C HAPTER

7 1000 BC–AD 1500

The Americas
As an advanced civilization
developed in Rome, other
civilizations were develop-
ing in the Americas. These early American
cultures found unique ways of adapting to
the varied environments of the Americas.
Some groups even developed sophisticated
government structures and works of art and
engineering that rivaled those of the ancient
Romans.

.#
North Carolina Standards
Social Studies Objectives
2.08 Evaluate the achievements of the major civilizations
of the Americas during the pre-Columbian epoch includ-
ing, but not limited to, the Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas.
Language Arts Objective
2.01.4 Demonstrate the ability to read, listen to and view a
variety of increasingly complex print and non-print informa-
tion texts appropriate to grade level and course by demon-
strating comprehension of main idea and supporting details.

TIME LINE

c. 400 BC Classic Age of Maya c. 750

The Moche culture develops Civilization 250–900 The Anasazi develop
CHAPTER in Peru’s coastal desert. pueblo architecture.
EVENTS
500 BC AD 1 500 1000

WORLD c. 500 BC 206 BC 476 c. 1000

EVENTS Athens develops The Han dynasty begins The Roman Murasaki Shikibu writes
the world’s first its rule of China. Empire falls. The Tale of Genji, the
democracy. world’s first novel.

196 CHAPTER 7

w8ncfs_ams_opener.indd 196 2/15/07 7:53:01 AM

 History's Impact video program
Watch the video to understand the impact of
Maya achievements on math and astronomy.

Reading
like aHistorian This photograph shows
the ruins of Machu Picchu,
an ancient Inca city high in the Andes Mountains.
Historians think this city was built as a retreat for Inca
1325 c. 1440 royalty. It lay all but forgotten for hundreds of years
The Aztecs establish their Pachacuti begins to expand until its rediscovery in 1911.
capital at Tenochtitlán. the Inca Empire.
Analyzing Visuals Why do you think the Inca
chose to build a royal city in this location? What
1500
benefits and challenges do you think the geography
1096 1453 presented?
European Christians Constantinople becomes part See Skills Handbook, p. H26
begin the Crusades for of the Ottoman Empire.
control of the Holy Land.

the americas 197

 Geography Starting Points
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The Andes Mountains create a varied climate along

the western coast of South America.

North and South 1. Compare What type of environments

America have almost every possible type of do you think would be most suitable for Listen to History
environment—from frozen tundra to dusty developing farming societies?
Go online to listen to an
deserts to lush tropical forests. In spite of the 2. Predict In what ways might people explanation of the starting
environmental differences, early people settled adapt to living in cold forest and tundra points for this chapter.
in almost every part of the Americas. They areas? in highland areas?
quickly learned to adapt to their region’s unique [Link]
Keyword: SHL AMS
climate, vegetation, and topography.

198 Chapter 7
 Section

1 North America
Take
Before You Read notes on
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms the ways early cultures
adapted to their envi-
As people settled in North 1. How did cultures adapt to adobe
ronments.
America, they adapted to the environment of the pueblo
different types of geography Desert West? kivas
by developing different 2. How have scientists learned maize
Ways of
styles of housing and ways about the mound builders? Iroquois League Adapting
of getting food.
3. How did geography affect
the Inuit, the Iroquois, and
the Plains Indians?

TheFIRST
Americans
Scientists have studied Kennewick
Man’s bones and developed this model
of what he probably looked like.

Where did they come from and followed the animals they were hunting into North America
how did they get here? In 1996 and formed settlements. From there, the people would have
two college students stumbled upon continued migrating southward as they looked for food.
a human skull in the Columbia River near Kennewick, Recent archaeological discoveries, such as Kennewick
Washington. Later searches in the area turned up a nearly Man, suggest that the land bridge theory may not fully
complete 9,000-year-old skeleton. Scientists nicknamed the explain the arrival of the first Americans. One important
skeleton Kennewick Man. Kennewick Man is helping scien- recent discovery is the Monte Verde site in southern Chile.
tists answer some questions about the first Americans. Remains found there are at least 12,500 years old—and
Scientists have put forth many theories on how and may be as old as 30,000 years! If the remains are that old,
when people first arrived in the Americas. According to one it might have been impossible for humans to have migrated
theory, the last ice age caused ocean levels to fall, exposing there from the Beringia land bridge. Many scientists now
dry land across the Bering Strait, between present-day Rus- think that early people may have arrived to the Americas
sia and Alaska. At that time, sometime between 25,000 and along the coasts, perhaps using boats. However they got
14,000 years ago, small bands of people from Asia could here, as they spread across the continents, early Americans
have crossed this “land bridge,” known as Beringia, as they had to learn to adapt to many different environments.

The Americas 199

 Cultures of the Desert West Anasazi The Anasazi lived in the Desert
West near the Hohokam from about 100 BC
Much of the southwestern United States and to AD 1300. Like their neighbors, they lived in
northern Mexico is desert. Early people in this pithouses. However, around the end of the first
region learned how to farm in the harsh, dry century AD the Anasazi developed a new kind
environment and to build their homes out of of architecture called pueblo. Pueblos were sev-
local materials. eral stories high and had many rooms, similar
to modern apartment buildings. It was easier
Hohokam In the Desert West the Hohokam
for the Anasazi to add rooms in pueblos than
(ho-ho-kam) flourished from 300 BC to AD
to dig pithouses. Most villages also had under-
1500. To farm in the desert, the Hohokam
ground rooms called kivas. Kivas were used as
built shallow canals for irrigation. Next to the
meeting places or for religious ceremonies.
canals the Hohokam planted crops in a series
Also typical of Anasazi architecture were
of earthen mounds. Woven mats created dams
cliff dwellings. Pueblos were built in shal-
in the canals that directed irrigation water
low caves high up in the walls of canyons. To
toward the earthen crop mounds.
enter their cliff dwellings, the Anasazi used
The Hohokam expanded their irrigation
staircases carved into the rock walls or lad-
system to channel water into their villages. In
ders with notched footholds made from tree
addition to wells and other types of containers
trunks. Because of their limited accessibility,
for storing water, Hohokam villages contained
cliff dwellings offered protection from attack.
dwellings called pithouses. Pithouses were
formed by digging shallow holes in the ground Make Generalizations
and building walls and roofs with a mixture of How did cultures of the Desert West adapt their
clay and straw called adobe. architecture to their environment?

