UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

CIRCUIT WITH PURE RESISTANCE ONLY

A pure resistance is that in which there is only a ohmic voltage drop. Consider a circuit having a pure
resistance R as shown is Fig below. Let the instantaneous value of the alternating voltage applied be,
v = Vm Sin ωt. The instantaneous value of current

i = e/R
= (Vm Sin ωt)/R .
𝐕𝐦
= Im Sin ωt where Im = 𝐑
A.
we find that in pure resistive circuit the voltage and current are in same phase.
Instantaneous Power
p = Vm Sin ωt* Im Sin ωt
= VmImSin2ωt
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦 𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
= 𝟐
− 𝟐
𝐂𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐭 .
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦 𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
Instantaneous power consists of a constant part 𝟐
and a fluctuating part 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐭 of
frequency double that of supply. On taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces
to zero and we get average power

𝟏 𝟐𝛑
P= ∫ 𝐯𝐢 𝐝(ωt)
𝟐𝛑 𝟎
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
= or VRMS* IRMS watt
𝟐

CIRCUIT WITH PURE INDUCTANCE ONLY

A pure inductive circuit has only inductor with no resistance as shown below. When an alternating
voltage is applied to it, a back emf is induced it and the magnitude of this induced emf is equal and
opposite to supply voltage at all instants. Let voltage applied be v = Vm Sin ωt and instantaneous
𝐝𝐈
value of self-induced emf is e given by e = −𝐋 𝐝𝐭 .
𝐝𝐢
So at any instant v = -(e) or Vm Sin ωt = - ( −𝐋 𝐝𝐭 )
𝐝𝐈
Vm Sin ωt = 𝐋 𝐝𝐭
𝐕𝐦
di = 𝐋
Sin ωt .
𝐕𝐦
On integrating ∫ 𝐝𝐢 = ∫ 𝐋
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭
𝐕𝐦
i= 𝛚𝐋
(-Cos ωt)
𝐕𝐦
i= 𝛚𝐋
(Sin ωt-π/2)

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
𝐕
i = Im (Sin ωt-π/2) where Im = 𝐗𝐦 A.
𝐋

we find that the current lags the applied voltage by 90° or π/2 radian. The quantity XL is called
inductive reactance and its units is ohm.
XL = ωL Ω

Instantaneous Power
P = vi
= Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt-π/2)
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
= − 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭.
𝟐

The instantaneous power consists only a fluctuating part with frequency double of supply frequency.
On taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get average power
𝟏 𝟐𝛑
P = 𝟐𝛑 ∫𝟎 𝐯𝐢 𝐝(ωt )
𝟏
= ∫ 𝐕𝐦 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 ∗ 𝐈𝐦 (𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 − 𝛑/𝟐) 𝐝(ωt)
𝟐𝛑
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦 𝟐𝛑 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
= − 𝟐𝛑 𝟎
∫ 𝟐
𝐝(ωt)

=0
CIRCUIT WITH PURE CAPACTANCE ONLY
When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor (C), the capacitor is charged first in
one direction and then in the opposite direction. Let applied voltage be v = Vm Sin ωt, and q is the
charge on the plates of capacitor then
q = Cv
= C. Vm Sin ωt
As current is given by rate of flow of charge so instantaneous current is given by
𝐝𝐪 𝐝(𝐂𝐯)
i= 𝐝𝐭
= 𝐝𝐭

= C. Vm Cos ωt. Ω or
𝐕𝐦 𝐕𝐦
i = 𝟏 Sin(ωt + π/2) = Im (Sin ωt+π/2). Where Im = A
𝐗𝐜
𝛚𝐜

we find that the current leads the applied voltage by 90° or π/2 radian. The quantity X C is called
𝟏
capacitive reactance and its units is ohm Xc = 𝛚𝐜
Ω.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

Instantaneous Power
p = vi
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
= Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt+π/2) = 𝟐
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭.
The instantaneous power consists only a fluctuating part with frequency double of supply frequency.
On taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get average power
𝟏 𝟐𝛑
P = .𝟐𝛑 ∫𝟎 𝐯𝐢 𝐝(ωt )
𝟏
= 𝟐𝛑 ∫ 𝐕𝐦 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 ∗ 𝐈𝐦 (𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 + 𝛑/𝟐) 𝐝(ωt)
𝐕𝐦𝐈𝐦 𝟐𝛑 𝐒𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛚𝐭
= ∫𝟎 𝐝(ωt) = 0 .
𝟐𝛑 𝟐

CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES

A pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L are shown connected in series. Let V =
RMS value of the applied voltage, I = RMS value of current, VR = IR voltage drop across R (in phase
with I), VL = [Link] voltage drop across coil (ahead of I by 90°)

These voltage drops are shown in Fig. The applied voltage V is the vector sum of the two i.e.

V = √𝐕𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐕𝐋 𝟐

= √(𝐈𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐈𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐

= I √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 = I* Z

Where Z is known as impedance of the circuit given by Z = √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 Ω

The current I lags voltage V by an angle Φ such that
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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
𝐕 𝐗𝐋 𝐕 𝐗
tan Φ = 𝐕𝐋 = 𝐑
or Φ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝐕𝐋 ) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝐑𝐋 ) lagging. .
𝐑 𝐑

If the voltage is given by v = Vm Sin ωt, then circuit current is given by

i = Im (Sin ωt- Φ) Where Im = Vm/Z A

The instantaneous power of the circuit can be calculated as p = Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt- Φ)
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦 𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
or p = 𝟐
2 Sin ωt* Sin(ωt- Φ) = 𝟐
[𝐂𝐨𝐬 Φ – Cos(2ωt- Φ)].

The instantaneous power can be divided in two components as

𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
(i) 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 Φ is a constant value component independent of time and

𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
(ii) 𝟐
cos(2ωt- Φ) is fluctuating part with double of supply frequency.

On taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get the average
power over complete cycle
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
P= 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 Φ or P = VRMS IRMS 𝐜𝐨𝐬 Φ watt

ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER

In an ac circuit the power is classified in three categories. The three powers drawn by the circuit are as
follows
(i) Apparent Power (S): It is given by the product of RMS values of applied voltage and RMS value of
circuit current
S = VI = (IZ) .I = I2Z VA or KVA
(ii) Active Power (P): It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance. It is given
by product of RMS value of voltage, RMS value of circuit current and cosine of angle between them
P = VI Cos𝜃 = I2R Watt or Kwatt
(iii)Reactive Power(Q): It is the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit. It is given by
product of RMS value of voltage, RMS value of circuit current and sine of angle between them
Q = VI Sin𝜃 = I2XL VAR or KVAR

Fig. shows Power triangle for a RL Series circuit. From this triangle it is clear that

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
S = √𝐏 𝟐 + 𝐐𝟐 and P = S cos𝜃 ; Q = S Sin𝜃
CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE AND CAPACITOR IN SERIES
A pure resistance R and a capacitor of capacitance C are connected in series as shown Fig. Let V =
RMS value of the applied voltage, I = RMS value of current, VR = IR voltage drop across R (in phase
with I), VC = [Link] voltage drop across capacitor (lags behind of I by 90°)
As capacitive reactance XC is taken negative, VC is shown along negative direction of Y-axis in the
voltage triangle. Now the applied voltage can be represented as

V = √𝐕𝐑 𝟐 + (−𝐕𝐂 𝟐 ) = √(𝐈𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐈𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 = I √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 = I* Z

Where Z is known as impedance of the circuit given by Z = √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 Ω.

𝐕𝐂 𝐗𝐂 𝐕
The current leads voltage V by an angle Φ such that tan Φ = − =- or Φ = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝐂 ) =
𝐕𝐑 𝐑 𝐕𝐑
𝐗
−𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝐑𝐋 )

If the voltage is given by v = Vm Sin ωt, then circuit current is given by

i = Im (Sin ωt+Φ) Where Im = Vm/Z A
The instantaneous power of the circuit can be calculated as
p = Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt+Φ)
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
p = 𝟐
2 Sin ωt* Sin(ωt+Φ)
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
p = 𝟐
[𝐂𝐨𝐬 Φ – 𝐂𝐨𝐬(2ωt+Φ)]

The instantaneous power can be divided in two components as

𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
(i) 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 Φ is a constant value component independent of time and
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
(ii) 𝟐
cos(2ωt+Φ) is fluctuating part with double of supply frequency.
On taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get the average
𝐕𝐦 𝐈𝐦
power over complete cycle P = 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 Φ or P = VRMS IRMS 𝐜𝐨𝐬 Φ. Watt

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Q1. The potential difference measured across a coil is 4.5 V, when it carries a direct current of 9 A.
The same coil when carries an alternating current of 9 A at 25 Hz, the potential difference is 24 V. Find
the current and power when it is supplied by 50 V, 50 Hz supply.

