{rlu*n n^'d or Q'ccenho l'oa',,1' d^.

of' u cnwlrc,bn'
t"ilifl^y;*A u?-,t??,0':,\ ln:,,,9!\
Sla nderness rtio, i = #L 0y (qere^t1,,
!o, non
Yr;, lpa,sl l^k*"| ,lt*er,srcn V n,ukllic an/

r Foilbre mode : Crw+h,\ (m,+) , Bw.frv1 (tr^l) r

Flor [Link]\r,c londtnS ', ns fenstw aondiio, m

,i I tu-5,"1 eoref kernd,

a ,/

EI,I
tE--+
b
I I

\*, ConbrnnA o-xr d anol b*d,,y sbrsg uxbent

gi lt"ol;r,
{.
D
Y
c 'fir no len<trncondu..

L
v
r hJ
A t NQr.x.
IY
*tf \LY'Y
trr-
My = wL'
x x d Mz- = M\y
,|}I"=Q r b)t
.LX=-
t B
Y ,.ru +
ur-(A ,2_
rv, _ db?
b ^(* r/ +
rx) =Q --TL
J: 8r.L tE_ er-4 lz
i =bd,
[lrt =o: ba c)
olb, L W, =Q,
on 0-v
+
( n(f +'* M) @=*L flr'ePal
W=o!,**1
LL
+ trr=!
oZ =o
h(+ r n* r
*)=,
(Yt1
+ b') fu:'[r''as{
C,r,^lon 9uho, tt A,a*eln^lly syn*rlnr, So
ane-,,q,f nleilr,rl7 oh qry
c* T,nlt:
da"ntfia),oon'denn1
a)uq,.
\

r= +tryY'
hr no knsron cnndron: [-= 0 , nDe
^I. - [Link] o
4
rDl
64
+ ea=%
 (
A
EOVna 4"to^le ?ymw|rc
"L""1
eenlnrd, L4 ,*
V
J consiolo.r ano- NT ururl;al7 . fr, nr-lensnn uonlrhon
L'
4tt lto,
R
fl
0, %=*+ :*'
J-p
2h
-i-r - Ur

r -'--f-
*-lz T (-y
L3
6 t
ct 2 =Q.
4- ,
o*7
/ 7E
IL -
='L
cr a, oP
B c
v K
J
x
A. S;r)oAy
for o-*= 6 I oZ =0, nu.o|kia
oq =-+r- oK,
K & ,{i^a
So, AxYZ rs llu. Lnre, ,L

'/"ry
?Z L

4xy z tu a)sn Wl^]4,^tt)frU,

Y
c +
,8
a ,L bvat,y =19,56mm , A = %\aTmnL
o L-
3o f^, = a, lgBsxtol nrl
/ T:
= l'll|r,ot ,i
M 8y Jyy
D
N
X t20 D*w shr,yn ko*nl.
x
1r "f
9= l0'%
f'l ." N% --
t-= T 'ry'r, *\b.Y
I

A E,
,tn l-
0
t

4.=o: N I
,0? I (*- *
e*(qi
+ tutqE)) o + O*
+ Ir- p,.t!
rl
t,Tbo 7s8\ ) lo'47 7,4 T

G=o ; V'l r (t +
a--Lao) ey |'44
:0 k*-b-=
llno
it L2e llT3o +
---# ? sg,
lo,4T t
['ro
rutJ
9L,g
lr
%,=oi r- (rr++*+
il4o
i
Lv 3',4q
vgs\
=0
? q = **lt
tt
it
,lt
PI
(ort
p",l ', 7 n*tlr^) a
It bo*,.. se.,lrton i <y.*"|ud ^bit
i

ory
frh',r,Jor'qxts, crrL n,ll
olro La
<yn^ok,rJ
"Lo^)
lht a)(t< ,
 Sfio,ytt, ,; Yl"hrt^l' (, c, gTh en9

CIIAPTER 7

STRUT$

7.1 fntroduction. A sfrut usually refere to a compression member which

is long in comparison with its croos-sectional dimensions. Such a member -
will fail due to buclrli"g before the direct compressive gtress reaches the
yieltl point.
For a very long strut, where the efrect of ilirect compression is negligible,
the load which will cause bucHing is given by Euler's Theory but for
shorter stnrts, the Rankine Formula, which makes allowance for the efrect
of direct compression, is more appropriate.
For both theories, it is assumed that:
\;
(o) the stmt is initially straight,
(b) the load is applied axially,
(c) the material is homogeneoue.
For guch an ideal case, the etnrt will remain straight as the load ig grailu-
ally increas€d until the critical load ig reached when, if ilisturbed, it will
sutldenly bucHe. If the load is further increased, the strut will collapse; if
it is reduced, the strut will straighten again. The amount of buclding under
the criticol loail ig inileterminate; theoretically an infrxito number of
positions are possible, up to that in which the combinetl efrect of buckling
and direct stresses causes failure in the outer fibres of the material.
If any of the above conditions are not fulfiIled, beniling will take place
as soon aB any load is applietl; see Arts. 7.5,7.6 and 7.7.

7.2 Euler's Theory.

Case (al-stnil with both ends pinnail, Xig.7.l.
C Taking the origln at the centre,

EI ,Y,- _Pf
a:D-

or
dzu P
t*+ EIY:1)
i.e
ffi+ pzy: o where f' : *,
The solution iB
!: Acoypn f Bsinpo
t U the strut is turnod into tho horizontal position and the dofloation is downwardr.
y ie p,ositive and .tr{ ia negative. If tho doflectiou is upwards, I is nqgetive and trf is
poeitivo. With the opposito eign oonvontion, tho eigns of g and, M arp rovemed iu oaoh
oaso, 60 th&t itr all circumsts,nme, Jf is opporito in aigo to y, i.e. il :
-Py.
t38
 Er,
P,= - ?y
? Y: A bt"+Bs;*fL
Yl =o A=o
, a-zD gTBUTS 139
r. ! = Bg*,f*
P P P P
:' :
'l*, =, B y*,"L o

Bto, ht:L,, tlz

tla
tle
N=nu
'/t=!-
t'v' x
.Er- L'>
t
P -- ;'rgL>'

P P P P

h) (b) b) H)
Fro. ?.1

When o: 0, #: 0, .'. B: 0.
When ,:!r, { :0,.'. 0: l, pl,
"r,
therefore either A: O or cos pf,:O but / cannot be zero, otherwise

{: O for all values of q i.e. no buckling has occured,

l.e. cog of,:,
l* &tt
l, i: i, --2' etc.
from which ,:"'-f:, hking the snalleet golution (?.1) \
The shape of the deflected strut is shown io fry. 7.1(o).
If, however, the strut is prevented ftom moving at the centne, the nert
mode of bucHing will be as showa in Fig. 7.1(b)
TVhenr:0,{:A, ,'.4:0
When ,:!r, !: O, .'. 0 : A fu pL
I
srn P, : 0 since B cannot also be zero,

I
Ptr : il,rfull, etn.

from which P:ry, toking the gmallest golution.