North American Cultures

North American cultures within certain
regions shared similar characteristics. The
Arctic & Subarctic Far West
geography of a region determined to a The bird and fish decoration on
large extent what people ate, where they this spool shows two aspects of
lived, and how their societies functioned. life for Native Americans in the
Which cultures relied most on fishing? far west.
• Peoples included the Haida,
Chinook, Columbia, Miwok, and
Chumash
• Geography included rivers, forests,
Ivory from walrus tusks was one
and a long coastline
of the few resources available to
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200 Chapter 7
 The Mound Builders Mississippian Later mound builders, the
Mississippians, built some of the earliest cities
In the eastern woodlands of North America, in North America. Their largest city, Cahokia,
near the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys, had a population of up to 20,000 people and
lived several societies known for the large contained more than 100 mounds. Cahokia
earthen mounds they built. The mounds tell us was a planned city. It was built by an organized
about the cultures of these societies. Mississippian labor force using mathematical
and engineering skills. For example, engineers
Hopewell One early group of mound build-
used different types of soils in building the
ers was the Hopewell, who lived from 200 BC
mounds to ensure proper drainage.
to AD 500. They built large stone and earth
The layout of the city and the objects found
mounds as burial sites. The size of the mounds
in its mounds suggest that Mississippian
suggests that Hopewell society included some
society was complex and had clear divisions
form of organized labor. Buried inside the
between social classes. Priests ruled Cahokia
mounds were objects such as pottery and metal
and surrounding villages, with the ruler living
ornaments. These objects provide other clues
atop the largest mound in the city center. Rows
to Hopewell society. For example, daggers of
of other houses surrounded a central plaza. In
obsidian from the Rocky Mountains and shells
addition, artifacts found in some burial mounds
from the Gulf of Mexico show that the Hopewell
show differences between common people and ACADEMIC
developed an extensive trade network.
people who had elite status in society. VOCABULARY
In spite of their relatively organized society, status position or
the Hopewell culture gradually declined begin- Summarize What do the rank
ning around AD 400. Scientists are still unsure mounds tell us about Hopewell and Mississippian
of the cause of this culture’s decline. society?

DESERT WEST GREAT PLAINS EASTERN WOODLANDS

This buffalo skin rattle shows the
importance of the buffalo to the
Plains Indians.
• Peoples included the Blackfoot,
Sioux, Omaha, Comanche, and Crow
• Region consisted of treeless, grassy
plains with fertile soil
• Hunted buffalo
The Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde in Serpent Mound in Ohio was built
Colorado is the largest Anasazi • Lived in portable teepees made by mound builders who lived
cliff dwelling, containing 200 from buffalo skins about the same time as the
rooms. Hopewell.
• Peoples included the Hohokam, • Peoples included the Adena,
Anasazi, Apache, Shoshone, Hopewell, Mississippian, Iroquois,
Tarahumara, and Yaqui Mohawk, and Seminole
• Lived in a dry, rocky environment • Warm and temperate forests were
• Used irrigation techniques to farm characteristic
maize, beans, and squash • Relied on hunting and gathering,
• Built houses out of adobe or into as well as farming some native
the sides of cliffs crops
• Lived in log houses built from for-
est materials

THE AMERICAS 201

w8nafs_ams_sec1.indd 201 2/27/07 8:40:25 PM

 Other Cultures of Although they shared many similar char-
acteristics, the Iroquois were actually made
North America up of five different nations. They included the
In other areas of North America, cultures Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and
developed differently according to their differ- Seneca. These tribes eventually formed a joint
ent environments. The varied geography of the government called the Iroquois League. Each
continent determined the way these peoples chief in the league had one vote. In the 1700s
got food, made shelter, and organized their the Tuscarora were admitted to the League.
societies.
Plains Indians Like the Iroquois, the Plains
The Inuit The Inuit lived in the Arctic regions Indians consisted of different tribes. However,
of North America. In this frozen, treeless land- not all spoke the same language, so communi-
scape, the Inuit could not depend on vegeta- cation was a problem. To solve the problem, the
tion for their food source. Instead, they became Plains Indians developed a form of sign lan-
skilled hunters and fishers. Using kayaks, the guage to communicate more easily when they
Inuit hunted sea mammals such as seals. They met on the Great Plains.
also caught fish through holes in the ice. In the The Great Plains region is a mostly tree-
summer, the Inuit hunted land animals like less grassland. At first, the Plains Indians lived
caribou. Caribou skins and furs were important along rivers and streams, where they farmed
for making warm clothing. They also served as the fertile land. After Europeans brought
furniture in the Inuit igloos, or houses made horses to the region, however, the lives of the
from ice blocks. Plains Indians changed. They began to use
horses to follow buffalo herds over long dis-
The Iroquois To the south, in eastern North tances. The buffalo became an even greater
America, where it was warmer, the Iroquois part of their lives. The Plains Indians ate buf-
relied on materials in their forest environment. falo meat, made clothing and portable tents
They built their dwellings, called longhouses, from the skins, and used the bones and horns
from elm bark. For food, they trapped forest to make tools.
animals. The climate also allowed the Iroquois Identify Supporting
to farm crops such as beans, squash, and maize, Details What details show that the Inuit, Iroquois,
which is another word for corn. and Plains Indians lived in different environments?

[Link]
Section 1 Assessment Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL AMS HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Identify What culture developed pueblo architecture? 4. Evaluate Using your notes on the section and a chart like
b. Explain How were the Hohokam able to grow crops in the the one below, list similarities and differences that developed
desert? in different cultures of North America. Note differences in
2. a. Recall In what region did the mound builders live? climate and environment that may have affected cultures.
b. Interpret What about the items found in burial mounds do
you think led researchers to believe that the Hopewell had an Similarities Differences
extensive trade network?
c. Elaborate How do you think the layout and mounds of
Cahokia suggest that there were clear social divisions in
Mississippian society?
3. a. Describe How did the Inuit adapt to their environment?
b. Contrast What differed about the way the Iroquois and
the Plains Indians dealt with the different nations within their 5. Description Choose one early North American culture and
regions? imagine you are visiting the people of that culture for the
c. Predict How might the lives of the Plains Indians have first time. Write a short paragraph describing unique charac-
been different if they had not started using horses? teristics of that culture.

