AP Calculus BC Master Guide

Limits
Evaluation Techniques
Factorization and cancellation, Rationalization of the denominator, Conjugates

Limit Existence + Continuity

lim f (x) exists if lim f (x) = lim f (x)
x→a x→a− x→a+

A function is continuous at “a” if

1. f (a) exists 2. lim f (x) exists 3. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a x→a

Types of Discontinuities
a
Removable discontinuities, Jump discontinuities, Vertical asymptotes (lim = , a ̸= 0)
0
*note: removable discontinuities can usually be removed by factoring

Things that Break Differentiability

differentiable =⇒ continuous (so all of the above break differentiability)
2
corners (|x|), cusps (x )
3 (examples of continuous but not differentiable, continuous ⇏ differentiable)

Special Trig Limits

sin(ax) a
lim =
x→0 bx b
sin(ax)
lim =0
x→∞ bx
1 − cos x
lim =0
x→0 x
*all derived from the squeeze (sandwich) theorem

Intermediate Value Theorem + Mean Value Theorem

IVT. If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then f (x) takes on every value between f (a) and f (b).
MVT. If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), then there exists a value c, where
a < c < b, such that
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a

Horizontal Asymptotes
ax a ax −a
lim √ =√ , lim √ = √
x→∞ bx2 + c b x→−∞ bx2 + c b

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L’Hôpital’s Rule
f (x) 0 ∞ f (x) f ′ (x)
If lim is of indeterminate form or , then lim = lim ′
x→a g(x) 0 ∞ x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

*note: on an FRQ, separately evaluate the limits of the numerator and denominator

Derivatives
Limit Definition
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim formal definition
h→0 h
f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim alternate definition
x→a x−a

Trig, Inverse Trig, and Exponential/Logarithmic

d d 1 d x
[sin x] = cos x [arcsin x] = √ [e ] = ex
dx dx 1−x 2 dx
d d −1 d x
[cos x] = − sin x [arccos x] = √ [a ] = ax ln a
dx dx 1−x 2 dx
d d 1 d 1
[tan x] = sec2 x [arctan x] = [ln x] =
dx dx 1 + x2 dx x
d d −1 d 1
[cot x] = − csc2 x [cot−1 x] = 2
[loga x] =
dx dx 1+x dx x ln a
d d 1 d
[sec x] = sec x tan x [sec−1 x] = √ [xn ] = nxn−1
dx dx |x| x2 − 1 dx
d d −1 d
[csc x] = − csc x cot x [csc−1 x] = √ [a] = 0
dx dx 2
|x| x − 1 dx

*note: for trig integrals, you can memorize sin and cos and derive the rest

Product / Quotient Rules

d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g ′ (x) + f ′ (x)g(x) product rule
dx
d f (x) f ′ (x)g(x) − f (x)g ′ (x)
[ ]= quotient rule
dx g(x) [g(x)]2

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Chain Rule
d
[f (g(x))] = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
d −1 1
=⇒ [f (x)] = ′ −1 derivative of an inverse function
dx f (f (x))

*note: use with the formulas above - correctly identify the outer function f (x) and inner function g(x)

Applications of Derivatives
Extrema + Derivative Tests
• Critical Points: f ′ (x) = 0 or f ′ (x) is undefined.
• Inflection Points: f ′′ (x) = 0 or f ′′ (x) is undefined AND f ′′ (x) changes sign.
Extreme Value Theorem: If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then f (x) has both a max and a min on [a, b].

1st Derivative Test: f ′ (x) changes + → − =⇒ local max; f ′ (x) changes − → + =⇒ local min
Concavity: f ′′ (x) > 0 =⇒ concave up (∪); f ′′ (x) < 0 =⇒ concave down (∩)
2nd Derivative Test: f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0 =⇒ local max; f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0 =⇒ local min

*note: you will have to apply the EVT on an FRQ by testing both critical points AND the endpoints
of the interval

Related Rates + Optimization

Related Rates Plan:
1. Find: identify the rate you are looking for (e.g., dh/dt).

2. Given: identify known values and rates.

3. Equation: write an equation relating the variables.

4. Derivative: differentiate with respect to t (Chain Rule).

Optimization Plan:
1. Equation: find an equation for the quantity to be optimized.

2. Differentiate: find the derivative and identify critical points.

3. Verify: use the 1st or 2nd derivative test to confirm the max or min.
*note: you might want to draw a diagram if one is not given to you

Position, Velocity, Acceleration

s(t) = pos. v(t) = s′ (t) = vel. a(t) = v ′ (t) = s′′ (t) = accel.
Z b Z b
Speed = |v(t)| Total Distance = |v(t)| dt Displacement = v(t) dt
a a

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Linearization
f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)
*note: also called “tangent line approximation”

Integrals
Riemann Sums
b−a
For ∆x = n and xi = a + i∆x :

Left Riemann Sum: Ln = ∆x[f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + · · · + f (xn−1 )]