 140 STBENGTE OF [Link]

Further modes ef [ugHing are possible, as shown in Figs. 7.1(c) and (d),
these corresponding with pf,:), a, ,*.
o4, (b)-strut with me end inen anl, otw end' freo, Pi7.7.2. 4L
Taking the origin at the base,
t a P
nr
l.e. *?*
ofi' tr's: ttzo

The solution is
v
U: A c$ p.n f B sin pr * a
When fi:O,A:0, .'. A: -a
L I

When 'dr :
r: 0,9 0, .'. B : 0
x
'. y - & * a cos ltfi
when ,': l'' :
.l'o: , - a cosp,r
.'.acog pl * 0
since o *0 if. buckling has occurr€d. Fra. 7,2

pl
XZ
-)
2
nzEI
from which P (7.2)
412 Ir
d,,Taking
(cl-s/[Link] with both end,s ftreil, lig. 7.5. P
M
,l
\(\_ the origin at the centre,
)

dry
EI
d"'
:-py+M
dlu : M M
i.e.
d0;+ l"! EI =l*
I T -€P y

The solution is

A:Acospn*Bsin p**UF
M
'when n: o,#:0, ... B : o.
P
Fro. ?.3
r Tho B.M. in thie cage ie oppoaito in efect to that in case (o), i.e. it ie poaitive.
 STBUTS 141

When *:f,,yr:,, .'. o pa *in pf,

.'. sin r*:o

I
u--71
'2
D _ 4nzEI (7.3)
from which -12
f,'urther modes of buckling are possible, as in cas€ (o).
Caw lit)-stntt with one mil f,aeil onil one enil pinntfi,, Xig. 7.4.
In this case, there will be a horizontal reaction.S at the pin to keep the
top end of the strut on the vertical axis; the product Xxlbalancesthe
firing moment M at the base. t
Taking the origin at the base, P
F
,r#r: -Py g x(t - a'y

p'v: *,1 'L-,)

l.e.
ffr+ fiu = rn"'l-
The solution is t

U:Acoyp,afBsinpn+ Iu- o
When fr:0rA- Or.'. A: -#
-7a L
n:0,$1:0, ... B : P
when
# Fro. 7.4

;.v - #{-,:o'ttnIY+ o-,+

'When
fr: l, !: 0,

'o:
.'. tan pl, -- p,l
The sm&llest eolution is p,l,:4.5 rad
from which P:20.254*ry
l2 12
(7.4'
 8

Columns

A large proportion ol an aircrali's structure compdses thin webs still-ened by slender

longerons or stringers. Iloth are susceptiblc to failure by buckling a1 a buckling stress
or critical stress, which is frequently below the limit of proportionality and seldom
appreciably above the yield stress of the material. Clearly, lbr this type of structure,
buckling is the ntost critical rnode of tirilLrre so that the prediction of buckling loads of
L columns, thin plates and stil'l'ened panels is extremely important in aircratt design. In
this chapter we consider the bucklin-q failure of all these structural elements and also
the flexural-torsional failure of thin-walled open tubes ol low torsional rigidity.
Two typcs of structural instability arisc priman, and secondarl. The lbrmer involves
the complete element, there being no change in cross-sectional area while the wave-
length of thc bucklc is of the same order as the lcngth of the element. Generally, solid
and tliick-walled columns expericnce this type of failurc. In the latter mode, changes
in cross-sectional arezl occlrr and the wavelcngth of the buckle is of the order o1'the
cross-sectional dimensions o1 the clement. Thin-wallecl columns ancl stiffened plates
may fail in this manner.

The first significant contribution to the theory of the bucklin-e of columns was made as
L early as 1744by Euler. His classical approach is still valid, and likely to remain so, lbr
slender colurnns possessing a variety ol'cnd restraints. Our initial discussion is therefore
a presentation ol the Euler theory lor the snrall elastic dellection of perfect columns.
IIowever, we inve stigatc lir:st the nature of buckling and the dilterence between theory
zrnd practice.
It is common experience that i{ an increasing axial compressive load is applied to a
slencler column there is a value o1'the load a1 which the column will suddenly bow or
buckle in some unpredetermined direction. This load is patently the buckling load of the
column or somethin-q very close to the buckling load. Clearly this displacenrent implies
a degree o[ asymmetry in the plane of the buckle caused by geometrical and/or material
irnperl'cctions of thc column ancl its load. I{owever, in our theoretical stipulation of
a perf'ect colurnn in which the load is applied prccisely along the perf'ectly strai,eht
centroidal axis, there is perl'ect syrnmetry so that, theoretically, thcrc can be no sudden
bowing or buckling. We therelbre rcquire a precise dc{rnition of buckling load [Link]
rnay be used in our analysis ol the perl'ect column.
256 Columns

t*-- lfritial position

F
Displaced
position

Fig. 8.1 Definition of buckling load for a perfect column

v
t
A v B
D a2
,CR

Fig. 8.2 Determination of bucklinq load for a pin-ended column.