202 Chapter 7
 Section

2 Mesoamerica
Record
Before You Read details
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms about the characteris-
tics of the first civiliza-
Civilizations in Mesoamerica 1. What were the first civiliza- elite
tions, the Maya, and
were some of the earliest tions in Mesoamerica like? slash-and-burn agriculture
the Aztec.
and most advanced in the 2. What were some characteris- glyphs
Americas. tics of Maya civilization? codex
tribute
3. What made the Aztec empire
alliance
one of the strongest in the
ancient Americas?

Giants in the
Was the Olmec civilization
the “mother culture” of Meso-
america? Among the ruins of an
Jungle An Olmec sculpture of a
giant head may represent
ancient Olmec city, archaeologists found some of the great- a ruler, a lord, or a god.
est sculptures in Mesoamerica—from tiny jade jaguar fig-
ures to giant stone heads up to 9 feet tall and weighing as
much as 40 tons. This advanced artistic style led scholars to
think that the Olmec were a relatively recent civilization in
the region.
As more discoveries were made, however, scholars
learned that the Olmec actually predated just about every
other civilization in Mesoamerica. They were the first to
develop what might be considered a writing system and
the first to use an architecture style of pyramids and plazas
that is common throughout the region. Because of all these
“firsts,” scholars once called the Olmec the “mother culture”
of Mesoamerica, meaning they were the ones who gave rise
to all later cultures in the region.

The First Civilizations

Mesoamerica, a region that includes southern Mexico
and northern Central America, was the site of the first
farming settlements in the Americas. Warm tempera-
tures, plentiful rainfall, and rich volcanic soils made the
area ideal for growing crops. The first domesticated crop
in the Americas, maize, was farmed in the region by
around 5000 BC. Early Mesoamericans soon learned to
farm beans and squash as well. Farming allowed some
early peoples in Mesoamerica to create large cities and
complex social structures and to advance culturally.

203
 Early Mesoamerican Civilizations

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Olmec The Olmec lived in the hot, humid, Trade goods were not the only things
lowlands along the Gulf coast of southern exchanged along the network of trade routes.
Mexico from about 1200 BC to AD 300. They Knowledge, beliefs, and art styles spread in
built the first large towns in Mesoamerica. The this way also. For example, the Olmec invented
earliest Olmec town contained a large pyramid a calendar and were perhaps the first in
and a courtyard. It also contained eight giant Mesoamerica to use writing. They were also
stone heads and several other thronelike mon- the earliest people in the region to play what
uments. A later town, La Venta, had more giant became a popular ball game. These elements
stone heads as well as elaborate tombs and a of Olmec civilization can be seen in many later
pyramid. Because of the types of structures Mesoamerican civilizations. As influential as
and monuments in the towns, scholars think the Olmec were, however, the reason for their
Olmec towns served as ceremonial, political, decline remains a mystery.
and religious centers.
The towns may have also been where Zapotec One later Mesoamerican people that
Olmec rulers and their families lived. The rul- may have had contact with the Olmec were the
ers led public ceremonies that symbolized their Zapotec. They lived in southern Mexico from
special relationship with the gods. People of about 1500 BC to AD 750. In the beginning, the
lower social classes, such as artists and farm- Zapotec were farmers. Around 500 BC, how-
ers, lived outside the towns and supported the ever, they built a capital city, Monte Albán, high
rulers and priests. above the Valley of Oaxaca (wah-hah-kah).
In addition to leading ceremonies, the Monte Albán was the first true city in Meso-
Olmec elite, or high-ranking members, con- america. Its huge main plaza was lined with
trolled a large trade network that stretched pyramids, temples, and palaces, some of which
to central Mexico and along the Pacific coast. were decorated with carvings that showed
Olmec traders traveled the network to obtain Olmec influence. There was also a large ball
shells and certain types of valuable stones that court and even an observatory. Outside the
could not be found nearby. They exported rub- main area, the city had fifteen residential
ber, pottery, furs, and cacao. neighborhoods, each with its own plaza.

204 Chapter 7
 Pyramids were often built on top of
older, smaller pyramids. Over time,
forest growth covered even the largest
pyramids, making them difficult to find.

Maya pyramid

This Maya pyramid at Tikal was the tallest structure

in the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans.
Pyramids like these were often topped with temples.

At its height in the 700s, Monte Albán had

a population of as many as 35,000 people. The
The Maya
city declined rapidly, however. Some scholars The civilizations of the Olmec, Zapotec, and
think that Zapotec leaders probably lost their Toltec were small compared to the Maya civili-
people’s support. When this happened, Meso- zation that developed in Mesoamerica around
america’s first urban population moved from 1000 BC. At its height, Maya civilization con-
Monte Albán to smaller communities. The site, sisted of some 10 million people spread among
however, was still used for high-status burials. 40 cities.

Toltec The Toltec, who lived in the highlands Early Maya Civilization Before they built
of central Mexico from AD 900 to 1200, formed cities, the Maya lived in small villages where
another urban civilization. An early Toltec they grew corn, beans, and squash. While they
leader established a capital at Tula. Tula’s benefited from good rainfall and rich soils, their
location near obsidian mines made it a major rain forest environment presented some chal-
trade center. lenges to farming. To clear forest land for crops,
Like other early Mesoamerican cities, Tula the Maya practiced slash-and-burn agriculture.
had pyramids and temples. Unlike other cities, This method of farming involves burning veg-
however, Tula’s art and architecture showed etation to clear land for planting. Farmers who
the militaristic nature of its inhabitants. Stat- lived in the highlands built flat terraces into
ues and carvings of warriors celebrate the the hillsides so they could control erosion and
fierce Toltecs, who established military domi- more easily grow crops.
nance over a large region. Toltec dominance did Farming did not provide everything the
not last, however. Some combination of climate Maya needed. Villages started trading with
change and social conflict led to the abandon- one another to get goods such as cotton and
ment of Tula in less than three centuries. jade that came from different parts of Meso-
america. Trade and agriculture helped support
Compare What did the larger populations, and the early Maya villages
Olmec, Zapotec, and Toltec cultures have in common? grew into cities.

