
miles wide, this city featured large houses and 1. a. Recall What were the two major trade goods that made Ghana rich?
wide streets that impressed visitors. From where did these two trade goods come?
In the mid-1400s, an ambitious oba, or b. Explain Why did Ghana’s rulers not want everyone to own gold?
ruler, named Ewuare came to power in Benin. 2. a. Identify Who was Sundiata?
Wanting to expand his kingdom, Ewuare built b. Identify Cause and Effect How did Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to
a powerful army and went to war. By his death, Mecca affect the empire of Mali?
c. Elaborate How did Muslim influences help turn Mali into a center
the kingdom of Benin stretched from the Niger
of learning?
River west into what is now central Nigeria.
Around this period, the people of Benin 3. a. Recall What did Sunni Ali accomplish as ruler?
b. Analyze How did Askia Muhammad’s pilgrimage to Mecca contribute
came into contact with Europeans. Portuguese
to the power of the Songhai Empire?
sailors arrived in the late 1400s. Having been
c. Evaluate What do you think was Askia Muhammad’s greatest accom-
at war for several decades, the people of Benin plishment as a ruler?
had many captives whom they sold to the Por-
4. a. Recall What were three smaller societies located in early West Africa?
tuguese as slaves. Trade between Benin and
b. Compare What was one similarity between the Yoruba kingdoms and
Portugal continued, though trade in slaves the kingdom of Benin?
ceased for several centuries. Instead, Benin
traded pepper, ivory, and cotton for gold. Critical Thinking
Like the Yoruba, the people of Benin were 5. Compare and Contrast Using your notes and
known for their arts. Statues of bronze, brass, a graphic organizer like the one at right, com-
and copper were created to honor notable lead- pare and contrast the West African empires of
Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.
ers, and copper plaques illustrated with scenes
from Benin’s history were displayed in cities.
Brought home by the Portuguese, art from
Benin also became popular in Europe. 6. Persuasion Choose the West African ruler covered in this section who
you think accomplished the most or was the greatest ruler. Write one
Identify What was one paragraph in which you identify your choice and provide reasons to
result of contact between Benin and Portugal? persuade others to agree with it.

African Kingdoms 301

 CHAPTER

10 Document-Based Investigation
The Influence of Trade
on African Culture
Historical Context The documents in this investigation describe how trade con-
tributed to cultural blending in early and medieval Africa.
Task Study the documents and answer the questions that follow. Then, using evi-
dence from these documents and from the chapter, write an essay explaining how
trade contributed to cultural blending in early and medieval Africa.

Leo Africanus: City of Timbuktu The women of the city maintain the custom of veiling
their faces, except for the slaves . . . There are in Tim-
A Muslim traveler and scholar named Leo Africanus
buktu numerous judges, teachers and priests, all properly
visited northern and western Africa in the early 1500s.
appointed by the king. He greatly honors learning. Many
In the book about his travels, titled the History and
hand-written books imported from Barbary [North Africa]
Description of Africa, Leo Africanus describes the city
are also sold. There is more profit made from this com-
of Timbuktu, at the time part of the Songhai Empire.
merce [trade] than from all other merchandise.
Instead of coined money, pure gold nuggets are used;
The shops of the artisans, the merchants, and especially
and for small purchases, cowrie shells which have been car-
weavers of cotton cloth are very numerous. Fabrics
ried from Persia.
are also imported from Europe to Timbuktu, borne by
Berber merchants.

Kani Kombole Mosque

Muslims conquered parts of North
Africa in the 700s, and over time North
African traders helped spread Islam
to West Africa. By the 1300s, mosques
had become a common feature in many
West African towns. Early West African
mosques combined Muslim styles with
West African building techniques, such
as the use of dried mud reinforced with
wooden poles. The mosque shown here
is located in Kani Kombole, a Dogon vil-
lage in what is now Mali. In addition to
general West African characteristics, this
mosque has specific Dogon characteris-
tics such as niches along the outer wall.