Solution.
Let R be the resistance and L be the inductance of the coil then
R = V/I = 4.5/9 = 0.5 Ω;
With a.c. current of 25 Hz, Z = V/I = 24/9 = 2.66 Ω

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
𝑋𝐿 = √𝑍 2 − 𝑅 2 . = √(2.66)2 − (0.5)2 = 2.62 Ω
At 50 Hz
𝑋𝐿 = 2.62 ∗ 2 = 5.24 Ω , Now 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 = √(0.5)2 + (5.24)2 = 5.26 Ω
I = V/Z = 50/ 5.26 = 9.5 A, Power (P) = I2R = (9.5)2 x 0.5 = 45.125 Watt
Q2. A 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage v = 141 sin ωt is applied to a series R-L circuit. The values of the
resistance and the inductance are 3 Ω and 0.0106 H respectively.
(i) Compute the r.m.s. value of the current in the circuit and its phase angle with respect to the
voltage.
(ii) Write the expression for the instantaneous current in the circuit.
(iii) Compute the r.m.s. value and the phase of the voltages appearing across the resistance and the
inductance.
(iv) Find the average power dissipated by the circuit.
(v) Calculate the p.f. of the circuit.
Solution.
𝑉𝑚
Vm = 141 V; RMS value of voltage 𝑉= = 100 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
√2

X L = ꞷL = 2π 60 ∗ 0106 = 4 Ω, Now 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗X L = 3 + 𝑗4 = 5∠53.1 Ω

𝑉
(i) 𝐼 = 𝑍 =100 ∠ 0°/ 5∠ 53.1 = 20∠-53.1 A Current lags behind the voltage by 53.1˚

(ii) 𝐼𝑚 = √2 ∗ 20 = 28.28 𝐴 , so equation of current is 𝑖 = 28.28 𝑆𝑖𝑛(ꞷ𝑡 − 53.1˚)

(iii) VR = IR = 20 ∠ − 53.1° × 3 = 60 ∠ − 53.1° Volts
VL = j IX L = 1∠ 90° × 20 ∠ − 53.1° × 4 = 80 ∠ 36.9 Volts
(iv) P = VI Cos ɸ = 100*20* Cos 53.1 = 1200 Watt
(v) Power factor = Cos ɸ = Cos 53.1 = 0.6 Lagging
Q.3 A two-element series circuit is connected across an a.c. source e = 200√2 Sin (314t + 20°) V. The
current in the circuit then is found to be i = 10√2 Cos (314t - 25°) A. Determine the parameters of the
circuit.

Solution.
The current can be written as i = 10√2 Sin (314t - 25° +90°) = 10√2 Sin (314t +65°)
It is seen that applied voltage leads by 20° and current leads by 65° with regards to the reference, their
mutual phase difference is = 65° − (20°) = 45°. Hence, p.f. = cos 45° = 0.707 leading
Now Vm = 200√2 and Im = 10√2 so Z = Vm / Im = 20 Ω
R = Z Cos φ = 20 *0.707 = 14.14 Ω & Xc = Z Sin φ = 20 *0.707 = 14.14 Ω
Now, f = 314/2π = 50 Hz. Also, Xc = 1/2π fC ∴ C = 1/2π × 50 × 14.14 = 226 μF
Power consumption of the circuit P = VI Cos φ = 200*10 *0.707 = 1.414 KW

Q4. An A.C. Voltage e(t) = 141.4 Sin 120t is applied to a series RC circuit. The circuit is obtained
as i(t) = 12.25Sin (120t + 30) Determine : (i)Value of R and C (ii)Power factor (iii)Power
delivered

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
Solution
Given e(t) = 141.4 Sin 120t i(t)= 12.25 Sin(120t+30) and ɸ = 30˚

141.40 
Impedance (z)  or Z  11.54  30 

12.2530

(a) Resistance (R) = Z cos (R)  11.54 cos 30  R= 10 

Reactance (XC)= Z sin  = 11.54 sin 30 XC = 5.77 
1 1
Capacitance (C) = C  C = 0.00144 F or 1.44 mF
2f X C 120  5.77

(b) Power factor (cos) Cos = cos30 or Cos = 0.866 leading

(c) Power delivered by the source
141.4 12.25
P  Vrms I rms cos    cos 30  = 750 watt
2 2

Q.5 .A load having impedance of (1  j1) is connected to an a.c voltage represented as

V  20 2 cos(t  10º ) Volt. Find the current in load, expressed in the form of i  I m sin(t  Ø)A

Find the real power Consumed by the load.

Solution
Impedance Z  (1  j1) or Z  245 º { in polar form}

V  20 2 cos( t  10 º ) or, V  20 2 sin( t  10 º 90 º ) or V  20 2 sin( t  100 º )

Also V  20 2100 º { in polar form}

V 20 2100 º 20 2
(i) Current ( I )  or I  or I  (100 º 45º )
Z 245º 2

I  2055º or, I  20 sin(t  55º )

(ii) Real Power  VI cosØ

20 2  20  20 400
P  . cos 45º or P  20. . cos 45º or P 
2  2 2 2. 2

P  200W

Q.6 A 120 V, 60 W lamp is to be operated on 220 V, 50 Hz supply mains. Calculate value of : (i) non
inductive resistance (ii)pure inductance connected in series with lamp in order that lamp should
operate on rated parameters.
Solution

P
Current in bulb I 
V

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
60W
I   0.5 Amp.
120V
(i) If impedance is non inductive resistance
 Resistance and bulb are connected in series so current will be same in each
so, I = 0.5 Amp.
Voltage drop across Resistance = 220 – 120 = 100V
so, R = V / I = 100 /0.5 = 200 Ω
(ii) If impedance is pure inductance then VL = √𝑉 2 − 𝑉𝑅2 = √(220)2 − (120)2 = 184.4 V
V 184.4
XL    368.8
I 0.5
X L  2fL XL 368.8
or L   1.174 H. So L = 1.174 H
2f 2    50

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q1. In a series R-C circuit, a current of 2 amps is measured. A voltage drop of 60 volts is read across
the resistor while 45 volts is measured across the capacitor. The supply is 800Hz then calculate supply
voltage, power, power factor and value of R & C. Ans:- 75 volts, 120 watt, 0.8 leading, 30Ω, 8.84µf
Q2. A 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage = 311Sin ꞷt is applied to R-L series circuit. If the magnitude of
resistance is 5Ω and that of inductance is 0.02 H,
(i) Calculate the effective value of steady current and relative phase angle.
(ii) Obtain expression for instantaneous current.
Ans:- 27.39 A , ɸ = 51.747˚, I = 38.74 Sin (ꞷt - 51.47˚)
Q3. The voltage applied to a circuit is v = 100 sin (ꞷt + 30˚) and current flowing in the circuit is i = 20
sin (ꞷt + 60˚) Determine the impedance, resistance, reactance, power and power factor of the circuit.
Ans:- 5Ω, 4.33Ω, 2.5Ω, 866 watt, 0.866 leading
Q4. A non-inductive resistance of 10 Ω is connected in series with an inductive coil across 200 V. 50
Hz ac supply. The current drawn by the series combination is l0 A. The resistance of the coil is 2Ω.
Determine (i) inductance of the coil (ii) power factor of coil and circuit (iii) voltage across the coil.
Ans:- 50.95 mH, pf of coil = 0. 124 (lagging) and pf of circuit = 0.6 (lagging), 161.245 Volts
Q5. A coil is in series with a 20 μF capacitor across a 230 V, 50-Hz supply. The current taken by the
circuit is 8 A and the power consumed is 200 W. Calculate the inductance of the coil if the power factor
of the circuit is (a) leading and (b) lagging. Also calculate the coil power factor in each case.
Ans:- 0.416 H; 0.598 H; 0.0239 ; 0.0166
CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITOR IN SERIES