The Americas 205

 Cities and Government The Maya built Achievements Impressive buildings and
most of their cities between AD 250 and 900, architecture, including canals, were a major
a period of Maya history known as the Classic achievement of the Maya. In addition, the Maya
Age. Maya cities such as Tikal and Copan were made advances in astronomy, math, and writ-
some of the most spectacular in Mesoamerica. ing. They carefully observed the movements
They contained stone pyramids, temples, and of the sun, moon, and planets. Based on what
palaces. Often built to honor gods or rulers, they observed, they created a calendar system.
these monumental structures were brightly The Maya had two calendars—a 365-day farm-
painted and decorated with stone carvings. ing calendar and a 260-day religious calendar.
Maya cities functioned as city-states. Each Priests consulted the calendars to determine
had its own ruler and its own government. No what days would be lucky or unlucky for war,
ruler ever united the many cities into a single planting, and religious ceremonies. In spite of
empire. Even without a central government, the way the Maya used their calendar system,
however, Maya cities were linked in several it was more accurate than that used in Europe
ways. One link was trade. Cities in the high- at the same time.
lands traded local products such as jade and To go along with their calendars, the Maya
obsidian for cotton, rubber, and cacao from cit- created a number system that included some
ies in the lowlands. Another link between cit- new concepts in math. For example, the Maya
ies was warfare. Neighboring Maya cities were were among the first people in the world to use
often at war with each other. Through bloody the concept of zero.
battles, kings tried to gain land for their cities The Maya also developed a complex writing
and power for themselves. system to keep records. Their writing consisted
of glyphs, or symbols, that represented both
Society and Religion Kings had great objects and sounds. The Maya carved their
influence in Maya society. The Maya believed writing into large stone monuments called ste-
kings communicated with the gods. The Maya lae. They also kept written records in a type of
worshipped many gods and believed they influ- bark-paper book later referred to as a codex.
enced daily life. To prevent disasters and keep
the gods happy, the Maya performed private Decline A part of Maya history that is not
and public rituals for the gods. One common clear from their written records is what caused
ritual involved offering blood to the gods, usu- their civilization to decline. Scholars think that
ally by piercing the tongue or skin. Another a number of factors caused the decline. One
religious ritual involved playing a ball game factor may have been environmental damage
common in Mesoamerica. In this game, play- from overuse of resources or a drought that
ers tried to get a heavy rubber ball through made it difficult to feed everyone in the cities.
a stone ring using only their elbows, knees, A related theory says that warfare increased
or hips. Losing teams often lost their lives as over competition for land. Increased warfare
well, with their hearts sacrificed to the gods. would have destroyed more crops. A third fac-
The Maya performed human sacrifice only on tor in the decline could have been the abuse of
certain occasions. power by particularly strong kings, such as Yax
Religious ceremonies were led by priests, Pak of Copán. The demands of kings could have
who were part of the upper class. Also part caused people to rebel and leave their cities.
of the upper class were professional warriors. Although Maya civilization declined around
They played an important role in Maya religion 900, the Maya did not disappear. Evidence sug-
and society because they were responsible for gests that the Maya from forest cities moved to
getting war victims for use in human sacrifice. new cities, such as Chichén Itzá in the Yucatán
Just below the upper class in Maya society Peninsula. Those cities remained powerful for
were merchants and skilled craftspeople. Most several hundred years. Eventually, however,
men and women, however, were members of the the Maya abandoned those cities as well and
lower class. They were the farmers and slaves scattered into small villages in the region.
whose labor supported the wealthier classes.
They supported the upper classes by providing Summarize What were the
food and labor for public building projects. main characteristics of Maya civilization?

206 Chapter 7
 Reading A bloodletting ritual
was performed to
like a Historian celebrate the birth of
Shield Jaguar II, son of
Bird Jaguar

Maya Carvings
Analyzing Primary Sources Whether they are pri-
mary or secondary sources, visual images can help us
understand an event or a culture in history. Historians
have learned a lot about the Maya from studying
These are translations
their carvings and writing. The image here is a Maya of the Mayan writing
carving created about 770. The Maya typically wrote in the carving.
descriptions—much like captions—of the scenes in
their carvings. The glyphs, or symbols, on the carving
are Maya writing describing the scene. Historians are
interested in studying Maya carvings to learn about
their society. Bird Jaguar, he who
To analyze what this carving has to say about took 20 captives, blood
Maya society, think about lord of Yaxchilan

• the subject of the image

• the details in the image
• the Maya description of the scene.

The people in the

image are a Maya king
and his wife.

The lady is pulling

a cord studded with
stingray spines
through her tongue
to get blood.

Skills
FOCUS Reading Like a Historian
1. Creator What does this carving tell us about the artist?
2. Details What does this carving reveal about Maya society?
3. Subject Why do you think the artist created this carving?
See Skills Handbook, p. H25

The Americas 207

 The Aztecs In addition to being farmers, the Aztecs
were also fierce warriors. They began fighting
About the time that the Maya cities in the to control other towns around Lake Texcoco.
Yucatán were declining, a group of people to The Aztecs gained strength in the 1420s when
the north, the Aztecs, began their rise to power. they formed an alliance, or partnership, with
The early Aztecs were just a small group of two other nearby city-states, Texcoco and Tla-
unlucky farmers from northwestern Mexico copan. This alliance quickly gained control over
who were searching for a new home. But in a huge region that spread far beyond Lake Tex-
little time, they created the most powerful coco. The Aztecs came to rule 400 to 500 other
empire in Mesoamerica. city-states. At its height, about 5 million people
were part of the Aztec Empire.
Rise of the Empire The Aztecs began as The Aztecs required the conquered people
a group of separate tribes from northwestern
of their empire to pay tribute, or a type of tax.
Mexico. These farming tribes were probably
People in the empire paid tribute in many
subjects of the Toltecs. According to legend,
forms, from feathers and food crops to pottery
the war god told one of the tribes’ leaders that
and blankets. This tribute system was the basis
they should look for a place where they saw
of the Aztec economy. If any local ruler refused
an eagle perched on a cactus eating a snake. It
to pay tribute, the Aztecs used their military
was there that they should settle and build a
force to destroy the town.
new capital.
The Aztec Empire gained wealth and
The Aztecs migrated south to the Valley of
strength through trade as well as through trib-
Mexico in the 1100s. When they arrived, they
ute. A system of roads aided trade. Merchants
found that other tribes had already taken all
traveled throughout the empire to buy and
the good farmland. The Aztecs saw the eagle
sell luxury goods such as jade and cacao. Mer-
and the snake on a swampy island in Lake Tex-
chants sometimes acted as spies for the Aztec
coco. They founded a city there and called it
emperor. They could report any trouble they
Tenochtitlán. From there the Aztecs continued
saw brewing in distant parts of the empire.
their rise to power.