302 Chapter 10
Ibn Battutah: Travels in Mali Swahili Culture
Ibn Battutah, a famous Muslim traveler, visited the In the following passage, writer Robert Caputo
Mali Empire in 1352. In the following passage from his describes how trade and cultural blending led to the
book, Travels in Asia and Africa, Battutah describes development of the Swahili culture. The passage is
some traditional customs and Muslim practices of the from the article “Swahili Coast,” which appeared in
people of the Mali Empire. National Geographic magazine in October 2001.

On feast-days . . . the poets come in. Each of them is inside A string of ports that stretched along the East African
a figure resembling a thrush [a type of bird], made of coast from Mogadishu to present-day Mozambique . . .
feathers, and provided with a wooden head with a red evolved into powerful city-states as they grew rich from
beak, to look like a thrush’s head. They stand in front of the Indian Ocean trade . . . Arabian sailors arriving in Africa
sultan [king] . . . and recite their poems . . . I was told that found good harbors, a sea full of fish, fertile land, and
this practice is a very old custom amongst them, prior to opportunities for trade. Many of the Arabian sailors
the introduction of Islam, and that they have kept it up . . . stayed to marry local women, and the melding [blend-
They are careful to observe the hours of prayer . . . ing] is evident in the faces of the people . . . Indeed, the
On Fridays, if a man does not go early to the mosque, he interplay of African and Arabian languages and
cannot find a corner to pray in, on account of the crowd . . . customs—the mingling of blood and ideas that perme-
Their prayer-mats are made of the leaves of a tree resem- ated [spread throughout] every aspect of life created an
bling a date-palm, but without fruit. urban and mercantile [trade-based] culture . . . that is
Another of their good qualities is their . . . zeal for unique to this coast. Even its name, Swahili, is an adap-
learning the Koran by heart. They put their children in tation of the Arabic word for coast, sawahil . . .
chains if they show any backwardness in memorizing it, Professor [Abdul] Sheriff in Zanzibar . . . said . . .
and they are not set free until they have it by heart. “Swahili history is about adaptation and incorpora-
tion. We have always been middlemen—between the
land and the sea, the producers and the buyers, the
African and the Arabian. That is not a concern; it is our
strength.”

Skills
FOCUS Reading Like a Historian
D ocument 1 D ocument 4
a. Identify What foreign goods and influences did a. Identify What two cultures blended together to form the
Leo Africanus note in Timbuktu? Swahili culture and language?
b. Draw Conclusions How do you think that foreign trade b. Summarize Based on the passage, how do the Swahili
goods contributed to cultural blending in Timbuktu? people view the ways in which their culture has evolved?
D ocument 2
a. Describe How did trade influence religion and architec-
ture in early West Africa? Several strong trading kingdoms and empires developed
b. Explain How does the architecture of the West African in early and medieval Africa. Using the documents above
mosque in the photograph illustrate cultural blending? and information from the chapter, form a thesis about how
D ocument 3 trade contributed to cultural blending in these kingdoms
a. Recall What traditional African custom did the people of and empires. Then write an essay providing details to sup-
Mali maintain despite their adoption of Islam? port your thesis.
b. Analyze How did the people of the Mali Empire adapt
See Skills Handbook, p. H48
Islam to their own culture and environment?

African Kingdoms 303

 CHAPTER

10 Chapter Review
Visual Study Guide

African Environments African Traditions

Environment Description Characteristic Description
Desert Arid wastelands; Sahara Family ties Extended families; clans;
Dry woodland Wooded areas age-sets

Mediterranean Mild, fertile areas; northern and southern Religions Animism; ancestor worship
coastal tips
Oral traditions Griots; history, stories, songs,
Sahel Semiarid land south of the Sahara poems, proverbs
Savanna Grasslands with scattered trees; Arts Masks, dance, music
dry and wet seasons; support farming;
most populated region
Tropical rain forest Hot, humid, and dense forests;
high rainfall year-round

East African Civilizations

Society or State Date Key Rulers/City-States Key Facts
Aksum 100s–500s (height) King Ezana Northeast trading kingdom; Christian
Early Ethiopia 1100s (founded) King Lalibela Northeast kingdom; Christian
Coastal trading city-states 1100s–1400s Kilwa, Mogadishu, Mombasa, Sofala Swahili; Arab and Muslim influence
Great Zimbabwe 1100s–1400s — Southeast inland trading kingdom