Let these three elements are joined in series and V = RMS value of the applied voltage, I = RMS value
of the resultant current, VR = IR voltage drop across R (in phase with I), VL = [Link] voltage drop across
inductor (ahead of I by 90°) and VC = [Link] voltage drop across capacitor (lags behind of I by 90°)

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

In voltage triangle of given Fig. OA represents VR, AB and AC represent the inductive and capacitive
drops respectively. It will be seen that VL and VC are 180° out of phase with each other i.e. they are in
direct opposition to each other. Subtracting BD (= AC) from AB, we get the net reactive drop AD =
(VL − VC). The applied voltage V is represented by OD which is the vector sum of OA and AD. So
OD = √𝐎𝐀𝟐 + 𝐎𝐃𝟐 or
V = √(𝐈𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐈𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐈𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 = I* Z,
where Z is known as impedance of RLC series circuit given by
Z = √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 Ω.
𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 = XNet, Known as net reactance of the circuit.
Phase angle of the circuit is given by
𝐗 𝐋 −𝐗 𝐂 𝐗 𝐍𝐞𝐭
Φ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝐑 𝐑
If the expression of applied voltage is v = Vm Sin ωt then the circuit current expression is given by i
= Im Sin(ωt±Φ)
where the sign of phase angle depends on following cases
Case 1: The + ve sign is to be used when current leads or XNet is negative i.e. XC > XL.
Case 2: The - ve sign is to be used when current lags or XNet is positive i.e. XL > XC.
Case 3: The value of phase angle Φ is zero when voltage and current are in same phase or XNet is zero
i.e XL = XC.

SUMMARRY OF RESULTS FOR SERIES AC CIRCUITS

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.7 A resistance of 20 Ω, an inductance of 0.2 H and a capacitance of 100 μF are connected in series
across 220-V, 50-Hz mains. Determine the following (a) impedance (b) current (c) Voltage across R, L
and C (d) power in watts and VA (e) p.f. and angle of lag.

Solution.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
X L = 0.2 × 314 = 62.8 Ω, C = 10 μF = 100 × 10−6 = 10−4 farad So
1 1
XC = = = 31.85 Ω
(ꞷ𝐶) (314 ∗ 10−4 )
Net Reactance X NET = X L − XC = 62.8 − 31.85 = 30.95 Ω (inductive)
Z = √(R)2 + (X L − X C )2 = √(R)2 + (X NET )2 = √(20)2 + (30.95)2 = 36.85 Ω
𝑉 220
𝐼= = = 5.97 𝐴
𝑍 36.85
VR = IR = 5.97* 20 = 119.4 V, VL = IX L = 5.97× 62.8 = 374.9 V, VC = IX C = 5.97×31.85 = 190.14 V
Power in VA = V*I = 220*5.97 = 1313 VA , Power in watts = VI Cosɸ = 220×5.97× (20/36.85)
Power in watts = 712.83 watt
p.f. = cos φ = R/Z = 20/36.85 = 0.542 ; φ = cos−1 (0.54) = 57.18˚ lagging
Q8. A voltage e(t) = 100 Sin 314t is applied to series circuit consisting of 10 ohm resistance, 0.03185
henry inductance and a capacitor of 63.69 μF. Calculate (i) expression for i (t) (ii) phase angle between
voltage and current (iii) power factor and (iv) active power consumed.
Solution
X L = 0.03185 × 314 = 10 Ω, C = 63.6 μF = 63.6 × 10−6 , So
1 1
XC = = = 50 Ω
(ꞷ𝐶) (314 × 63.69 × 10−6 )
Net Reactance X NET = X L − XC = 10 − 50 = −40 Ω (Capactive)
Z = √(R)2 + (X L − X C )2 = √(R)2 + (X NET )2 = √(10)2 + (−40)2 = 41.23 Ω
𝑉𝑀 100
𝐼𝑀 = = = 2.425 𝐴
𝑍 41.23
p.f. = cos φ = R/Z = 10/41.23 = 0.242 ; φ = cos−1 (0.242) = 76˚ leading
Expression of circuit current i(t) = 2.425 Sin (314t + 76˚) A
Power = VI Cosɸ = (100/√2) × (2.245/√2) × 0.242 = 29.34 Watt

RESONANCE IN RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

A RLC series circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the net reactance of the circuit
becomes zero and the frequency at which this happens is known as resonating frequency (fo) of the
circuit. At resonance the voltage drops across inductor (VL = IXL) and capacitor (VC = IXC) are equal
and opposite to each other so they cancel out each other and net supply voltage is dropped across
circuit resistance (VR =V). The two reactance’s taken together act as a short-circuit since no voltage
develops across them. The phasor diagram of series resonating circuit is shown in figure.

The frequency at which the net reactance of the series circuit is zero is called the resonant frequency
(fo). At resonance

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

XNet = 0 or 𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 = 𝟎
i.e ωo L = 1/ (ωo C)
𝟏
ωo = √𝐋𝐂 rad/sec or fo = 𝟐𝛑√𝐋𝐂 Hz

The expression for fo shows that circuit resistance has no effect on the value of resonating frequency of
the circuit.
Impedance at resonance (Zo) The impedance of RLC series circuit is given by
Z = √(R)2 + (X L − X C )2 = √(R)2 + (X NET )2 but at Resonance X NET = 0, So Z is minimum
given by
Zo = R.
𝐕 𝐕
Current at resonance (Io) The current at resonance is given by Io = = A in phase with the
𝐙𝟎 𝐑

applied voltage. Since circuit current is maximum, it produces large voltage drops across L and C.
Magnitudes of these voltage drops (VL or VC) is much larger than supply voltage and that’s why series
resonance is also known as voltage resonance. But these drops being equal and opposite, cancel each
other when consider together. L and C from a part of circuit across which there is no voltage drop,
however, large current is flowing. A series resonant circuit is sometimes called acceptor circuit because
they offer minimum impedance to the frequency signal at which they resonates.

Figure shows the graphical representation of various circuit parameter of RLC Series circuit with
variable supply frequency by keeping all other factors constant. The figure gives an idea that how
various circuit parameters are changing above and below resonating frequency.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
RESONANCE CURVE
The curve, between circuit current and the frequency of the applied voltage, is known as resonance
curve. The shapes of resonance curve, for different values of R is shown in fig. For smaller values of
R, the resonance curve is sharply peaked and such a circuit is said to be sharply resonant or highly
selective. However, for larger values of R, resonance curve is flat and is said to have poor selectivity.
The ability of a resonant circuit to discriminate one particular frequency from the band of applied
frequencies is called its selectivity. The selectivity or sharpness of resonance curve is inversely
proportional to circuit resistance.

BANDWIDTH (Δf)
It is defined as the band of frequencies which lies on either side of resonating frequency where the
circuit current reduces to 1/√2 times its value at resonance. Narrower is the bandwidth, higher the
selectivity of the circuit and vice versa. The bandwidth is also known as half power bandwidth as at the
corner points the power consumption of circuit becomes half of its value at resonance. At the corner
points of a band width the net reactance of circuit is equal to the circuit resistance. We can derive the
expression of corner frequencies as follows:
At lower corner frequency f1 the nature of circuit is capacitive. Also net reactance is equal to circuit
resistance, so at corner frequency f1 we get
𝟏
XC – XL = R or − 𝛚𝟏 𝐋 = R
𝛚𝟏 𝐂
𝐑 𝟏
or 𝛚𝟐𝟏 + 𝛚𝟏 − =𝟎 which is a
𝐋 𝐋𝐂

quadratic equation.
𝐑 𝐑 𝟒
− ± √( )𝟐 +
𝐋 𝐋 𝐋𝐂
So writing its roots 𝛚𝟏 = 𝟐
𝐑 𝐑 𝟏
𝛚𝟏 = − 𝟐𝐋 ± √(𝟐𝐋)𝟐 + 𝐋𝐂 .
𝐑 𝟏
Now put α = 𝟐𝐋 & 𝛚𝟎 = and considering only positive root we get
√𝐋𝐂
𝛚𝟏 = - α+ √𝛂𝟐 + 𝛚𝟎 𝟐 ……………….(i) .
Similarly at upper corner frequency f2 we get
𝟏
XL – XC = R or 𝛚𝟐 𝐋 − 𝛚 =R
𝟐𝐂