Life in the Aztec Empire

The famous Mexican mural-
ist Diego Rivera painted
this scene of Tenochtitlán
in 1945. The title is La Gran
Tenochtitlán: Market Fair at
Tenochtitlán. It now hangs
in Mexico City, the city built
on the ruins of Tenochtit-
lán. How accurately do
you think this painting
depicts Tenochtitlán?
La Gran Tenochtitlán, by Diego Rivera, 1945
Courtesy SuperStock, Inc.

208 Chapter 7
Tenochtitlán The glory of the Aztec Empire Tenochtitlán was connected by canals and
was most clearly seen in the capital city of causeways to the empire’s biggest market at
Tenochtitlán. This amazing city covered five Tlatelolco, a smaller city just outside the Aztec Mexico City, the
square miles and had a population of about capital. Tlatelolco attracted more than 60,000 capital of Mexico
people a day. Merchants brought goods such as and one of the big-
200,000. It was one of the largest cities in the
gest cities in the
world at that time. cotton, jaguar pelts, and rubber to trade. Since
world, was later
At the center of the city was a huge walled the Aztecs had no coins, they sometimes used built on the site
compound that served as the political and reli- cacao beans or goose quills filled with gold as of Tenochtitlán.
gious heart of the entire empire. Within the money. Vendors at the market had to pay a tax,
walls rose a huge pyramid with two temples usually in corn, to support the Aztec army.
on top. The Aztec priests performed religious
ceremonies at these temples. Other temples, Society and Religion Just as the economy
as well as government buildings, palaces, and of the Aztec Empire was highly organized, so
a ball court, filled the rest of the city center. It was Aztec society. It was strictly divided into
was such an impressive sight that one of the different social classes. At the top of the social
first Europeans to see Tenochtitlán said the order was the king. The king was part of a royal
city “seemed like an enchanted vision.” family, but he had to be elected by a group of
Since Tenochtitlán was built on a swampy nobles. The king displayed his power at his pal-
island in the middle of a lake, there was not ace in Tenochtitlán, where he had gardens, a
much land available for farming. To create more zoo, and thousands of servants. Certain nobles
farmland for their corn, beans, and squash, the also served the king as government officials.
Aztecs built “floating gardens” called chinam- Just below the king in Aztec society were
pas (chee-nahm-pahs) around the edges of priests. They interpreted calendars and per-
the city. They did this by piling soil on top of formed religious ceremonies. Aztec religious
rafts anchored to reeds in the water. From the ceremonies were particularly bloody. Believing
chinampas, farmers loaded crops onto canoes that the gods needed human blood, the Aztecs
and floated them down canals to the market. sacrificed as many as 20,000 victims a year. ACADEMIC
One European observer shared his perspective VOCABULARY
of a scene in a temple after a sacrifice. perspective per-
sonal point of view
History’s Voices

1
“and
All the walls of that shrine were so splashed
caked with blood that they and the floor too
3 were black. Indeed, the whole place stank

2
abominably.
”
—Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain,
1568

The Aztecs usually used slaves or prisoners

of war as sacrifices. Warriors were responsible
for capturing these victims. Because of this
4 tie to religion, certain highly trained warriors
were also part of the Aztec upper class.
Not quite part of the upper class, but
respected and wealthy nonetheless, were mer-
1 The great temple stood in the center of chants and artisans. Merchants often became
Tenochtitlán. Other temples were scattered rich from trading in luxury goods. They lived in
throughout the city. grand houses in Tenochtitlán, but they were not
2 Slaves provided much of the labor in the as wealthy as the king. Artisans were impor-
Aztec Empire. tant because they made the goods required for
tribute.
3 Canals and causeways linked Tenochtitlán
to surrounding areas. Most people in Aztec society were farmers.
They made up the lower class and were very
4 People from all over the empire came to the
market to trade goods and food such as corn. poor. They usually did not own their own land.

The Americas 209

 Achievements Like other Mesoamericans,
the Aztecs are known for their achievements
Aztec Arts in art and science. Their artisans made bright
This skull mask is made feathers into headdresses, shields, and warrior
from turquoise and costumes. Metalworkers fashioned gold, silver,
obsidian. Skulls and and copper into jewelry and masks. In addi-
gods were common tion, master stoneworkers decorated temples
themes in Aztec art. and other buildings with elaborate sculptures
depicting gods and stories from their history.
Like the Maya, the Aztecs kept written
records. The Aztecs also used glyphs in their
writing, but their system was not as advanced
as Maya writing. The Aztecs used writing to
keep track of tax records and business deals.
They often had to pay so much in tribute that They also composed poetry, riddles, and histor-
they found it difficult to survive on what was ical accounts. These were passed on orally from
left over. one generation to the next as well.
Farmers could improve their lives, however, Using their knowledge of astronomy, the
by becoming warriors or studying at special Aztecs created a 260-day religious calendar
schools. All Aztec boys and girls had to attend and a 365-day solar calendar much like the
school until the age of 15, but some people con- Maya calendar. They also accurately calculated
tinued in special schools that enabled them to the movements of some planets.
become government officials. Although the Aztec Empire reached new
Those in Aztec society who suffered the heights of civilization in the Americas, it lasted
most were slaves. Most slaves were people a relatively short time. Tenochtitlán lasted less
who had been captured in battle or those who than 200 years. In the early 1500s contact with
could not pay their debts. Merchants also Europeans would quickly bring an end to the
bought slaves from other towns in the region. empire.
Some slaves worked as farmers or laborers for
nobles or merchants, and their children would Identify Supporting
be born free. Others became victims in human Details What aspects of the Aztec Empire made it
sacrifices. the strongest in Mesoamerica?