Il'the perfect column of Fig. 8. 1 is subjected to a compressive load P, only shortening

of the column occurs no matter what the value of P. Howcver, if the column is displaced
a small amount by a lateral loacl F then, at values of P below the critical or buckling
load, p6p, removal of F results in a return o1 the column to its undistr-rrbed position,
indicating a state of stable equilibrium. At the critical load the displacement does not
clisappeai and, in fact, the column will remain rn ant displaced position as long as the
displacement is small. Thus, the buckling load P6B is associated with a state of netttral
nqiilibrign For P = Pcn enforced lateral displacements increase and the column is
unstable.
Consider the pin-eniled column AB of Fig. 8.2. We assume that it is in the displaced
state of neutral equilibrium associated with buckling so that the compressive load P
has attained the critical value Pcn. Simple bending theory (see Chapter 16) gives

d2u
EI. ^ _ -M
dzz

or

d2u
EI (8.1)
-PCRU
-:
dz..
 8.1 Euler buckling of columns 257

so that the differential equation of bending of the column is

d2u Pcp
(8'2)
drr+f,:o
The well-known solution of Eq. (8.2) is

u : Acos l-LZ * B sin p.z (8.3)

where LP : PcptlEI andA and B are unknown constants. The boundary conditions for
this particular case are 1):0 at z:0
and /. Thus and A:0
B sin p.l :0
For a non-trivial solution (i.e. u l0) then

sin pr,l : 0 or trtl : nfi where n : 1,2,3,. . .

\*_
giving
pcp.l2
: nzfi2
EI
or
,2n2EI
PcR : --7- (8.4)

Note that Eq. (8.3) cannot be solved for u no matter how many of the available boundary
conditions are inserted. This is to be expected since the neutral state of equilibrium
means that u is indeterminate.
The smallest value of buckling load, in other words the smallest value of P which
can maintain the column in a neutral equilibrium state, is obtained by substituting n I :
in Eq. (8.4). Hence
n2EI
PcR : -T- (8.5)
(_
Other values of P6p corresponding to n:2,3, . . . , are

PcR : q#,'ir''
t- t'
,...
These higher values of buckling load cause more complex modes of buckling such as
those shown in Fig. 8.3. The different shapes may be produced by applying external
restraints to a very slender column at the points of contraflexure to prevent lateral
movement. If no restraints are provided then these forms of buckling are unstable and
have little practical meaning.
The critical stress, o6p, corresponding to Pgp, is, from Eq. (8.5)

nzE
ocR : (8.6)
OE
258 Columns

D D
rCR
' utl Pcn Pcn
-----*--l
1 /4,
L/? L/7 L13

Pc,r = 4nzEI/L" PcR: gr?EI/L?

Fig. 8.3 Buckling loads for different buckling modes of a pin-ended column.

Table 8.1

Ends l,ll Boundaryconditions

Both pinned 1.0 u:0 at z:0 and /

Both fixed 0.5 u :0 at e : 0 and Z: l, duldZ:O at Z : I
One fixecl. [Link] [Link] 1l'ee 2,0 u:0and duldz:0atz:0
One tixed, the othcr Pinnecl 0.6998 d,uldz:}atz=0, u:0 atz:l andz:0

where r is the radius of gyration of the cross-sectional area of the column' The
term
//r is known as the slentlerness ratio of the column. F'or a column that is not cloubly
symmetrical, r is the least raclius of gyration ol the cross-section since the colr-rmn
will
bend about an axis about which the flexural rigiclity L/ is least. Alternatively,
i{ btrckling
is prevented in all but one plane then EI is the flexural rigidity in that plane'
Equations (8.5) and (8.6) may be written in the forrn

#EI
: -;- (8.7)
PcR
t;

and
T2E (8.8)
OCR:
OJry
where l. is the eJlecrive lengthof the colurnn. This is the length of upilrendetl
coluntn
that would have the same critical load as that of a column of length I, but with
difl'crent
end conditions. The determination o1'critical loacl and stress is carried oul in an identical
are clif--
manner to that for the pin-enclecl column except that the boundary conditions
ferent in each case. Table 8.1 gives the solution in terms of elfective length for columns
to the
having a variety of end concJitions. In adclition, the boundary conditions relbrred
coordinal.e axes of Fig. 8.2 are quoted. The last case in Table 8.1 involr'es the solution
of a transcenclental equation; this is most readily accomplished by a graphical method'
Let us now examine the buckling of the per'lect pin-ended column of Fig. 8.2 in
values
greater detail. We have shown, in Eq. (8.4), that the column will buckle at discrete
o1 axial load and that associated with each value of buckling load there is a particular
buckling mode (Fig. 8.3). Thcse cliscrete valucs of buckling loacl are called^e199yv9111t91,
and
rheir associated tunctions (in this case y=F-\l!-l:Tzlt)'dre called e!ryryf1y1iilo;rs
the problem itsell is called an efi91t1t.c.1lye pro!!111
Further, suppose that the laGral toat ffffiig. 8 I is remo,ed. Since the
column
is perfectly siruight, homogeneous and loacled exactly along its axis, it will suffer
oniy axial compression as P is increasecl. This situation, theoretically, woulcl continue
until yielcting if the matcrial of the column occurred' However, as we have seen'
 8.1 Euler buckling of columns 259

P= Pc^ (bif urcation pointi

o
Lateral def lection at mid'height

Fig. 8.4 Behaviour of a perfect pin-ended column

lbr valnes o1-P below P6.p the column is in stable equilibrium whereas lbr P > P6p
\_- the column is unstable. A plot of load against lateral deflection at mid-height would
therelore have the torm shown in Fig. tl.4 where, at the point P : PcR, it is theoretically
possible for the column to take one of three deflection paths. Thus, iI the column
remains undisturbed the deflection at mid-height would continue to be zero but unstable
(i.e. the trivial solution of Eq. (8.3), r.,:0) or, if disturbed, the column would buckle
in either of two lateral directions; the point at which this possible branching occurs
is called a bifurcotiort ltoint: Iurther bil'Lrrcation points occr]r at the higher valnes of
Pcn@n2EI l12,97t2EI 112,. . .)