𝐑 𝟏
or 𝛚𝟐𝟐 − 𝐋 𝛚𝟐 − 𝐋𝐂
=𝟎 which is

a quadratic equation.
On solving we get 𝛚𝟐 = α+ √𝛂𝟐 + 𝛚𝟎 𝟐 ……………….(ii)
Now in equation (i) and (ii) neglecting the term α2 as its magnitude is very small so we get
𝛚1 = 𝛚𝟎 − α or
𝐑
𝛚1 = 𝛚𝟎 − 𝟐𝐋 rad/sec ;
𝐑
Similarly we get 𝛚2 = 𝛚𝟎 + 𝟐𝐋 rad/sec
𝐑
and Δ𝛚 = 𝛚2 - 𝛚1 = 𝐋
rad/sec

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
𝐑
Now corner frequencies can be written as f1 = 𝐟𝟎 − 𝟒𝛑𝐋
Hz &
𝐑
f2 = 𝐟𝟎 + Hz
𝟒𝛑𝐋
𝐑
The bandwidth can be obtained as Δf = f2 - f1 =
𝟐𝛑𝐋
Hz

On multiplication of equation (i) and (ii) we get

𝛚𝟏 ∗ 𝛚𝟐 = (- α+ √𝛂𝟐 + 𝛚𝟎 𝟐 ) (α+ √𝛂𝟐 + 𝛚𝟎 𝟐 )
or 𝛚𝟎 = √𝛚𝟏 𝛚𝟐 or 𝐟𝟎 = √𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐
Thus we can show that resonating frequency is geometric mean of corner frequencies.

QUALITY FACTOR (Q- FACTOR)

Quality factor for a coil is defined as the ratio of reactance to resistance of the coil. It is a unit less
quantity. For a pure inductive coil the value of quality factor is infinite. As the resistance of coil
increases the value of quality factor of coil decreases. It is given by
𝐗𝐋 𝛚𝟎 𝐋
Q= 𝐑
= 𝐑
= tan ɸ where ɸ is the power factor
angle of the coil.
The Q-factor of a series resonating circuit can be defined in the following different ways.
(i) it is given by the voltage magnification produced by the circuit at resonance.
𝐕𝐋 𝐕𝐋 𝐈 𝐗𝐋 𝐗𝐋
Voltage magnification ratio = = == = = tan ɸ
𝐕𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐕𝐑 𝐈𝐑 𝐑

where ɸ is the power factor angle of the coil formed by series combination of resistance and
inductance present in the circuit.
(ii) The Q-factor may also be defined as the energy gain of the circuit. it is given by
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝
Q- factor = 𝟐𝛑
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝐋 𝐈𝐦 𝐋( √𝟐𝐈)𝟐
= 𝟐𝛑 𝐈𝟐𝟐 𝐑 𝐓 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝟎 𝟐 𝐈𝟐 𝐑
𝟎

𝐋 𝛚𝟎 𝐋
= 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝟎 𝐑 = 𝐑
= tan ɸ .

𝟏 𝟏 𝐋
(iii) As we know that 𝛚𝟎 = so using this we get Q- factor = 𝐑 √𝐂 . This relation is used to find
√𝐋𝐂
the value of Q factor in terms of component of RLC series circuit.
(iv) In the case of series resonance, higher Q-factor means not only higher voltage magnification but
also higher selectivity of the tuning coil. The Q factor can also be written as
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝐟𝟎 𝐟𝟎
Q- factor = 𝐑 = 𝚫𝛚
=𝛚 = =𝐟
𝟐 −𝛚𝟏 𝚫𝐟 𝟐 −𝐟𝟏
𝐋
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q 9 A series R-L-C circuit has R=10, L = 0.1 H and C = 8 F. Determine.
(i) resonant frequency
(ii) Q-factor of the circuit at resonance
(iii) the half power frequencies
Solution
Given R = 10, L = 0.1 H and C = 8F
1
Resonation Frequency fr  fr  177.94Hz
2 0.1  8  10 6

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
XL  L 2fr  L
(ii) Q factor Qr   r 
R R R
2    177.94  0.1
Qr   11.18
10

R
(iii) Lower half power frequency f1  fr   177.94  7.95  169.99Hz
4L

R
Higher half power frequency f2  fr   177.94  7.95  185.89Hz
4L
Q10. A 20-Ω resistor is connected in series with an inductor, a capacitor and an ammeter across a 25-
V variable frequency supply. When the frequency is 400-Hz, the current is at its maximum value of 0.5
A and the potential difference across the capacitor is 150 V. Calculate (a) the capacitance of the
capacitor (b) the resistance and inductance of the inductor.

Solution
Since current is maximum, the circuit is in resonance. XC = VC/I = 150/0.5 = 300 Ω
(a) XC = 1/(2πf C ) or 300 = 1/2π × 400 × C and C = 1.325 × 10− 6 F = 1.325 μF
(b) XL = XC = 300 Ω So 2π × 400 × L = 300 hence L = 0.119 H
(c) Now, at resonance, circuit resistance = circuit impedance 20 + R = V/I = 25/0.5 So R = 30 Ω

ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Consider the parallel circuits shown below. Here, two impedances A and B have been
joined in parallel across an r.m.s. supply of V volts. The voltage across two parallel
branches A and B is the same, but currents are different.
𝐕 𝐑
For Branch A : Z1 = √𝐑𝟐𝟏 + 𝐗 𝐋 𝟐 ; I1 = 𝐙 ; cos ф1 = 𝐙 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
𝐑
Also ф1 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 ( 𝐙 𝟏) Current I1 lags behind the applied
𝟏
voltage V by angle ф1

𝐕 𝐑𝟐
For Branch B : Z2 = √𝐑𝟐𝟐 + 𝐗 𝐂 𝟐 ; I2 = 𝐙 ; cos ф2 = 𝐙𝟐
𝟐

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
𝐑
Also ф2 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 ( 𝐙 𝟐) Current I2 leads the applied
𝟐
voltage V by angle ф2
The resultant circuit current I is the vector sum of the branch currents I1 and I2 and can be found by
using parallelogram law of vectors. If I is the resultant current and ɸ its phase, then
I cos ɸ = (I1 cos ф1 + I2 cos ф2) and I sin ɸ = (I2 sin ф2 – I1 cos ф1).
The total circuit current is given by I = √ (𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ)𝟐 + (𝐈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ɸ)𝟐
𝐈 𝐬𝐢𝐧ɸ
The phase angle of this current is given by ɸ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬ɸ)
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.11 The parallel circuit shown in figure is connected across a single phase 100V, 50Hz ac supply.
Calculate branch currents, total current , supply power factor , active and reactive power
supplied by the supply.

Solution
Let the current and impedance for branches (i) and (ii) are I1 , Z1 and I2 , Z2 respectively. Also total
current is IT
(i) For branch (i) :
100
Z1  (8  j6)  1037 And I1   10  37 A
1037

100
For branch (ii) : Z 2  (6  j8)  10  53 And I2   10  53 A
1037
(ii) Total current, I T  I 1  I 2  10  37  1053  14.148.13 A
(iii) Supply power factor; cos   cos(8.13)  0.989
(iv) Active power applied; VI cos   100(14.14) cos(8.13)  1.397KW

Reactive power supplied; VI sin   100(14.14) sin(8.13)  199.97 VAR

ADMITTANCE
1
We defined admittance as the reciprocal of impedance. It is represented by Y where Y= Z Ω-1 or mho.

As the impedance Z of a circuit has two components X and R similarly, admittance Y also has two
components as shown in Fig. The X-component is known as conductance (G) and Y-component as
susceptance (B). Fig. shows the impedance triangle for a RL circuit along with its admittance triangle.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

For a RL circuit the impedance is written as Z= R + jX L Ω. The corresponding value of admittance

can be calculated as
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (𝐑−𝐉𝐗 𝐋 ) 𝐑 𝐗 𝐋
Y= 𝐙 = 𝐑+𝐣𝐗 Ω-1 or = 𝐑+𝐣𝐗 ∗ (𝐑−𝐉𝐗 𝐋 )
= 𝐑𝟐 +𝐗 𝟐𝐋
− 𝐣 𝐑𝟐+𝐗 𝟐 = G – j B ;
𝐋 𝐋 𝐋

where G is conductance and B is susceptance of the circuit.