[Link]
Section 2 Assessment Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL AMS HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Describe What geographical features of Mesoamerica 4. Compare and Contrast Use your notes on the section and a
made it a good location for the development of early civiliza- graphic organizer like the one below to show how the Maya
tions in the Americas? and the Aztecs were similar and how they were different in
b. Explain How did the Olmec influence knowledge and arts their government, religion, society, and achievements.
throughout Mesoamerica? Maya Aztec
Government
2. a. Define What is slash-and-burn agriculture?
Religion
b. Analyze In what ways was Maya religion linked to daily
Society
life?
Achievements
c. Support a Position Defend or criticize the statement that
the Maya civilization grew too fast for its own good.
3. a. Recall How did the alliance affect the Aztecs?
b. Interpret How did the Aztec system of tribute strengthen 5. Description Imagine you are a visitor to a Maya city as the
the empire? Classic Period is ending. Write a short letter home describing
c. Make Judgments How might an Aztec and a European what you see. Include details about the environment, people’s
view Aztec religion differently? activities, what the city must have been like in earlier years,
and what you expect it to look like in a few years.

210 Chapter 7
 Section

3 South America
Before You Read Take notes
on early
Main Idea Reading Focus Key Terms and People South American cultures
and the Inca empire.
Several early cultures in 1. How did early cultures of Pachacuti
South America adapted South America adapt to quipu Early Inca
Cultures
to extreme environmental their environments? census
conditions. One of them, the 2. How was the Inca Empire
Inca, built one of the biggest organized?
and most powerful empires
in the Americas.

AN Ancient
What are the gigantic designs in
the desert of Peru? Since the 1920s
scientists have studied some mysterious
lines in the Peruvian desert. These lines formed images of

Desert
plants and animals up to several hundred feet long. Some
scholars think the Nazca people created the lines more than
2,000 years ago. But how did the Nazca create them and

Mystery
what purpose did they serve?
Scholars know that the lines were made by removing
the top, darker layer of the desert floor to expose lighter
ground underneath, but they can only theorize about their
purpose. Perhaps the lines pointed to movements of the sun
or planets. Or perhaps they were sacred pathways or had Although visible at ground-
other religious functions. level, lines in the desert form
designs so large they can only
be clearly seen from the sky.

The Americas 211

 Early Cultures in Chavín One early people, the Chavín (chah-
veen), lived in the highlands of Peru from about
South America 900 to 200 BC. The center of Chavín culture
The western region of South America is one of was a site called Chavín de Huantar. It was an
environmental contrasts. The coastal desert is urban religious and trading center with a pop-
one of the driest places on earth. The Andes, ulation of about 3,000 farmers, craftspeople,
which run almost the length of the continent, and others.
form the second-highest mountain range in the Because Chavín de Huantar lay on the
world. On the eastern slopes of the Andes is a slopes of the Andes, farmers in the region had
region of steamy rain forests. In spite of these access to several distinct ecological zones. As a
geographical extremes, many early peoples result, they were able to grow several different
learned to adapt to their environments and types of crops. In the warmer valleys, they built
built advanced civilizations there. irrigation systems and grew corn. Higher in
the mountains, where it was cooler, they grew
potatoes. In the high-altitude grasslands, they
raised animals such as llamas and alpacas.
South American These same farming and herding strategies
Cultures continued in later Andean societies.

  
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GEOGRAPHY
SKILLS Interpreting Maps
1. Place In what culture was Chan Chan an
important place?
2. Regions What physical features were part of
the Inca Empire?

212 Chapter 7
Nazca Another desert people, the Nazca, lived Faces of History
from about 200 BC to AD 600. The Nazca are Pachacuti was the most
best known for the huge designs they made on powerful ruler in Inca
the desert floor. These Nazca Lines show geo-
metric shapes and outlines of animals such as
PACHACUTI history. He became
emperor in about 1438.
Died 1471
a monkey, a hummingbird, and a spider. There Under his rule, the Inca
are many theories as to why the Nazca created Empire had its period of
these large-scale drawings and designs. One greatest expansion. In addition to gaining territory, Pachacuti rebuilt
theory is that they may have had something to the Inca capital at Cuzco.
do with the location of water. Pachacuti was also responsible for many government reforms. For
Water was very important in the desert. example, he began the policy of sending government officials to rule
The Nazca built irrigation canals and also different areas of the empire. He also established an official religion
relied on the natural springs and the annual and an official language, Quechua. These changes brought unity and
flooding of streams to water their crops. This stability to an empire that governed diverse groups of people.
way, they were able to farm in the desert and Infer How would Pachacuti’s establishing an official religion and lan-
support a large population. guage help him govern the Inca Empire?

Identify Problem and

Solution What problems did the environments of
South America create, and how did early cultures solve
Economy The government strictly controlled Reading
these problems? Skills
the economy in the empire. The common people
Making General-
in the empire were required to “pay” a labor tax
izations What
The Inca Empire called the mita. Women could fulfill the mita by
activities such as weaving cloth for the army.
generalization can
you make about the
Many years after the earliest civilizations Men worked on government-owned farms, in Inca economy?
began in western South America, the Incas mines, or built roads. The government said
brought the entire Andes region into one what work would be done.
empire. They began as a small tribe in the There were no merchants or markets as we
Andes, but by the early 1500s their empire know them in the Inca Empire. Instead, gov-
extended along almost the entire Pacific coast ernment officials distributed goods around the
and throughout the Andes. empire. This was how the Incas supplied their
army and people who were old or sick with the
Government The Incas began their period goods they needed. Any extra food or goods
of rapid expansion in the 1400s. From their were stored in government warehouses for use
capital at Cuzco, their leader Pachacuti used in emergencies.
political alliances and military force to gain To keep track of the movement of goods
control of a huge territory. Later Inca leaders throughout the empire, the Inca used a quipu,
continued the expansion. At its height, in the or set of colored and knotted cords. The colors
early 1500s, the Inca Empire had a population and knots represented numbers or dates. The
of about 12 million. quipu was the only system of record keeping
To rule such a large empire, the Incas in the empire because the Incas had no writ-
needed a strong government. The emperor had ten language. The Inca used quipus to record
most of the power. However, he needed help information such as tax records, quantities of
to rule areas far from the capital because the livestock, and census, or population, data. Only
Incas did not want people they conquered to specially trained officials could read and use
gain too much power and rebel. To limit the quipus. Scholars today have not been able to
power of various local leaders, the Incas made fully decipher these Inca records.
leaders of conquered areas move out of their Quipu keepers, officials who distributed
villages. They then moved in new leaders who tribute goods, the army, and many other peo- ACADEMIC
were loyal to the Inca Empire. This system of ple relied on an extensive road network. Roads VOCABULARY
resettlement created stability in the empire. linked cities all over the empire. The Inca road stability resis-
The military was also used to protect against tance to change or
system improved communication and helped destruction
internal rebellion and external attacks. the government control the economy.