Example 8.1
A uniform column of length L and llexural stiffness E1 is sirnply supported at its ends
and has an additional elastic support at midspan. This slrpport is such that if a lateral
displacement uc occurs at this point a restoring lorce ftu. is generated at the point.
Derive an equation giving the bucklin-9 load o1 the column. If the buckling load is
4n2 EI 11,2 {ind the value of ft. Also if the elastic support is infinitely stiff show that the
bnckling load is given by the equation tan ),L12: XL12 where 7: JP/EI .

t\ The column is shown in its displaced position in Irig. [Link] bending moment at any
section of the colurnn is given by

M:pu_ ku.
2z
so that, by cornparison with Eq. (8.1)

d2u: *Pu + ku"

EI
^-,
az.- i,
giving

d2u )
u !:: (i)
drr+^ 2EI
 260 Columns

kuc

uc P
P
U __- -z

kt,c ku.
a
2
L

Fig. 8.5 Column of ExamPle 8.1

L-

The solution of Eq. (i) is of standard form and is

u:Acos).2*Bsin xz+ff2

The constants A and B are found using the boundary conditions of the column which
are: u 0w U Uc, when z L and (du/dz) :0 when t L
the {rrst of trom the

,:#ua('-*)
The thircl boundary condition gives, Since u,' 10, the required eqttation, i'e

kr. \lcos_
).L
+
k^L
I
4P/ 2
si11
' 2P). --g
2

Rearranging

P:T (, -'^'^:ri/r")
If P (buckling load) :4n2 EI lL2 then xL 12: n so that k : 4P lL'
Finally,ifk+oo
I h]/) lj tan
XL XL
(ii)
tv) KL
2: 2

Note that llq. (ii) is the transcendental eq uation which would be derived when
deter-
at
mining the buckling load of a column of length L/2, bLrilt in at one cnd ancl
the other.
 8.3 Effect of initial imperfections 265

Obviously it is impossible in practice to obtain a perfectly straight homogeneous column

and to ensure that it is exagllyaXrally lqa.{q4. Afecfua-rcenflmn rnay-be b"dnt with some
eccentricity of load. Suth imperl'ections influence to a large degree the behaviour of the
column which, unlike the perf-ect column, begins to bend immediately the axial load is
applied.
Let us suppose thal" a column, initially bent, is subjected to an increasing axial load
P as shown in Fig. 8.9. In this case the bending moment at any point is proportional to
the change in curvature of the column from its initial bent position. Thus

tll l dl
,,
oj Et
un
Pu t8.22t
*i-
which, on rearranging, becomes

\L d2u . ) d2ro
,, tiju---" oz' (8.23)
0:'
where )"2:Pl /i/. The final cleflected shape, u, of the colnmn depends upon the form
of its unloaded , U6. AS suming
oc
uo : f ArsinT (8.24)
I
n:l
ancl substituting in Eq. (8.23) we have

d2u _2 00

t) : -5 f
2
nzA,
" s111!!1
drr*^ [2/-J
n:l
I

The general solution of this equation is

. S n2An nrz tr'

t;:Bcoslz*DsinIz* )
- Z-,tnl-Ot Sm---
I
n:l
, d*V
v

P PaZ

Fig. 8.9 Initially bent column

 !0, 04'l'^) olall'ail be
Casileig L!. l+rn, mthai A4'to = A1taff ' '''kol
o; *,L1t *,4 N,ln--Vr= I I

266 Columns

where B and D are constants of integration and a - ),212 112. The boundary conditions
are t) -- 0 at z: 0 and /, giving B : D: 0 whence

,:T n2An
cx.)

-ot
lr:1
nt
uTTZ
Sfn-
I
(8.2s)

- we are able to obtain a non-trivial solution

Note that in contrast to the perfect column
lbr de{lection. This is to be expected since the column is in stable equilibrium in its
bent position at all values of P.
An alternative form for n is
PPP (see Eq. (U.5))
ttEI Pcn
Thus a is always less than one ancl approaches unity when P approaches P6p so that the L
first term in Eq. (8.25) usually dominates the series. A good approximation, therefore,
for deflection when the axial load is in the region of the critical load is
A1 \tZ
u: r-astn7 (8,26)

or at the centre of the column where z:l12

A1
L) : (8.21)
|- PIPgB
in whichA is seen to be the initial centtal deflection. I1- central cleflections 6(: , - A r )
are v posltlon column then l}om L,q. (tt.27) we
obtain t
At 7
I?,,
1- P/Pcr. -Ar:6
which gives on rearranging
t 1

6:Pcn
f,- n,, $ =(nj o. # (828)

and we see that a graph ol 6 plotted against d/P has a slope, in the region of the critical
load, equal to P6p and an intercept equal to the initial central deflection. This is the
well known Sctwthwell plot for the cxperimental determination o1 the elastic
load of an col
S that Eq. (8.21) miry be used ftlr a perl'ectly straight column
with small eccentricities of colurnn load.

Example 8.2
The pin-jointed column shown in Fig. [i.10 carries a compressive load P applied eccen-
trically at a distance e l-rom thc axis o{'the column. Determine the maximum bending
moment in the column.

The bending moment at any section of the column is given by

M:P(e*u)
 8.3 Effect of initial imperfections 267

y
Z

e e P
P

Fi9.8.10 Eccentrically loaded column of Example 8.2

Then, by comparison with Eq. (8. 1)

d2u
EI
i? : -P(e * u)

g1vlng

d2u
* lt'u
,Pe : (i)
i? 0.r' P IEI)

The solution of Eq. (i) is of standard form and is

u:Acoslr,z*Bsinpz-e
The boundary conditions are: u:0 whqn and z:0 (duldz):0 when z: LlZ
From the first of these e A:
vffii1Jffi-GTecond
uL
B:etan:-
2
---_ The equation fbr the clet'lectecl shape ol thc ccllumn is then

Icos p(: - l-12)

U:e
| *' [Link] - 1

The maximum value of u occurs at midspan where z: Ll2, r.e.

uL
Umax: € ( sec'
2 - I)
The maximum bending moment is given by

M(max): Pe * Pts^u*

so that

M(max),2 *
- Pr r""
268 Columns

ler transverse and axial loads

a linearly elnstic beam subjected to transverse loerds as
, are to the loads. This
relationship is valid if the de{lections are s that change in geom-
VES
etry produced in the loaded beam
This situation dras v with the trans-
verse loads. internal motnents, tbrces , stresses and deflections then bscome
exter-
dependent upon the r-nagnitude of the cleflections as well as the magnitucle of the
nal loads. They are also sensi tive. as we observed in the previotts section, to beam
impert'ections such as initial curvature and eccentr icity o1'axial load. Beams supporting
both axial and transverse loads are solnetilnes known as b eam- c ol;fr ns-or smflli-as
r.\e L
consider first the case of a pin -encled beam carrying a unifbrmly distributed load
e
of intensity u) per unit length and an axial loarJ P as shown in Fig. 8.11. The bending
mornent at any section o{'the beam is

M:Pu*ry-+:-r,#
glvmg

dzu
fi +
P
ou: ffie'- tr> $.2s)

The standard solution of Eq. (8.29) is

u : Acoslz + Bsin xz +
fi (r' -,, - 3)
where A and B are unknown constants and ).2 Substituting the boundary
-PIEI.
conditions u :0 z:0
at and I gives

A: h? B - effi,t-cos,r'r)

v
wL
wL
T
T
P
P
tt r/unil
t
I

length -+z
L

Fig. 8.1'l lJending of a uniformly loaded beam-column.