West African Civilizations

Society or State Date Key Rulers/City-States Key Facts
Ghana Empire 800s–1070s — Gold-salt trade
Mali Empire 1230s–1430s Sundiata, Mansa Musa Gold-salt trade; Muslim
Songhai Empire 1460s–1591 Sunni Ali, Askia Muhammad Trans-Saharan trade; Muslim
Benin Kingdom 1000s–1800s — Trade; bronze artwork

Review Key Terms and People 4. Aksum king who conquered Kush
Identify the term or person from the chapter that best 5. The written language developed in Aksum
fits each of the following descriptions. 6. Ethiopian king who built 11 Christian churches
1. Semiarid region in Africa just south of the Sahara 7. East African language and culture that blends
that separates the desert from wetter areas African and Arab influences
2. West African storytellers 8. Mali ruler who made a famous hajj to Mecca
3. One of the earliest African cultures to practice 9. First Muslim ruler of Songhai
iron working 10. Trade or the exchange of goods

304 Chapter 10
 History's Impact video program
Review the video to answer the closing question: How did
the salt trade impact the rise and fall of medieval Timbuktu?

Comprehension and Critical Thinking Analyzing Secondary Sources

SECTIon 1 (pp. 283–287) Reading Like a Historian In the following passage,
historian Basil Davidson describes some ways in which
11. a. Recall What are three different environments
the camel affected the trans-Saharan trade in early Africa.
found in Africa?
b. Summarize What social structures and cultural “routes
For centuries the lucrative [profitable] West African trade
have depended on the camel caravan. Without the
traditions did many early African societies have
camel the barren expanses of the Sahara would have effec-
in common? tively blocked contact between the fertile northern coast
c. Evaluate In your opinion, were the effects of land and the rich forests of the south . . . Though vital to
the Bantu migrations positive, negative, or both? trade, caravans were not a very efficient means of transport,
Explain your answer. largely because of the camels themselves. Ill-tempered, surly
[rude] beasts, they balked at every attempt to bridle or load
SECTIon 2 (pp. 288–293) them, biting or spitting at the cameleers . . . And once on the
12. a. Define What is Swahili, and in what area of move the caravan could not stop until evening for the camels
Africa did it develop?
b. Compare and Contrast What did the kingdom
would sit, spilling their loads onto the sand.
”
—Basil Davidson, African Kingdoms
of Aksum have in common with the coastal city-
17. Analyze How did the use of camel caravans ben-
states of East Africa? How did Aksum differ from
efit trade in early Africa?
the coastal city-states?
18. Summarize What were some drawbacks of using
c. Elaborate How did its location benefit the king- camel caravans to cross the Sahara?
dom of Great Zimbabwe?
[Link]
SECTIon 3 (pp. 295–301) Using the Internet Practice Online
Keyword: SHL AFK
13. a. Identify Main Ideas What did the empires of
Ghana, Mali, and Songhai rely on for their eco- 19. More than 800 different
nomic prosperity? languages are spoken in Africa today. Using the
keyword above, conduct research to learn about
b. Compare What did Mansa Musa and Askia
some of these languages. Then write two or three
Muhammad have in common as rulers?
paragraphs about one African language or lan-
c. Elaborate How did the smaller states of guage group.
West Africa make use of their environments?

Reading Skills
Identifying Supporting Details Use what you Think about the following issue:
know about identifying supporting details to All the gold produced in Ghana was officially
answer the following questions. the property of the king. Only the king could
14. What details support the statement that Africa own gold nuggets, although Ghana’s people
is a large continent with a wide variety of could own and trade gold dust. Ghana’s kings
climate and vegetation regions? controlled the gold supply to regulate prices
15. What details support the statement that the and keep the market from being flooded.
spread of Islam influenced the government,
20. Assignment: Do you think the economic control
society, and culture of early Africa?
that Ghana’s kings exercised benefitted the people
16. What details support the statement that trade
of Ghana or not? Write a short essay in which you
contributed to the development, wealth, and
develop your position on this question. Support
power of many of the early kingdoms and empires
your point of view with reasons and examples from
in Africa?
your reading.

African Kingdoms 305