The Americas 213

 History Close-Up

Inca Roads
The Incas built a network of roads, paved with stone blocks,
that was about 14,000 miles long and crossed almost every
kind of terrain imaginable. The roads stretched from sea level
to almost 12,000 feet in elevation.

Terraces increased the

amount of land avail-
able for agriculture.

Stairs of cut stone linked

roadways in higher and
lower areas.

Trained runners would carry

messages and orders of the The first known suspension
empire between carefully bridges spanned canyons,
spaced tambos, or way sta- crevasses, and rivers. The
tions, along the roads. This bridges were woven out of
created a one-day delivery fibers and vines.
time for each 140 miles.

Skills
FOCUS Interpreting Visuals
Roads were vital for transportation, communica-
tion, and government administration in the Inca
Empire.
Analyze What challenges did the Incas face in
building their roads?

214 Chapter 7
Society In the Central Andes, each family In the arts, the Incas were especially skilled
was grouped with others into a cooperative in metalwork and weaving. Artisans made
community called an ayllu (eye-yoo). Members intricate ornaments out of gold and silver. They
of the ayllu worked together in activities such even created a life-sized field of corn out of gold
as farming, building canals or terraces, and and silver in a temple courtyard.
performing religious rituals. Under the Incas, Inca weavers worked with both wool and
each group of ten ayllus had a chief. That chief cotton. They divided cloth into three catego-
reported to a higher level government official ries—plain cloth used for households, finer
and so on in groups of ten. In this way, the cloth used for taxes and trade, and special cloth
ayllu was at the end of a chain of command used only for royal and religious purposes. The
that stretched from the local level throughout Incas used a variety of patterns for their tex-
the empire all the way to the emperor. tiles. A particular pattern indicated an Inca’s
In spite of the cooperation in the ayl- status in society.
lus, there were still clear class divisions in In spite of the high level of organization
Inca society. There were no slaves in the Inca and achievement, the Inca Empire lasted only
Empire, but most people belonged to the lower about 100 years. It began to suffer from inter-
class. They were farmers, artisans, or servants. nal conflict. The arrival of the Spanish in Peru
Inca laws required that they wear only plain in 1532 would mark the end of the Inca Empire
clothes and restricted them from owning any just as the Spanish arrival had for the Aztecs.
more goods than they needed. The lower class Summarize What methods
had to serve the upper class. did the government use to control the Inca Empire?
The upper class, which included the king,
government officials, and priests, lived in
Cuzco, the capital. These elite, high-ranking
members of society had good stone houses and
wore fine clothes. They did not have to pay the
Section 3 Assessment
[Link]
Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL AMS HP
labor tax. Sons of Inca nobles attended school Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
where they studied religion, history, law, and 1. a. Identify What early culture is known for its pottery that showed
the quipu to prepare for lives as government scenes from daily life?
or religious officials. b. Explain How were the Chavín able to raise different types of crops
Religion was a key element of Inca society. that grow in different climates?
People throughout the empire were allowed to c. Develop How did the Nazca adapt their desert environment to grow
worship local gods, but the sun god was the most crops?
important god in the official Inca religion. The 2. a. Identify Who was Pachacuti?
Incas believed their kings were related to the b. Infer Why do you think the Inca government wanted to keep records
sun god. The mummies of dead kings were kept of census data?
in Cuzco and worshipped. Priests performed c. Evaluate Do you think the mita system was a good government
ceremonies for this god at the main temple in policy? Why or why not?
Cuzco. These ceremonies often included sacri- Critical Thinking
fices of llamas, cloth, or food. The Incas only 3. Evaluate Use your notes on the section and the graphic organizer below
sacrificed humans on rare occasions. to describe how you think people who were part of the Inca Empire ben-
efited from living under the control of the Inca government.
Achievements The level of organization of
Inca government and society led to significant
achievements in the areas of engineering and
the arts. The Incas were particularly talented Government

builders. They built temples, forts, and roads

out of huge stone blocks. They cut the blocks to
fit so precisely that they did not need mortar to
hold them together. These Inca structures were
built so well that many still stand today, and 4. Persuasion Imagine you are an Inca official who is trying to convince
even today it is nearly impossible to slip a knife a group of people to peacefully become part of the Inca Empire. Write
blade between the stones. down three or four arguments you could use to persuade them.

The Americas 215

 CHAPTER

7 Document-Based Investigation
Theories on Migration
to the Americas
Historical Context The four documents below support different theories
about when and how the first people migrated to the Americas.
Task Study the documents and answer the questions that follow. Then, using
evidence from these selections and from the chapter, write an essay explaining
why it is difficult for historians to agree on one theory.

The Traditionally Accepted Theory Archaeological Evidence

Archaeologist Stuart J. Fiedel has studied hundreds of Archaeologists base their theories on migration to the
sites across the Americas to determine how and when Americas on the dates and locations of archaeological
the first people arrived in the Americas. The evidence evidence of early human settlement.
he found supports the traditionally held theory that
the first people, called Clovis, crossed the Bering Land
Bridge and spread throughout the Americas. early American
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216 Chapter 7
Another Side of the Debate A Newer Theory
Archaeologist Thomas Dillehay has studied a site at Archaeologists Dennis Stanford and Bruce Brad-
Monte Verde, Chile. Evidence from that site raises ley think that people have been so focused on the
questions about when people arrived in the Americas. Beringia and Clovis-first theories that they have
neglected other possible interpretations of the
For most of the past century, archaeologists thought that archaeological evidence.
all early sites in the Americas were Clovis, dating no earlier
than about 11,200 years ago. If a site appeared to be ear- We also point out that during Solutrean times [c.
lier than Clovis and did not contain Clovis points, a debate 20,000 years ago] lower sea levels greatly reduced
ensued about misidentification of evidence from the site. the distance between the Celtic and the North Ameri-
As a result, the evidence from all pre-Clovis candidates was can Continental Shelves and a connecting ice bridge
considered unconvincing and dismissed. Recently, however, eliminated the necessity of a 4,000-mile blue voyage
the debate has taken a new turn because of a small num- between Lisbon and New York City. The southern mar-
ber of sites excavated in the 1970s and 1980s, including gin of this ice bridge was a relative rich environment
Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, probably the inhabited by migrating sea mammals, birds, and fish
Cactus Hill site in Virginia and the Topper site in South attracting Solutrean people. We reason that genera-
Carolina, and several sites in eastern Brazil, Taima-Taima in tions of Solutrean hunters learned to cope with ice
Venezuela, Tibitó in Colombia, and Monte Verde in Chile. and weather conditions to follow rich resources such
All these sites yielded more convincing pre-11,000-year as Harp seals and Great Auks that migrated north
dates and evidence suggestive of a generalized (non-big- and westward along with retreating ice in late spring.
game) hunter and gatherer lifeway. In other words, these Through such activities they ended up (by accident
sites contained not only more convincing radiocarbon and/or design) along the exposed continental shelf of
dates, human-made artifacts, and reliable stratigraphic North America discovering a New Land.
association but also evidence of early cultures that pre-
dated Clovis.