 8.4 Stability of beams under transverse and axial loads 269

so that the deflection is determinate for any value of ru and P and is given by

'
: f,['o'''''. (=#) ""^'] + # (" -'' - 3) (8 30)

In beam-columns, as in beams, we are primarily interested in maximum values of

stress and deflection. For this particular case the maximum deflection occurs at the
centre of the beam and is, after some transformation of Eq. (8.30) , A* 7= t

* L
,, - (r""I-r\ -yL
umax_I2p\.",2_,) gp
(8.31)

The corresponding maximum bending moment is

w12
M^o --Pun-,o^- g

or, from Eq. (8.31)

Mnrrr* :#( 1-sec- ) ),1

2
(8.32)

We may rewrite Eq. (8.32) in terms of the Euler buckling load Pss :rzEI /12 fot a
pin-ended column. Hence

P
M^u*:'#T( 1-sec-2 7t

Pcn
(8.33)

As P approaches P6p the bending moment (and dcllection) becomes infinite. Flowever,
the above theory is based on the assumption of small cleflections (otherwise d2ulLt:2
would not be a close approximation 1or curvature) so that such a deduction is invalid.
The indication is, though, that large deflections will bc produced by the presence of a
compressive axial load no n-Iatter how small the transversc load might be.
I-et us consider now the beam-column ol Fig. 8.12 with hinged ends carying a
concentrated load W aL tr distance a {iom the right-hand suppolt. For
i
u EId2u
^:-M:
dzz
-t, t
Waz
I )
(8.34)

ancl lor

I u ,,# - -M: {, tYu - a1(t - z) (8.3s)

Writing
^) P
EI
Eq. (8.34) becomes
d2u 2
Wct
l) Z
drr*^ EII
270 Columns

W
a

P Pn?
**t-/
Wa 7
W(t* a)
7
?

v
Fig.8.12 Beam-column supporting a point load

the general solution of which is

u:Acoslz*Bsin Xr-ff, (8.36)

Similarly, the general solution of Eq. (8.35) is

u : ccos l.z * D sin x, - fitt - a)(l - z) (8.37)

where A,B,C and D are constants which are found from the boundary conditions as

follows.
When z:0, u:0, therefore from Eq. (8.36) A:0. At z:1, 1):0 giving, from
Eq. (8.37), C:-Dtan).l, At the point of application of the load the deflection and
slope of the beam given by Eqs (8.36) and (8.37) must be the same. Hence, equating
deflections

Bsinr(l - a) -ffU - a): Dlsin)'(l - a) - tan)"lcos,tr(/ - a)l -#U -

^
and equating slopes

B).cos X(l ,PI

- d-Y: Dxlcos)'(l - a)-tan)'lsin)'(/ -a)l + Y,Q - d
SolvingtheaboveequationsforBandDandsubstitutingforA, B,C andD inEqs (8.36)
and (8.37) we have
W sin)"a Wa
,:p,,,rin#sin)"2-;z for z<L-a (8'38)

W sin )"(l - a)
-z)- oft-a)(l-z) forz>l-a
W
,- (8'39)

"r;il,r,l3sinl(/
These equations for the beam-column deflection enable the bending moment and
resulting bending stresses to be found at all sections.
A paiticula. &r" arises when the load is applied at the centre of the span. The
deflection curve is then symmetrical with a maximum deflection under the load of

Y'
M,4 fr. LIL
umax:
wxlwl
,rntanT -
lo= Tp
 8.5 Energy method for the calculation of buckling loads in columns 271

M^ Ma

A B P
z

v
Fig.8.13 Beam-column supportinq end moments

Finally, we consider a beam-column sr,rbjected to end mornents M,1 utd Ms in addi-

tion to an axial load P (tsig. 8.13). The deflected lbr:m o1 the beam-column may be
lbund by using the principle ol'supcrposition and the results of the previous case. First,
we irnagine tha1- Ms acts alone with the axial load P. I1'we assume that the load I4z
moves towards B and increases so that the : constant:
tasrr to zero we at B. The
is then (n ) by substituting ).rz for sin ,).a (since la is now
Ery_I,ry-il) [Link] Ms
fbr W'4. Thus
Mp
S;xa= \*
P (H# -;) (8.40)

In a similarway, we find the deflection curve corresponding toMa acting alone. Suppose
thatWiltovestowardsAsuchthattheprodnctW(l-d):[Link]:[Link](l*a)
tends tcr zero we have sin L(t - a'):),(l - a) and Eq. (8.39) becomes
u--l PLMtl sin l(l - z) (l - z) (8.41)
sin )./

The effcct of the two moments acting simultaneously is obtained by superposition of

the results of Eqs (8.40) and (8.41). Hence lbr the beam-column of Fig. 8.13

Ms sin ),(/ - z) (l - z)
P (H# -;).ry1 sin )"/
(8.42)

Equation (8.42) is also the deflected form ol'a beam-colurnn supporting eccentrically
applied end loads at A and B. For example, if en and e11 'dra the eccentricities ol P at
the cnds A and B, respectivcly, then M A: Pe,1,Ms - Pat, giving a dellected form oI

u: el) (H# -) *et

sin l(/ - z) (l *
sin i1 I
z)
(8.43)

Other bearn-column configurations f-eaturing a variety o1 end conditions and loading

regimes may bc analysccl by a similar procedure .