𝐑 𝟏 𝐑
Here G = = ∗ = 𝐘 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ . So we define conductance as the real component of admittance
𝐑𝟐 +𝐗 𝟐𝐋 𝐙 𝐙

whose value is equal to the reciprocal of circuit resistance provided circuit reactance should be zero.
𝐗𝐋 𝟏 𝐗
Also B = 𝐑𝟐 +𝐗 𝟐𝐋
== 𝐙
∗ 𝐙𝐋 = 𝐘 𝐒𝐢𝐧 ɸ . So we define susceptance as the reactive component of

admittance whose value is equal to the reciprocal of circuit reactance provided circuit resistance is zero.
Here one more thing to consider that opposite to the reactance the inductive susceptance is considered
negative and capacitive susceptance is considered to be positive. The advantage with admittance is that
they can be added when they are connected in parallel.

Consider the 3-branched circuit of Fig. Total conductance is found by merely adding the conductance
of three branches. Similarly, total susceptance is found by algebraically adding the individual
susceptances of different branches.
G = 𝐠𝟏 + 𝐠𝟐 + 𝐠𝟑 ; and B = (−𝐛𝟏 ) + (−𝐛𝟐 ) + (𝐛𝟑 )
Total admittance Y = √𝐆 𝟐 + 𝐁𝟐 Ω-1, Total current I = VY ;
Power factor cos ɸ = G/Y.
This method is more useful in case of large number of parallel branches.

Q.12 In the figure shown below, impedances Z2 and Z3 in parallel are in series with an impedance Z1
across a 100V, 50-Hz AC supply. Z1= (6.25 + j 1.25) Ω; Z2 = (5 + j0) Ω and Z3 = (5 − j XC) Ω. Determine
the value of capacitance of XC such that the total current of the circuit will be in phase with the total
voltage. Also determine the value of circuit current and power consumption of circuit.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
𝐙𝟐 𝐗 𝐙𝟑 𝟓( 𝟓−𝐉𝐗 𝐂 ) 𝟓( 𝟓−𝐉𝐗 𝐂 ) (𝟏𝟎+𝐣𝐗 𝐂 ) 𝟐𝟓𝟎+𝟓𝐗 𝟐𝐂 −𝐉𝟐𝟓𝐗 𝐂
Solution: 𝒁𝟐𝟑 = = = × =
𝐙𝟐 +𝐙𝟑 𝟏𝟎−𝐣𝐗 𝐂 𝟏𝟎−𝐣𝐗 𝐂 (𝟏𝟎+𝐣𝐗 𝐂 ) 𝟏𝟎𝟎+𝐗 𝟐𝐂

Total impedance of circuit

250 + 5X C2 25XC
ZT = Z1 + Z23 = (6.25 + ) + J (1.25 − )Ω
100 + X C2 100 + X C2
For current to be in phase with voltage, the reactance of circuit should be zero. So
25XC 25X C
1.25 − 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 1.25 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 1.25X 2C − 25XC + 100 = 0
100 + X C 100 + X C2
1 1
On solving we get X C = 10 Ω and the value of 𝐶 = ꞷ𝑋𝑐
= (314×10) = 318.47µ𝐹

250+5(10)2
Also ZT = (6.25 + ) = 10 Ω.
100+(10)2
𝑉 100
Total current 𝐼 = Z = 10
= 10 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼 2 × 𝑅 = 1000 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
T

RESONANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

Consider a coil in parallel shown in Fig. Such a circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the
reactive (or wattless) component of line current becomes zero and the frequency at which this happens
is known as resonant frequency. The phasor diagram for this circuit is also shown in figure.

Net reactive component of circuit current is 𝐈𝐂 − 𝐈𝐋 𝐬𝐢𝐧ф .

At resonance 𝐈𝐂 − 𝐈𝐋 𝐬𝐢𝐧ф = 𝟎
𝐈𝐂 = 𝐈𝐋 𝐬𝐢𝐧ф
𝐕 𝐕 𝐗𝐋
=
𝐗𝐂 𝐙𝐜𝐨𝐢𝐥 𝐙𝐜𝐨𝐢𝐥
𝟐 𝟏 𝐋
𝐙𝐜𝐨𝐢𝐥 = 𝐗 𝐋 ∗ 𝐗 𝐂 = 𝛚𝐨 𝐋 ∗ (𝛚 𝐂) = 𝐂
…………………………………… (i)
𝐨

𝐋
𝐑𝟐 + 𝐗 𝟐𝐋 =
𝐂
𝐋
(𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐨 𝐋)𝟐 = − 𝐑𝟐
𝐂
𝟏 𝐑 𝟐
𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐨 = √ − 𝟐
𝐋𝐂 𝐋

𝟏 𝟐
𝐟𝐨 = √ 𝟏 − 𝐑𝟐 ……………………….. (ii)
𝟐𝛑 𝐋𝐂 𝐋

Equation (ii) is the resonant frequency and is given in Hz, R is in ohm, L is the henry and C is the
𝟏
farad. If R is the negligible, then resonating frequency is given by 𝐟𝐨 = 𝟐𝛑√𝐋𝐂 same as series
circuit.
CURRENT AT RESONANCE
As the reactive component of circuit current is zero so the total circuit current is in phase with the
applied voltage which is given by Io = 𝐈𝐋 𝐜𝐨𝐬ф
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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
𝐕 𝐑
= 𝐙𝐜𝐨𝐢𝐥
∗𝐙
𝐜𝐨𝐢𝐥

𝐕𝐑 𝐕𝐑
= 𝟐 = 𝐋 ……………………by equation (i)
𝐙𝐜𝐨𝐢𝐥
𝐂

𝐕 𝐕
Io = 𝐋 = 𝐙𝐨
𝐂𝐑

𝐋
Where Zo = 𝐂𝐑

known as dynamic impedance of parallel resonating circuit. It should be noted that impedance is
‘resistive’ only. Since current is minimum at resonance, L/CR must represent the maximum impedance
of the circuit. In fact, parallel resonance is a condition of maximum impedance or minimum admittance.
Current at resonance is minimum, hence in such a circuit (when used in radio work) is also known as
rejector circuit because it rejects (or takes minimum current of) the frequency to which it resonates.
This resonance is often referred to as current resonance because the current circulating between the two
branches is greater than the line current taken from the supply.

Q –FACTOR FOR PARALLEL CIRCUIT

It is defined as the ratio of current circulating between branches to the line current taken from supply.
In other words it is defined as the current magnification ratio of the circuit. It is given as
𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐡 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐈𝐂
Qo = =
𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐈𝐨
𝐕
𝐗𝐂
Qo = 𝐕
𝐙𝐨

𝐙𝐨
= 𝐗𝐂
𝐋
𝐂𝐑 𝛚𝐨 𝐋
= 𝟏 = 𝐑
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧ф
𝛚𝐨 𝐂

where ф is the power factor angle of coil

COMPARISON OF SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Q.13 For the circuit shown below, determine:

(i) Resonant Frequency
(ii) Total impedance of the circuit of resonance.
(iii) Band width
(iv) Quality factor

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

1 1 R2
Solution . (i) Resonance Frequency ( fr )   2
2 LC L

1 1 ( 25 )2
fr   fr = 100.39 Hz
2  3.14 0.5  5  106 ( 0.5 )2

L
(ii) Total impedance at resonance Z 
RC

0.5
Z  Z = 4K
25  5  10 6

R 25
(iii) Band width   = 7.96 Hz.
2L 2  3.14  0.5

1 L 1 0.5
(iv) Quality factor (Q)   = 12.6
R C 25 5  10 6

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q1. A coil having an inductance of 50 mH and resistance 10 Ω is connected in series with a 25 μF
capacitor across a 200 V ac supply. Calculate (a) resonance frequency of the circuit (b) current flowing
at resonance and (c) value of Quality factor of circuit.
Ans- 142.3 Hz, 20 A and 4.47
Q2. An R-L-C series circuit is connected to a 20-V variable frequency supply. If R = 20 Ω, L = 20 mH
and C = 0.5 μf, calculate the following: (a) resonant frequency (b) Quality Factor (c) Bandwidth
Ans:- 1.591 KHz, 10, 159.1 Hz
Q3. A circuit shown below of the following in parallel: (i) A resistance of 500 Ω (ii) an inductance of
2 H (iii) A capacitance of 10 μF. A source voltage of 200 v, 50 Hz is applied, determine the total current
drawn from the supply, complex power, active power and reactive power of the circuit.