Skills
FOCUS Reading Like a Historian
D ocument 1 D ocument 4
a. Describe What evidence does Fiedel use to support the a. Describe Where do Stanford and Bradley think the first
theory of Beringia migration by Clovis people? Americans came from, and how did they get here?
b. Draw Conclusions Why does the lack of convincing evi- b. Compare and Contrast How is Stanford and Bradley’s
dence from Alaska not harm Fiedel’s theory? theory similar to the traditionally accepted theory of the
D ocument 2 Bering Land Bridge? How is it different?
a. Identify What appear to be the sites of earliest human
settlement?
b. Analyze Why might the earliest sites complicate the tra- Although most scientists agree that the first people to
ditionally accepted theory about when people first arrived come to the Americas came across the Bering Land Bridge
in the Americas? about 11,000 years ago, there is increasing debate over
D ocument 3 this theory. Using the documents above and information
a. Identify Main Ideas What does Dillehay say about the from the chapter, form a thesis that explains why it is dif-
traditional theory that Clovis were the first Americans? ficult for historians to agree on one theory. Then write a
b. Interpret How does Dillehay think academic debate has short essay to support your position.
influenced the development of theories on migration to
See Skills Handbook, pp. H25–H26
the Americas?

The Americas 217

 CHAPTER

7 Chapter Review
Visual Study Guide
Civilizations of the Americas

North America
• Environments include deserts,
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Mesoamerica
woodlands, and icy tundra. • Environment supported first
• Early peoples were the Hohokam, 'BS farming in the Americas.
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Anasazi, Mound Builders, Inuit, 1MBJOT • Olmec, Zapotec, and Toltec built
Plains Indians, and others. %FTFSU cities with pyramids.
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• Architecture and hunting or farming   
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civilization of many cities
"[UFD .BZB between AD 250 and 900.
• In the 1300s, the Aztecs built
one of the most powerful
empires in the Americas.
South America *ODB
• The Chavín, Moche, and Nazca
learned to farm in the dry desert
and rugged Andean highlands.
• The Inca Empire, with its strong
government, controlled a huge area
in the 1400s.

c. 12,000 BC c. 1325 Aztecs establish Tenochtitlán.

Paleoindians arrive in the Americas c. AD 900 Height of Maya civilization

c. 5000 BC c. AD 100
Maize first domesticated. Anasazi develop c. 1400 Incas begin
pueblo architecture. rapid expansion.

Chapter Review 4. The emperor ________ was mostly responsible for

Complete each sentence by filling the blank with the the great expansion of the Inca Empire.
correct term or name. 5. The Aztecs forced the people they conquered to pay
1. Tombs often reflected a person’s ________, or ________, a type of tax.
position or rank in society. 6. The Anasazi developed ________ architecture
2. The Incas kept track of ________, or population, around AD 750.
data. 7. The Maya practiced ________, a method of farming
3. Maya writing consisted of ________, or symbols. that involves burning vegetation to clear land for
planting.

218 Chapter 7
 History's Impact video program
Review the video to answer the closing question:
How have Mayan achievements influenced math and
astronomy today?

Comprehension and Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals

Section 1 (pp. 199–202) Reading Like a Historian The mural below shows a
Maya king and his court.
8. a. Recall Why did the Hopewell and Mississippian
people build mounds?
b. Explain How did the Hohokam and the Anasazi
adapt to their environment?
c. Make Judgments Based on what you know
about early North Americans’ different types of
social organizations and ways of adapting to the
environment, which culture do you think was the
most advanced? Explain your answer.
Section 2 (pp. 203–210)
9. a. Identify Which group of people built the first
true city in Mesoamerica?
b. Compare and Contrast In what ways were the Mural from Structure 1, Bonampak, c. AD 700–800
Maya and the Aztec civilizations similar? How
were they different? 16. Infer Which figure in the mural is the king? How
can you tell?
c. Support a Position Do you think people who
were conquered and became part of the Aztec 17. Analyze What are the other figures doing?
Empire benefited by being part of the empire? [Link]
Why or why not? Using the Internet Practice Online
Keyword: SHL AMS
Section 3 (pp. 211–215) 18. The Maya calendar had two
10. a. Describe What were some of the main achieve- wheels, one with 260 days and one with 365 days.
ments of the Incas? Use the Internet to learn how Maya dates cor-
respond to dates from our calendar system. Then
b. Explain What methods did the Inca use to
calculate your birthday in the Maya calendar.
maintain unity and stability in their empire?
c. Elaborate In what way did the organization of
Inca society benefit members of the lower class?
In what way did it burden them?
Think about the following issue:
Exposition: Comparing and Contrasting The
Reading Skills Aztecs and Inca both incorporated many differ-
Making Generalizations Use what you have read ent peoples into their large empires. There were
in this chapter to make a one-sentence generalization to similarities and differences in how these two
answer each question below. empires treated their conquered subjects.
11. What do the Mississippian mounds tell us about
the culture? 19. Assignment: Do you think conquered subjects
had better lives in the Aztec Empire or the Inca
12. How did the early Maya benefit from the environ- Empire? Write a short essay in which you develop
ment of Mesoamerica? your position on this issue. Support your point of
13. How did the Aztecs create one of the strongest view with reasoning and examples from your read-
empires in the Americas? ing and studies.

14. Based on the image and explanation on pages

208–09, what general statement could you make
about life in the Aztec Empire?
15. Why was the Inca government strong?
The Americas 219