The fact that the total potential cnergy ol'an clastic body possesses a stationary value
in an equilibrium state may be used to investigate the neutral equilibrium of a buckled
 6* = (st*ri4L.= ;tt,- e)'l L *s, L,, t (*)lJ ;. &=f trLe#)'Id.
,l:r-L'=Ite;t" I =-in[ir*Sr.
Naa,

Sirrce
J}(Xh" o,ly a;ff<,e ry- i,LP#)'t" Ly n 4e,^ o{ ngtig;tle oile., ae eo^ aik
212 corumns ,=!l?)'r,
I
L/ D
o
/CR ' CR

& 1

I
v
Fig. 8.14 Shortening of a column due to buckling.

column. In particular, the energy methocl lt :$r"*"ty,tSfut *t'"n tn

o l' th e b u c klglg !U m n
-Tisr, *e rh;ll .o"t,der. -E-U! Lowl
k {
q-!1ailg bc' P, u c s sc-d',
tG pin-endcd colurnn shown in its buckled position in
Fig. 8. 14. The inlernal or strain energy U of the column is assumed to be produced by
bencling action alone and is given by the well knou,tr expression

M2
U_ de (8.44)
t, 2EI

or alternatively, since EI tI2uldzz - -M

2
EI .^ d2u
(8.4s)
U dz
2 I, ( .l-./ )
Lti.

The potential energy V of the buckling load Psp, referred to the straight position of the
column as the datum, is then
V: -pcnd
where 6 is the axial movement of P6p caused by the bending of the column from its
initially straight position. By reference to Fig. 7.15(b) and Eq. (7 '41) we see that

1
6-- 2
I,'(*u)'"
glvlng

v--ry1,' (t)'.. (13.46)

The total potential energy of the column in the neutral equiliblium of its buckled state
is therefore
2

+v: ( du
u
Io' fi*-'+ I, dz )
dz (8.41)

or, using the alternative form of U liom L,q. (8'45)

2
EI d2 t,
+V: z t, (8.48)
U ( dz 2 )
"-H,'(#)'"
 8"5 Energy method for the calculation of buckling loads in columns 213

We have seen in Chapter 7 that exact solutions of plate bending problerns are obtain-
able by energy methods when the dellected shape of the plate is krown. An identical
situation exists in the determination of critical loads lor column and thin plate buckling
modes. For the pin-ended column under discussion a deflected lbntt of

OC
nftz
", _
: \- (8'49)
' |*oA,.sin -f
satisfies the boundary conditions of

(u)z:o : (u)z:r : oq(#).:, : (#) ,:, : o

and is capable, within the limits for which it is valid and if suitable values for the constant
coefficients A, are chosen, of representing any continuous curve. We are therefore in a
\ position to find P6s exactly. Substituting Eq. (8.49) into Eq. (8.48) gives

, +v:+ l,' (+)^ (i_r^,,^T)' o,

-ry t(+)'(fr-*'""T)'o' (8so)

The product terms in both integrals of Eq. (8.50) disappear on integration, leaving only
integrated values of the squared terms. Thus

EI ?- n2Pcp.
oo

u +v:'#Ln'e?, -4t
na
D"'e?, (8.s r)
n:7 n:7

Assigning a stationary value to the total pol"ential cncrgy of Irq. (8.51) with respect to
each coellicicntA,, in turn, then takingA,, as being typical. we have
\-_
a(u + v) n4EInaAn n2PgpnzA, t .,,
[.)A,t 213 2l -1'

from which
,r2 EIrr2
PCR : p
-
as betore. ,/
We see that each term in Ilq. (8.a9) represents a particular dcflected shape with a
corresponding critical load. Hence thc {irst term rcpresents the de flectiorr of the column
shown in Fig. 8.14, with PcR : ,r2 tit 1t2 . The seconcl and third terms correspond to the
shapes slrown in F-ig. 8.3, having critical loads of 4r2Lil1t2 andL)r2Ell12 and so on.
Clearly the column must be constrained to buckle into these more complex forms. In
other words the column is being Iorced into an unnatural shape, is consequently stiffer
and off'ers greater rcsistancc to buckling as we observe from the higher values of critical
306 Thin plates

W
b bl,
o b

I F

d A az \-

-4^->
or
D iagonal tension DI
Direction of [Link] ?
(a) (b)

Fig. 9.8 Diagonal tension field beam

9.7 Tension field beams

The spars of aircrafi wings uslrally coniprise an upper and a lower l1ange connected by
thin stiffened webs. Thcse webs are ofien of such a thickness that they bucklc under
shear stresses at a fraction of their ultimate load. The ['orm of the buckle is shown in
Fig. 9.8(a), where the web o1 the bean.l buckles under the action of internal diagonal
StTeSSES by shear, leaving a wrinkled web of
lna perpendicular to that of the hucklc; the hcum is
then said to be a c'otnplete tension Jielcl beum.

9.7.1 Comp lete diagonal tension

The theory presentecl here is due to H. Wagner.l3
The beam shown in Fig. [Link](a) has concentrated flange areas having a depth d
between their centroids and vertical stiffeners which are spaced uniformly along the
length of the beam. It is assumed that the flanges resist the internal bending ntoment at
anv section of the beani while the wcb, of thickness /, resists the vertical shear force.
The effect of this to shear stress clistribution through
we Section 20.3) at any sectlon. , a[ a section of the
beam where the shear lbrce is S, the shear stress r is gtven by

s (e.14)
"- td

Consicler now an element ABCD of the web in a panel ol thc beam, as shown in Fig'
9.8(a). The element is subjected to tensile stresses, o1, produced by the diagonal tension
on the planes AB ancl CD; the angle of the diagonal tension is a. On a vertical plane
FD in the element the shear stress is r ancl the direct stress o.. Now considering the
equilibrium of the element F'CD (Fig. 9.8(b)) and rgsolving forces veltically, we have
(see Section 1.6)

olCDrsina - rlrDt
 9.7 Tension field beams 307

{n
F
I

d o..