Right Riemann Sum: Rn = ∆x[f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + · · · + f (xn )]

xi−1 + xi
Midpoint Rule: Mn = ∆x[f (x̄1 ) + f (x̄2 ) + · · · + f (x̄n )] where x̄i =
2
∆x
Trapezoidal Rule: Tn = [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )]
2
Xn Z b
lim f (a + i∆x)∆x = f (x) dx
n→∞ a
i=1

Function Property Left Riemann Sum (Ln ) Right Riemann Sum (Rn )
Increasing (f ′ > 0) Underestimate Overestimate
Decreasing (f ′ < 0) Overestimate Underestimate

Function Property Midpoint Rule (Mn ) Trapezoidal Rule (Tn )

Concave Up (f ′′ > 0) Underestimate Overestimate
Concave Down (f ′′ < 0) Overestimate Underestimate

*note: on FRQs, you’re usually asked to deal with a table with subintervals ∆x of unequal length
- it’s better to intuitively understand Riemann sums as sums of rectangles / trapezoids and how to
calculate that

Trig, Inverse Trig, and Exponential/Logarithmic

√ 1 ex dx = ex + C
R R R
sin x dx = − cos x + C 1−x2
dx = arcsin x + C

√ −1 ax
ax dx =
R R R
cos x dx = sin x + C 1−x2
dx = arccos x + C ln a +C

1 1
R R R
tan x dx = − ln | cos x| + C 1+x2
dx = arctan x + C x dx = ln |x| + C

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 −1
dx = cot−1 x + C 1
R R R
cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C 1+x2 x ln a dx = loga x + C

xn+1
√1 dx = sec−1 x + C xn dx =
R R R
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C |x| x2 −1 n+1 + C (n ̸= −1)

√−1 dx = csc−1 x + C
R R R
csc x dx = − ln | csc x + cot x| + C |x| x2 −1
0 dx = C

sec2 x dx = tan x + C csc2 x dx = − cot x + C

R R R
sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
R
csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

Substitution (Reverse Chain Rule)

Z Z
′
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du where u = g(x)

*note: for definite integrals, change the bounds so that x = a → x = b becomes u(a) → u(b)

Integration by Parts
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Z x
d
f (t) dt = f (x) FTC Part 1
dx a

Z b
f (x) dx = F (b)−F (a) where F ′ (x) = f (x) FTC Part 2, a.k.a Integral Evaluation Theorem
a

*note: for FTC Part 1, you might have to apply the chain rule if the upper bound is a function of
x.

Partial Fractions
P (x) A B
= + (cover-up method is optimal)
(x − a)(x − b) x−a x−b

Improper Integrals
Z ∞ Z b
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx (infinite upper bound)
a b→∞ a
Z b Z b
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx (infinite lower bound)
−∞ a→−∞ a

Z ∞ Z c Z ∞ Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx+ f (x) dx (split at c) = lim f (x) dx+ lim f (x) dx (limits form)
−∞ −∞ c a→−∞ a b→∞ c

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 Z b Z t Z b
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx + lim f (x) dx (discontinuity at c)
a t→c− a t→c+ t
*note: plugging in ∞ in any part of your when evaluating an improper integral on an FRQ will
cost you points - always present it as a limit

Applications of Integrals
Average value
Z b
1
favg = f (x) dx
b−a a
*note: know what this means for FRQs (same units as original function)

Area / Volume
Z b Z d
A= [f (x)−g(x)] dx area between two curves (x-axis), A= [f (y)−g(y)] dy (y-axis)
a c
Z b Z d
2
V =π [f (x)] dx disk method (revolving around x-axis), V =π [f (y)]2 dy (around y-axis)
a c
Z b Z d
V =π [f (x)]2 −[g(x)]2 dx washers (revolving around x-axis), V =π [f (y)]2 −[g(y)]2 dy ( y-axis)
a c
Z b Z d
V = 2π xf (x) dx shells ( y-axis), V = 2π yf (y) dy (x-axis)
a c
Z b
V = A(x)dx if A(x) is the cross-sectional area at x
a

*note: cross-sectional is used with squares, A = s2 ; equilateral triangles, A = 12 s2 ; and semicircles,

A = 14 πr2

*note: shells is the only method where the function we’re integrating differs from the axis of
revolution - it isn’t explicitly tested on the AP exam but can make some questions easier

*note: f(x) (big R) is farther from the axis of revolution than g(x) (small r)

Arc Length
Z br
dy
1 + ( )2 dx over bounds x = a to x = b
a dx
Z d s
dx
1 + ( )2 dy over bounds y = c to y = d
c dy

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Differential Equations
Euler’s Method
Point Slope Linearization
dy
(x0 , y0 ) m0 = dx (x0 ,y0 )
y1 = y0 + m0 (x1 − x0 )
dy
(x1 , y1 ) m1 = dx (x1 ,y1 ) y2 = y1 + m1 (x2 − x1 )
dy
(x2 , y2 ) m2 = dx (x2 ,y2 ) y3 = y2 + m2 (x3 − x2 )

Separable Differential Equations

dy 1
= g(x)h(y) =⇒ dy = g(x) dx
dx h(y)