Ans:- 0.506∠37.78 A, 101.21 VA , 80 Watt, 62 VAR

Q4. Find the reading of the ammeter when the voltmeter across the 3Ω resistor in Fig. reads 45 V.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
Ans:- 22.4 ∠28.8, Reading of Meter is 22.4 A
Q5. Two impedances Z1 = 5 + j 10Ω and Z2 = l0 - j 15 Ω are connected in parallel. If total current is
20 A then find: (a) current taken by each branch, (b) power factor (c) power consumed in each branch.
Ans:- 22.804 ∠-37.87˚A, 14.142 ∠81.87˚A, 0.9 lagging, 2.6 Kw, 2 Kw
BALANCED THREE PHASE AC CIRCUIT
A three phase system is said to be balanced if the various phase voltages satisfies the following
conditions:-
1. Amplitude of voltage across all the phases are same
2. Angular velocity of all the phases are same
3. All voltages are displaced from each other by 120 o
This type of three phase system can be developed by a set of three identical (having equal no of turns)
coils, mounted on a common shaft with a mechanical displacement of 120o from each other and placed
in a common magnetic field. When this assembly is rotated by some external means then due to rotation,
Emf is induced in all the three coils.

Figure shows how a balanced three phase supply system is generated. Assume the coils are rotating in
anticlockwise direction then the three phase voltages can be represented as

VA = Vm Sin ꞷt

VB = Vm Sin(ꞷt- 120˚)

Vc = Vm Sin (ꞷt-240˚) or Vm Sin(ꞷt+120˚)

ADVANTAGES

Three Phase AC system have following advantages over single phase system
(1) The rating of a machine increase with increase in number of phases or in other words size of a
three phase machine is smaller than single phase machine of same rating.
(2) Power factor of a 1- motor is lower than that of a three-phase motor of same rating.
(3) Three-phase system requires 3/4 th weight of conductor that required by single phase system to
transmit the same amount of power at a given voltage and over a given distance.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
(4) Three-phase system is more reliable and capable than single phase system.
(5) Three-phase system having higher efficiency compare to single phase system.
(6) The parallel operation of three phase alternator is much easier than single phase alternator.
(7) Rotating magnetic fields can be developed with three phase supply which makes three phase
motors self-starting.
Different phases of a three phase circuit can be connected as follows
1. STAR (Y) CONNECTION 2. DELTA (Δ) CONNECTION

STAR CONNECTION:
Star connections are formed by joining the similar ends of all the phase coils to form a neutral or star
point and the remaining terminals are connected to the supply lines. Some-times an additional wire is
provided from neutral point and connections becomes three phase four wire connections. In star
connection, Line voltage is the voltage between any two line terminals of three phase circuit and phase
voltage is the voltage between any line terminal to the neutral. Let ER, EY and EB represent the phase
voltage in figure and ERY, EYB and EBR. be the line voltages with positive phase sequence.

In star connections from circuit diagram it is clear that current flowing in the phase windings and line
terminal is same. So for star connections we can say 𝐈𝐑 = 𝐈𝐘 = 𝐈𝐁 = 𝐈𝐏𝐇 = 𝐈𝐋
Also assuming load to be balanced so all voltages can be assumed as ER = EY =EB = EPH
Now from phasor diagram the line voltage ERY is given by
ERY = 𝐄𝐑 − 𝐄𝐘 = 𝐄𝐑 + (−𝐄𝐘 )

ERY = √𝐄𝐑𝟐 + 𝐄𝐘𝟐 + 𝟐𝐄𝐑 𝐄𝐘 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟔𝟎 𝟐

= √𝐄𝐏𝐇 𝟐
+ 𝐄𝐏𝐇 𝟐
+ 𝟐𝐄𝐏𝐇 𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟔𝟎 = √𝟑𝐄𝐏𝐇 = √𝟑𝐄𝐏𝐇

Similarly for other two phases we can prove

𝐄𝐋 = √𝟑𝐄𝐏𝐇 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐏𝐇

DELTA CONNECTION:
In this connection the dissimilar ends of the three phase winding are joined together i.e. the ‘starting’
end of one phase is joined to the ‘finishing’ end of the other phase and so on a closed loop is obtained.
Three leads are taken out from the three junctions and connected to the supply lines. In delta there is no

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
neutral point. The voltage between any two line terminals is equal to the phase voltage. So for a balanced
delta connected system
VRY = VYB =VBR = VL = VPH

Also for balance condition currents can be assumed as 𝐈𝐑 = 𝐈𝐘 = 𝐈𝐁 = 𝐈𝐏𝐇. Now from phasor dia

the line current is given by (IR – IB) = IR + (-IB) = √𝐈𝐑𝟐 + 𝐈𝐁𝟐 + 𝟐𝐈𝐑 𝐈𝐁 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟔𝟎

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
= √𝐈𝐏𝐇 + 𝐈𝐏𝐇 + 𝟐𝐈𝐏𝐇 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟔𝟎 = √𝟑𝐈𝐏𝐇

Similarly for the other phases we can prove : 𝐈𝐋 = √𝟑𝐈𝐏𝐇 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐕𝐋 = 𝐕𝐏𝐇
Note: For a given 3 phase load connected across given supply, In delta connections the value of
power consumption and line current is three times the value for star connections.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Q.14 A star connected three phase load has a resistance of 8 ohms and an inductive reactance of 6 ohms
in each phase. It is fed from a 400V, three phase balanced apply. Determine line current, power factor,
active and reactive power.
Solution

Z ph  8  j6 or Z ph  1053.1
VL 400
V ph   V ph  231V and I ph  I L { star connection}
3 3
231
IL  I L  23.1 Amp.
10
8
cos   0.8   36.86 
10
Active power  3VL I L cos   3  400  23.1  0.8  12.8 KW

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
Reactive Power  3 VL I L sin   3  400  23.1  0.6  9.6 KVAR
Q15 .A balanced delta-connected load of impedance 16 + j12  / phase is connected to a 3-phase 400V
supply. Find the phase current, line current, power factor, power, reactive VA and total VA.

In delta connection,
Phase voltage = Line voltage = 400V
Phase impedance ( Z P )  R 2  X 2  16 2  122  20
400
Phase current ( I P )   20 Ampere So Line current ( I L )  3 I P  3  20  34.64 A.
20
R 16
Power factor (cos )  P   0.8
ZP 20
sin   0.6

Total power (Apparent Power)  3 VL I L  3 (400 ) (34.64 ) = 23999.29 VA

Power (Active)  3 VL I L cos   19.19943 kW
Reactive Power  3 VL I L sin   14 .399 KVAR
Q16 . Three similar coils each having a resistance of 8 ohm and an inductance of 0.0191 H in series
in each phase is connected across a 400V, three phase, 50Hz supply. Calculate the line current, power
input, KVA and KVAR taken by the load, consider
(i) Load to be star connected (ii) Load to be delta connected

Solution R  8 , L  0.0191H So XL = 2𝝅f L = 2×3.142×50×0.0191 = 6 Ω

So Z  R  jX L  (8  j6 ) , | Z | 10
8 R
cos     0 .8 and sin   0.6
10 Z
If Star Connected Load:

VPh 400 / 3
I L  I Ph    23.09 A
Z Ph 10

P  3VL I L cos   3  400  23.09  0.8  12797.78W  12.8KW

Reactive Power Q  3VL I L sin   3  400  23.09  0.6  9.6KVA
Apparent Power S  3VL I L  3  400  23.09  16 KVA

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits

If Delta Connected Load:

V ph 400
I ph    40 A and I L  3 I ph  3  40  69.28 A
Z ph 10

P  3VL I L cos   3  400  69.28  0.8  38.4Kw

Reactive Power Q  3V L I L sin   3  400  69.28  0.6  28.8 KVAr

Apparent Power S  3VL I L  3  400  69.28  48 KVA

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Q.1 A balanced 3phase star-connected load of 18 kW taking a leading current of 60 amperes when
connected to a three phase 440V, 50 Hz supply. Find the nature and value of load reactance and
resistance.
Ans:- Xc = 3.89 Ω and R = 1.66 Ω
Q.2 A balanced delta connected load of (12 +j9) Ω/phase is connected to 3-phase 400 V, 50Hz supply.
Find: (i) Line current (ii) Power factor (iii) Power drawn (iv) Reactive volt-amperes (y) Total volt-
amperes.
Ans:- 46.18 A, 0.8 lagging, 25.6 KW, 19.2 KVAR and 32 KVA
Q.3 A balanced delta-connected load takes a total power of 30 kW at 0.8 lagging power factor when
connected to a three phase,400 V, 50 Hz supply. Find the per phase load components.
Ans:- R = 10.24 Ω and XL = 7.68 Ω per phase
Q.4 Each phase of three phase balanced load consists of R = 25 Ω, L = 0.15H and C = 100µf connected
in series across 400 V, 50 Hz three phase AC supply. Calculate line current, power factor and total
power (i) When load is star connected. (ii) When load is delta connected.
Ans:- (i) 7.88 A, 0.853 lagging and 4.658 kw (ii) 23.64 A, 0.853 lagging and 13.97 kw

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE

1. A 50 Hz voltage of 115V is impressed on a 50 Ω resistance. write the time equations for the
voltage and resultant current. Ans: 162.6 sin 3l4t and 3.25 sin 314t
2. A 50 Hz voltage of 230 V is impressed on a capacitance of 20 µF. Write the time equation for
lhe voltage and the resultant current. Ans: 325.3 sin 3l4t , 2.04 sin(314t + 90˚)
3. What is the power factor of a circuit having impedance of 3+j4Ω Ans: 0.6 lagging
4. In a given series RLC circuit the value of circuit components are R =2 Ω, L = 2mH, C = 10μF.
Find the resonant frequency and Q-factor of the circuit. Ans: 1.125 KHz and 7.07
5. What is the average power in a pure capacitive circuit? (2023-24) Ans: 0
6. A coil has resistance of 10 Ω and draws a current of 5 A when connected across 100 V, 50 Hz
source. Determine the reactive power of the circuit. Ans: 433 VAR
7. A coil having a resistance of 7 Ω and an inductance of 31.8 mH is connected to 230 volts,50 Hz
AC supply. calculate: circuit current and power consumption of circuit. Ans: 18.85 A, 2.48KW
8. A series RLC circuit has R=10 Ω, L=0.01 H and C=10μ[Link] the Q-factor of the circuit.
Ans: 3.16
9. A 6 Ω resistor, an inductor with inductive reactance of 120 Ω, and a capacitor of capacitive
reactance 120 Ω are connected in series across a 60V AC supply. Calculate the voltage across
the inductor at the time of resonance in the circuit. Ans: 1200 V
10. Calculate the value of circuit impedance in a parallel resonating circuit if the value of circuit
components is R=1000 Ω , L=0.01 H , C = 10 nF. . Ans: 1000 Ω
11. Calculate the Quality factor of a RLC series circuit having resonant frequency 100Hz and
bandwidth 20Hz. Ans: 5
12. If an impedance is Z = 3-4j Ω. Calculate its admittance. Ans: (0.12+ 0.16j) S
13. The power consumed by a coil is 150 waits when 30V DC is applied and 54 watts when 30V
AC applied. Determine the reactance of the coil. Ans: 8 Ω
14. Three identical resistors of 10 Ω each are connected in star to 200√3 V, 50 Hz, 3-φ supply
Calculate the total power consumed (kW). Ans: 12 KW
15. 3 coils are connected in delta to a 3 Ø, 3 wire, 415 V,50 Hz supply and take a line current of 5
A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the resistance of coil. Ans: 115 Ω
LONG ANSWER TYPE

1. With relevant diagrams prove that for a purely inductive circuit supply current lags from
supply voltage by quarter of cycle and average power consumption is zero.
2. With relevant diagrams prove that for a purely capacitive circuit supply current leads from
supply voltage by quarter of cycle and average power consumption is zero.

3. Derive the phasor relationship between voltage and current phasors for purely inductive,

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
purely capacitive and purely resistive circuits.

4. Derive the expression of Bandwidth of a series RLC circuit. How the Bandwidth and Quality
factor are related to each other
5. Derive expression of Resonating frequency, Quality factor and Circuit current for a Series
resonating circuit.
6. Derive expression of Resonating frequency, Quality factor and Circuit current for parallel
resonating circuit
7. Compare Voltage resonance with Current resonance. Also discuss the applications of each
type of resonance.
8. Discuss various types of Power in an AC circuit. Draw the Power triangle for a RC series
circuit.
9. With the help of neat circuit and phasor diagram derive relation between Line and
Phaseparameters of a balanced 3 phase Star connected System.
10. With the help of neat circuit and phasor diagram find relation between Line and
Phaseparameters of a balanced 3 phase Delta connected System.
11. The equation of an alternating current i = 42.42 sin 628 t. Determine (i) maximum value (ii)
frequency (iii) rms value (iv) average value (v) form factor.
Ans: 42.42A, 100 Hz, 30 A, 27 A , 1.11
12. A metal filament lamp rated for 700 W at 100 V is to be connected in series with an element
across a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine the element's value if it is an inductor.
Ans: 104.2mH
13. Two impedances are connected in parallel across 230V ac supply. Calculate the value of
branch currents and supply current. Also find the power consumption of the circuit. The
values of impedances are (8+j6) Ω and (2-j8) Ω.
Ans: 23 ∠-36.87˚A, 27.88 ∠75.98˚A and 28.431∠27.28˚ A, 5.785 Kwatt
14. A series RLC circuit consists of R=10 Ω, L=10mH and C=10μF Determine: (i) Resonant
Frequency (b) Lower Half Power point frequency (iii) Bandwidth in Hz and (iv) Quality Factor.
Ans: 503.226Hz, 423.65Hz, 159.2Hz, 3.162
15. A R-L-C series circuit has R= 10 Ω, L= 50 mH and C= 100 µF, supplied with 200 V, 50 Hz. Find
(i) Circuit impedance (ii) Supply current (iii) Power factor (iv) Reactive power (v) Voltage
across capacitor.
Ans: 18.99 Ω, 0.53A , 0.5265 leading, 1.79KVAR, 335.35 Volt
16. Three impedances of (70.7 + j 70.7) Ω, (120 + j 160) Ω and (120 + j 90) Ω are connected in
parallel across a 250 V supply. Determine (i) admittance of the circuit (ii)supply current and
(iii) circuit power factor. Ans: 0.0215 ∠-44.37Ω-1 ,5.38 ∠-44.37˚A and 0.715 lagging

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
17. A load draws a current of 10 A at a power factor 0.8 lagging, when connected to 100 V supply,
calculate the values of real, reactive and apparent powers. Also find the value of load
resistance Ans: 800 Watt, 600 VAR, 1000 VA and 8 Ω
18. Each phase of a Delta connected load consist of a resistance 25 Ω, an inductance 0.15 H and
a capacitance of 120 µF in series. The load is connected across 400V, 50 Hz, 3-phase supply.
Determine line current, power factor and active power
Ans: 23.64 A, PF = 0.853 lagg and 13.974 KW
19. An inductive coil of impedance Z = 6+8j Ω is connected to 100V, 50HZ ac supply. It is desired
to improve power factor of supply current to 0.8 lagging by connecting a capacitor (i) in series
with coil and (ii) in parallel of coil. Find the value of capacitor in each case.
Ans: 909.45 µF and 111.4 µF
20. If in fig shown below given values are in ohms and the voltmeter reads 60 V find the reading
of ammeter.