L F

m
.z I

Fig. 9.9 Determination of flange forces.

which gives
T 2t
Ot: (e.1s)
\" sin a cos cv sin 2a
or, substituting lbr r lrom Eq. (9.14) and noting that in this case S : W at all sections
of the beam
2W
fr--
"' - (e. l6)
td sin}a
Furthcr. resol forces horizontall lbr thc elerr-rent FCD

=O .f o-FDr : otCD/ cos a

which gives
oz - o, COS2 o
or, substituting for o1 from Eq. (9.15)
T
or: (L).17)
tana
or, for this particular beam, from Eq. (9.14)
w (e. 18)
' tdtana
Since J_":yd gt gtg_ g_gll$tlgLt through the deplh of thc beam it follows that o. !: c,ol.:_!qf!
through the dcpth of the beam.
l'he dircct loads in tho flanges arc Ibund by considering a length I o1 the beam as
shown in F'ig. 9.9. On thc plane mnt Lhere are direct and shear stresses o- and z acting in
the web, together with dircct loads /,'.p and /,s in the top and bottom llanges respectively.
F1 and F-s are produced by a cornbination o1 the bending moment Wz at the section
plus the compressive action (o.) of the diagonal tension. '[Link] moments about the
bol"tom flange

WZ,_1;.1.t1 _;oJd2
308 Thin plates

Hence, substituting for o, from Eq. (9'18) and rearranging

:r-
Fr :*'d *'ztana
J- (9. l e)

Now resolving forces horizontally

Fe - Fr * ortd :0
(9.19)
which gives, on substituting for o, and F1 from Eqs (9.18) and
Wz. W
Fn-7-21^"" (e.20)

planes at any
The diagonal tension Stress o1 induces a direct StreSS ov on horizontal ]-
F'ig. 9'8 there
point inihe web. Then, on a [Link] pla,e FIC in the element ABCD of
is a direct Stress o, and a complementary shear stress z, as shown in
trig' 9'10'
From a consideration of the vertical equilibritrm of the element HDC we have

ttr, r, */ orHCt: crlCDr sincz

which gives
: O1Sln" A
.)
O_"*

Substituting for o1 from Eq. (9.15)

oY : T tafia (9.21)

or, from Eq. (9.14) in which S : W

w (e.22)
o.,: -tana
'td
The tensile StreSSeS o.) On horizontal planes in the web of the beam
Cause CofiIpresslon q_-i
in the vertical stiff'eners. Each stiffener may be assumed to sLlpport half
of each adjacent
given by
panel in the beam so that the compressive load P in a stil'fener is
P : [Link]

B
ot

A
C
H

c(

o1
D

Fig. 9.10 Stress system on a horizontal plane in the beam web'

 9.7 Tension field beams 309

which becomes, I}om Eq. (9.22)

Wb
P: (e.23)
d
-lana
If the load P is sufficiently hi-eh the sliffeners will buckle. Tests inclicate that they buckle
as columns of equivalent length

l":dlJT-Tn forb<1.5d1
Pr,
= L:PI
or le:d forb>[Link]
(9.24)

In addition kt causing compression in the stiffeners the direct stress o, produces bending
of the beam flanges between thc stiff'cners as showrr in Fig.9.11. Each lIange acts as il
continuous beam carrying a uniformly distributed load of intensity rrrl.'fhe maximum
bending moment in a continuous beam with ends lixed against rotation occurs at a
slrpport ancl is yvl,zll2 in which n,is the load intensity and L the beam span. In this
case. therelbre, the maximum bending momentMmax occurs at a stilI'ener and is given by
,

L /nmax-
^I -
lo,,lbz
\-.I-l
n ,{=Bt tHz

or. substituting Ibr o,. lrom Eq. (9.22) a

M^u*:Wbzl,dtanu (e.2s)

Miclway between the stilleners this bcncling moment reduces to Wbz tan ul24d
The angle a adj usts itself such that the total striiin of the beam is ir
If it is assnmed that the flanges and are rigid then the strain energy comprises
the shear strain energy o1' the web only and ry :45" . In practice, both flanges and
stillcners deform so that a is somewhat less than 45o, usually of-the order of 40" and, in
the type of beam common to aircraft structures, rarely below 38'. For beams having all
components madc o1 the same material the condition o[ rninirnum strain energy leads
to valious equivalent expressions lilr n, or-tc o['which is
01*op
tan2 (e.26)
ot*ds

m
l_l_l
Fig. 9.1 1 Bending of flanges due to web strcss.
310 Thin plates

in which op and os are the unitorm clirect cornpressive stresses induced by the diagonal
tension i1 the flanges and stiffeners, respectively. Thus, from the second term on
the
right-hand sicle of either of Eqs (9.19) or (9'20)
w (e.21)
OE:
2Aptana
(9'23)
in which Ap is the cross-sectional area o1 each flange. Also, liom Eq'
-
wb
os : tan CI (e.28)
A;;
(9' 16) and
where A5 is the cross-sectional area of a stifl'ener. Substitution of o1 from Eq.
op and o5 fiom Eqs (9.27) and (9.28) into Eq. (9.26), prodttces an equation which may
be solved for s. An alternative expression for a, again clerived from a consideration
of
the total strain energy of the beam, is

tan4 rx :' * tnl?l' o.2g')

I a iltlAg

Example 9.1
The beam shown in Fig 9.12 is assumed to have a comPlete tension field web. If
and
the cross-sectional areas of the flanges and stifreners ale, respectively, 350 ri-rm2
300 mm2 and the elastic section modulus of each flange is 750 mm.. deterniine the
maximum stress in a f1 and also whether or not the stiffeners will buckie. T'he
of the we is 2mm and the seconrl moment of area of a stilfener about an
axis in the plane of the web is 2000 mma; E 70000N/mm2.

Fronr F,q. (9.29)

, ll2x400lQx350t
runro:ffi:0.71-13 -

5kN

400mm I

t
300 mm

1200 mm

tig. 9"12 Beam of ExamPle 9 1

 9.7 Tension field beams 311

so that

a :42.6o
The maximum flange stress will occur in the top flange at the built-in end where the
bending moment on the beam is greatest and the stresses due to bending and diagonal
tension are additive. Therefore, from Eq. (9.19)

Fr : 5x1200-r 5
4oo 2tan4zs"
i.e.

Fr - 17.7kN

Hence the direct stress in the top flange produced by the externally applied bending
moment and the diagonal tension rs 17.7 x 103/350:50.7 N/mm2. In addition to this
uniform compressive stress, local bending of the type shown in Fig. 9.11 occurs. The
L local bending moment in the top flange at the built-in end is found using Eq. (9.25), i.e.