*note: don’t forget the +C and keeping track of it

*note: remember separation of variables for an FRQ - this might cost you a lot of points

T (t) = Ts + (T0 − Ts )e−kt

Exponential Growth
dy
= ky =⇒ y(t) = y0 ekt
dt

Logistic Growth Model

 
dP P k
= kP 1− = P (M − P )
dt M M

Newton’s Law of Cooling*

dT
= −k(T − Ts )
dt
*note: Newton’s Law of Cooling does not need to be memorized for the AP exam

Polar/Parametric
Parametric Equations
 
d dy
s 2 2
b
d2 y
Z 
dy dy/dt dt dx dx dy
= , = , L= + dt (length of a smooth parametric curve)
dx2 dx


dx dx/dt dt a dt dt

Polar Equations
x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ), x2 + y 2 = r2
Z β
1
[r(θ)]2 dθ area of a polar curve from θ1 = α to θ2 = β
2 α

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Position, Velocity, Acceleration
dx dy
position: (f (t), g(t)), velocity: ⟨f ′ (t), g ′ (t)⟩ = (f ′ (t), g ′ (t)) =
i+ j, acceleration: ⟨f ′′ (t), g ′′ (t)⟩
dt dt
p Z bp
speed = (f ′ (t))2 + (g ′ (t))2 distance traveled on [a, b] = (f ′ (t))2 + (g ′ (t))2 dt
a

Series
Partial Sums
∞
X
S1 = a1 , S2 = a1 + a2 , S3 = a1 + a2 + a3 ... where S = S∞ = an
n=1

Geometric Series
∞
X a1
a1 r n−1 = if |r| < 1, and diverges if |r| ≥ 1
1−r
n=1

*note: problems will often start at a different index, so remember to plug in the first value of n to find a1
*note: generate the first few partial sums to make sure you’re looking at a geometric series

Power Series, Taylor Series, and Maclaurin Series

∞
X
Power series: cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + c3 (x − a)3 + · · ·
n=0
∞
X f (n) (a) f ′′ (a) f (3) (a)
Taylor series: (x − a)n = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + (x − a)3 + · · ·
n! 2! 3!
n=0
∞
X f (n) (0) f ′′ (0) 2 f (3) (0) 3
Maclaurin series: xn = f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x + x + ···
n! 2! 3!
n=0

*note: a is the center of the Taylor series, and the Maclaurin series is centered at 0

Common Maclaurin Series

∞
x2 x3 X xn
ex = 1 + x + + + ··· =
2! 3! n!
n=0
∞
x3 x5 x7 X (−1)n x2n+1
sin x = x − + − + ··· =
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
n=0
∞
x2 x4 x6 X (−1)n x2n
cos x = 1 − + − + ··· =
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
n=0
∞
1 X
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · = xn
1−x
n=0

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 ∞
1 X
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · · = (−1)n xn
1+x
n=0
∞
x2 x3 x4 X (−1)n−1 xn
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + ··· =
2 3 4 n
n=1
∞
x3 x5 x7 X (−1)n x2n+1
arctan x = x − + − + ··· =
3 5 7 2n + 1
n=0

Lagrange Error Bound

M |x − c|n+1
|Rn (x)| ≤ , where M = MAX|f (n+1) (z)| for all z between c and x.
(n + 1)!

Alternating Series Error Bound

∞
X
If (−1)n+1 an satisfies the conditions for the Alternating Series Test, then the error satisfies |S − Sn | ≤ an+1 .
n=1

Manipulating Known Series

substitution (R remains the same), term-by-term differentiation/integration, multiplication/division

Convergence Tests
X
n-th Term: an diverges if lim an ̸= 0 (inconclusive if limit is 0)
n→∞
 
X
n a
Geometric: ar converges if |r| < 1, diverges if |r| ≥ 1 S=
1−r
X 1
p-Series: converges if p > 1, diverges if p ≤ 1
np
X
AST: (−1)n an converges if an+1 ≤ an and lim an = 0
n→∞

X Z ∞
Integral Test: an shares the same behavior as f (x) dx if f(x) is +, continuous, decreasing on [1, ∞)
1

X X X X
DCT: an ≤ bn , bn converges =⇒ an converges; an ≥ bn , bn diverges =⇒ an diverges

an
LCT: lim = L > 0 =⇒ both series share the same behavior
n→∞ bn

an+1
Ratio Test: lim = L =⇒ converges if L < 1, diverges if L > 1 (inconclusive if L = 1)
n→∞ an

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Absolute vs. Conditional Convergence
X X
an converges absolutely if |an | converges, absolute convergence =⇒ convergence
X X X
an converges conditionally if an converges but |an | diverges
*note: the alternating harmonic series is a conditionally convergent series

Radius and Interval of Convergence

Radius of Convergence
R = L from the Ratio Test; series expanded around R; the radius is half the length of the interval

Interval of Convergence
1. Go straight to the Ratio Test to figure out the interval where the series converges.
2. After you’ve found the interval, you must check both endpoints to determine whether each one
is included or not (i.e., whether you use ≤ or < and ≥ or >).

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