Ans: 22.47 A

SUMMARY
1. The expression of voltage and current in a pure resistive circuit is given by
𝐕𝐦
𝐯 = 𝐕𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 & 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭. where 𝐈𝐦 = 𝐑
. The average power consumption of
𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎
circuit is given by 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝟐
= 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∗ 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬

2. The expression of voltage and current in a pure inductive circuit is given by

𝐕𝐦
𝐯 = 𝐕𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 & 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝝅/𝟐)).where 𝐈𝐦 = 𝐗𝐋
& 𝐗 𝐋 = ꞷ𝑳. The circuit

current lags voltage by 90˚. The average power consumption of circuit is 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝟎.
3. The expression of voltage and current in a pure capacitive circuit is given by
𝐕𝐦
𝐯 = 𝐕𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 & 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + 𝝅/𝟐).where𝐈𝐦 = 𝐗𝐂
& 𝐗 𝐂 = 𝟏/ꞷ𝑪.

The circuit current leads voltage by 90˚. The average power consumption of circuit is 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝟎.
4. The expression of voltage and current in a series RL circuit is given by
𝐕𝐦
𝐯 = 𝐕𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 & 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − ɸ) where 𝐈𝐦 = 𝐙
& 𝐙 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝑳 𝟐 . The

circuit current lags voltage by ɸ˚. Which is given by

𝑽𝑳 𝑿𝑳
ɸ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) 𝒐𝒓 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑽𝑹 𝑹

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
The average power consumption of circuit is 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∗ 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐂𝐨𝐬ɸ .
5. The expression of voltage and current in a series RC circuit is given by
𝐕𝐦
𝐯 = 𝐕𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 & 𝐢 = 𝐈𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + ɸ) where 𝐈𝐦 = & 𝐙 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑿𝑪 𝟐 The circuit
𝐙

current leads voltage by ɸ˚. Which is given by

𝑽 𝑿
i. ɸ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝑪 ) 𝒐𝒓 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝑪 ) 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑽𝑹 𝑹

6. The average power consumption of circuit is 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 ∗ 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐂𝐨𝐬ɸ

7. Power in a AC circuit can be of three types which can be classified as follows
i. Apparent Power (S) 𝐒 = 𝐕 ∗ 𝐈 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭 𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐊𝐕𝐀
ii. Active Power (P) 𝐏 = 𝐕 ∗ 𝐈 ∗ 𝐂𝐨𝐬ɸ 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐊𝐖
iii. Reactive Power(Q) 𝐐 = 𝐕 ∗ 𝐈 ∗ 𝐒𝐢𝐧ɸ 𝐕𝐀𝐑 𝐨𝐫 𝐊𝐕𝐀𝐑
8. Power factor of a circuit is defined as the the ratio of Active power to the apparent power.
𝐏
𝐂𝐨𝐬ɸ = The power factor is the measure of power which is successfully delivered to the load
𝐒

from the source

9. For RLC series circuit the circuit impedance is given by 𝐙 = 𝐑 + 𝐣 (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 ) or
𝐙 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 and the circuit current is given by 𝐈 = 𝐕/𝐙. The nature of RLC
series circuit depends upon the Net Reactance of circuit. 𝐗 𝐍𝐞𝐭 = 𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂
i. If XL > XC Then circuit current Lags behind the applied voltage by phase
𝑿𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝐗 𝐋 −𝐗 𝐂
angle ɸ given by ɸ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( ) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏( )
𝑹 𝑹

ii. If XL < XC Then circuit current Leads the applied voltage by phase angle ɸ
𝑿𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋
given by ɸ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝑹
) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏( 𝑹
)

iii. If XL = XC Then circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage and the
phase angle of the circuit is ɸ = 𝟎˚
10. A RLC series circuit is said to be in Electrical Resonance when net reactance of circuit is Zero
i.e 𝐗 𝐍𝐞𝐭 = 𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 = 𝟎.
𝟏
11. The resonating frequency of RLC series circuit is given by 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪 independent of Circuit

resistance.
12. The impedance of RLC series circuit at resonance is minimum and purely resistive in nature.
𝒁𝒐 = 𝑹 . Due to minimum impedance at resonance this circuit is also known as Acceptor circuit.
13. Quality factor of a coil is given by ratio of reactance to resistance of the coil.
𝑿𝑳
𝑸𝒐 = 𝑹
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ɸ It is a unit less quantity.

14. Quality factor of RLC series circuit is defined as the voltage magnification ratio of the circuit.
𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝐟𝟎
15. Q factor at resonance is given by 𝐐𝐨 = 𝐑 = = =
𝚫𝛚 𝛚𝟐 −𝛚𝟏 𝐟𝟐 −𝐟𝟏
𝐋

𝟏 𝑳
16. Q factor in terms of components of RLC series circuit is given by 𝐐𝐨 = √
𝑹 𝑪

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
17. Q factor is directly proportional to the Selectivity of RLC series circuit and inversely
proportional to the Bandwidth.
18. Selectivity of RLC circuit is inversely proportional to the Bandwidth.
19. Bandwidth of RLC series circuit is given by band of frequencies which lies on either side of
resonating frequency where the circuit current reduces to 1/√2 times its value at resonance. It
𝐑 𝐑
is given by 𝚫𝐰 = 𝐋
𝐫𝐚𝐝/𝐬𝐞𝐜 or 𝚫𝐟 = 𝟐𝛑𝐋
𝐇𝐳

20. By decreasing circuit resistance, we can increase the selectivity and quality factor of a RLC
circuit and reduce its bandwidth
𝐑 𝐑
21. The corner frequencies of RLC circuit is given by 𝐟𝟏 = 𝐟𝟎 − 𝟒𝛑𝐋
& 𝐟𝟐 = 𝐟𝟎 + 𝟒𝛑𝐋
𝟏
22. Admittance (Y) is defined as the reciprocal of impedance 𝐘 = 𝐙
Ω−𝟏 Like impedance,

admittance has two component Conductance (G) and Susceptance (B) defined as
𝐆 = 𝐘 𝐂𝐨𝐬ɸ & 𝐁 = 𝐘 𝐒𝐢𝐧ɸ Ω−𝟏 The sign of Inductive susceptance is negative and
capacitive susceptance is positive.
23. Admittances can be added directly when added in parallel
24. A parallel circuit is said to be in resonance when the reactive component of circuit current is

𝟏 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐
zero. The expression for resonating frequency of parallel circuit is given by 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝑳𝑪 − 𝑳𝟐

25. The impedance of RLC parallel circuit at resonance is maximum and purely resistive in nature.
𝐋
𝐙𝐨 = . Due to maximum impedance at resonance this circuit is also known as Rejector
𝐂𝐑

circuit
26. Quality factor of RLC parallel circuit is defined as the Current magnification ratio of
𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑿𝑳
the circuit 𝑸𝒐 = 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
= 𝑹
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ɸ Where ɸ is power factor angle of coil formed

by the series combination of R and L.

27. A 3-phase supply system is said to be balanced when it satisfies following conditions
i. Amplitude of all phase voltages should be same
ii. Angular velocity of all the phase voltages should be same
iii. All phase voltages should be displaced from each other by 120˚
28. A balanced 3-phase supply system can be developed from a set of 3 identical coils, mounted on
same shaft mechanically displaced from each other by 120˚ and being rotated in a common
magnetic field.
29. RYB is positive phase sequence and RBY is negative phase sequence.
30. A 3-phase load is said to be balanced when load is same in magnitude as well as in nature
across all the three phases. A balanced load across a balanced supply will develop balanced
currents in 3 phase system.
31. In a 3-phase ac circuit Star point of neutral point is formed by joining the similar ends of all the
three coils.

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 UNIT-2, Steady State Analysis of AC Circuits
32. In Star connection the phase voltage is measured between any line terminal to neutral wire and
line voltage is measured between any two line terminals
33. For a Star connected 3-phase system 𝐕𝐋 = √𝟑 𝐕𝐩𝐡 & 𝐈𝐋 = 𝐈𝐩𝐡
34. In Delta connections there is no neutral point. For a delta connected system we have
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉 & 𝑰𝑳 = √𝟑𝑰𝒑𝒉
35. The total power consumption across all the phases of a 3-phase system is given by
𝑷 = √𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑪𝒐𝒔ɸ where ɸ is power factor angle of any individual phase.
36. The apparent and reactive power for a 3-phase circuit is given by
𝑺 = √𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝐊𝐕𝐀 & 𝑸 = √𝟑 𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝑺𝒊𝒏ɸ 𝑲𝑽𝑨𝑹

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