5 x 103 x 3002 1an42.6" t

The maxinrLrnl compressive stress corresponding to this bending moment occllrs at the
lower extremity of the llange ancl is 8.6 x t041750: 114.9 N/mm2. Thus the maximum
stress in a flange occurs on the inside of thc top flange at the built-in end of the beam,
is cor.r-rplcssive and equal to 114.9 + 50.7 : 165.6 N/mm2.
'l'he compressive load in a stiffener is obtained using Eq. (9.23), i.e.

, _ 5 x 300400tan42.6' _ 3.41,:Irl
Since, in this case, b < 1.5d, the equivalent length of a stiffener as a column is given
by the flrst of Eqs (9.24), i.e.

L l.:400/ 4-2x3001400:2-53mm
F'rom llq. (8.7) the buckling load o1'a stiffener is thcn

12 xJ0000 x 2000
PcR:W:22'okN
Clearly the stiffener will not buckle.
In Eqs (9.28) and (9.29) it is implicitly assurned that a stiffcner is fully effective in
resisting axial load. 'l'his will be the case if thc centroid of area ol'the stitTener lies in
the planc of thc bcam web. Such a situation arises whcn the stiffener consists of two
members symmetrically arranged on opposite sides o1 thc wcb. In the case where the
web is stifl'ened by a single member attached to one side, the compressive load P is
oll'set lioru the stifl-cncr axis thereby producing bending in addition 1o axial load. For
312 Thin plates

a stiffener having its centroid a distance e from the centre of the web the combined
bending and axial compressive stress, o", at a distance e from the stiffener centroid is

L +4
o"- As ' Agvz
in which r is the radius of gyration of the stiffener cross-section about its neutral axis
(note: second moment of area I = Ar2).Then

o':fr['.(;)']
or
P (
().-
- AS.
-
where

As. :- --4!-..
I + (elr)z
(e.30)

and is termed the effective stiffener area.

9.7.2 lncomplete diagonal tension

In modern aircr:aft structures, beams having extremely thin webs are rare. They retain,
after buckling, some ol their ability to support loads so that even near failnre they are
in
a state of stress somewhere between that of pure diagonal tension and the
pre-buckling
stress. Such a beam is clescribed as an int:ornltlete cliugonal ten'sion field beatn and may
be analysed by semi-ernpirical theory as lbllows.
It is assumed that the nominal web shear z (:Sltrt) may be divided into a 'true shear'
component 15 and a diagonal tension component zor bY writing

rn1 : kt, z5 : (1 - k)r (9'31)

where t, the diugonal tensiort j'actor, is a measure of tl-re clegree to which the diagonal
tension is developed. A comP l"t"ly unbuckled web has k:0 whereas k: 1 fbr a
web
1n complete diagonal tension. The vaiue-of f [Link]<1ing
to a web having a critical
shear stress ZC]R glven the empirical expression

k : tanh (o.r,o, ' ) {9.32)

\ tcx/
T'he ratio r/rcx is known as the rotio or buckl stress ratio. The buckling
stress rgp ma) be calculated from

zCR,erastic : ft,,E (;)'[^. . ]r^, - (;)'] (e.33)

^.,
 9.7 Tension field beams 313

where k*. is the coefficient lbr a plal"e with simply supported edges and R6 and R6 are
for the vertical and horizontal eclges of the web panel
respectively. Graphs givin-9 k.. , Ra and R6 are reprocluce<l in Kuhn.l3
The stress equations (9.21) anri (9.28) are modilied in the light of these assumptions
and may be rewritten in terms of thc applied shear stress r as

k'c cota
(e.34)
UH
' - (2Arltd) + 0.5(l - k)
kr tan a
(e.3s)
r/t
'' - \A5lrbl +0.5(l-k)
Further, the u,eb stress or given by Eq. (9.1-5) becomes two direct stresses: o1 along the
direction of a given O, q = tp-,,nS
- (* (v
-

'r: ]* * r(1 - k)sin2a (e.36)

stn lu

and o2 perpendicular to this direction given by

6v
dr
uz : -t(l * k) sinZa (e.37) Hfl-,,4
M*= t2-4
The moment of (9.25) is mLrltiplied the f'actor while the
effecti VC for the buckling become (see Eqs (9.24))

or
le:ds 1+kzQ-2bldJ forb<1.5d
le: tls for b > l-5d
where d. is the actual stifl-ener depl"h, as opposcd to the el1-ective depth d of the web,
taken between the web/flange connections as shown in F'ig. 9.13. We observe that Eqs
(9.34)-(9.37) are applicable to either incomplete or completc diagonal tension field
beams since , for the latter case, t : I giving the re sults o1'Eqs (9.27), (9.28) and (9.15).
/ In some cases beams taper along their lengths, in which casc the flange loads are no
longer horizontal but have verl"ical componcnts which reducc thc shcar load calried by
L the web. Thus, in Fig. 9.14 whcre r/ is the depth o1'the beam at the section considered,
we have, resol forces

Fv --o i W -(Fr *Fp)sin fl - or(dcoso)$ina : 0 (e.38)

o o o o o oo
o
o Stif fener Effective web
o depth depth
o
d
vs d

o o o o o o 6

Fig. 9.13 Calculation of strffener buckling load

314 Thin plates

W FT

t;t

d
{af

L
rB

I
Fig. 9.14 Effect of taper on diagonal tensi0n field beam calculations,
t

For horizontal equilibrium

+O
f F,1-o i (f, - Fn) cos B - o6d cosz a : 0 (e.3e)

Taking moments about B

Wz -Fldcos B + lo1a2cos2 a : 0 (e.40)

Solving Eqs (9.38), (9.39) and (9.a0) for o1, Fr and Fs

2W
ff.:
td sin2a ('-7",e) (e.41)

F,-#1, ,2-
I--
d coto-
('-T"")] (e.42)

cotu
FB: #*l'
d
2
('-T"")] (e.43)

Equation (g.23)becomes ? = 8t.b = q<;d,+.b.

wb n*(r-3,unB\
p__1u ./ (9.44)
\ d
Also the shear force S at any section of the beam is, from Fig. 9.14

S:W-(Fr*Fn)sin0
or, substituting for F1 and Fs from Eqs (9'a2) and (9'43)

s: w (t -7",e) (e.4s)