Topic # 12 Endocrine System

The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation of body
activities. The nervous system acts through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters to
cause muscle contraction and glandular secretion. The effect is of short duration, measured in
seconds, and localized. The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called
hormones that influence growth, development, and metabolic activities. The action of the
endocrine system is measured in minutes, hours, or weeks and is more generalized than the
action of the nervous system.

Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretory product to a surface. These glands include
the sweat, sebaceous, and mammary glands and, the glands that secrete digestive enzymes.

Endocrine Glands
The endocrine glands do not have ducts to carry their product to a surface. They are called
ductless glands. The word endocrine is derived from the Greek terms "endo," meaning within,
and "krine," meaning to separate or secrete. The secretory products of endocrine glands are
called hormones and are secreted directly into the blood and then carried throughout the body
where they influence only those cells that have receptor sites for that hormone.

The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones, chemical
substances produced in the body that regulate the activity of cells or organs. These hormones
regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the physical and chemical processes of the body), and
sexual development and function. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and may
affect one or several organs throughout the body.

Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They transfer information from one
set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of the body.

The major glands of the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids,
adrenals, pineal body, and the reproductive organs (ovaries and testes). The pancreas is also a
part of this system; it has a role in hormone production as well as in digestion.

The endocrine system is regulated by feedback in much the same way that a thermostat
regulates the temperature in a room. For the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland,
a signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form of a "releasing
hormone," which stimulates the pituitary to secrete a "stimulating hormone" into the circulation.
The stimulating hormone then signals the target gland to secrete its hormone. As the level of
this hormone rises in the circulation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland shut down
secretion of the releasing hormone and the stimulating hormone, which in turn slows the
secretion by the target gland. This system results in stable blood concentrations of the
hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland.

Animal hormones are often (though not always) produced in specialized hormone-
synthesizing glands. The hormones are then secreted from the glands into the
blood stream, where they are transported throughout the body. There are many
glands and hormones in different animal species, and we will focus on just a small
collection of them.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that secretes hormones that regulate body temperature
and metabolism. The hypothalamus is located in the lower central part of the brain. This part of
the brain is important in regulation of satiety, metabolism, and body temperature. In a
Hypothalamus releasing hormones signal secretion of stimulating hormones. The hypothalamus
also secretes a hormone called somatostatin, which causes the pituitary gland to stop the
release of growth hormone.

Hypothalamus integrates the endocrine and nervous systems; receives input from the body and
other brain areas and initiates endocrine responses to environmental changes; synthesizes
hormones which are stored in the posterior pituitary gland; also synthesizes and secretes
regulatory hormones that control the endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary gland.
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)

The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain beneath the hypothalamus and is no larger
than a pea. It is often considered the most important part of the endocrine system because it
produces hormones that control many functions of other endocrine glands. When the pituitary
gland does not produce one or more of its hormones or not enough of them, it is called
hypopituitarism.

Pituitary gland is the body’s master gland; located at the base of the brain and attached to the
hypothalamus via a stalk called the pituitary stalk; has two distinct regions: the anterior portion
of the pituitary gland is regulated by releasing or release-inhibiting hormones produced by the
hypothalamus, and the posterior pituitary receives signals via neurosecretory cells to release
hormones produced by the hypothalamus.

The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The
anterior lobe (adrenohypophysis) produces the following hormones and released in response
to hormone signals from the hypothalamus.

Growth hormone: Stimulates growth of bone and tissue (Growth hormone

deficiency results in growth failure. Growth hormone deficiency in adults results in
problems in maintaining proper amounts of body fat and muscle and bone mass. It is
also involved in emotional well-being.)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid

hormones (A lack of thyroid hormones either because of a defect in the pituitary or the
thyroid itself is called hypothyroidism).

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH: Stimulates adrenal glands to secrete

glucocorticoids such as cortisol.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Hormones that

control sexual function and production of the sex steroids, estrogen
and progesterone in females or testosterone in males

Prolactin: Hormone that stimulates milk production in females

The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) produces the following hormones, which are not
regulated by the hypothalamus:

Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Promotes reabsorption of water by kidneys

(controls water loss)
Oxytocin: Induces uterine contractions during labor and milk release from mammary
glands during suckling; stored in posterior pituitary.

The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are actually produced in the brain and carried
to the pituitary gland through nerves. They are stored in the pituitary gland.

Thyroid Gland
Thyroid gland: butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck; regulated by the hypothalamus-
pituitary axis; produces hormones involved in regulating metabolism and growth:
Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): increase the basal metabolic rate, affect
protein synthesis and other metabolic processes, help regulate long bone growth
(synergy with growth hormone).
Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands are two pairs of small glands embedded in the surface of the thyroid
gland, one pair on each side. They release parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in
regulating calcium levels in the blood and bone metabolism.

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands: two glands, each located on one kidney; consist of adrenal cortex (outer layer)
and adrenal medulla (inner layer), which each produce different sets of hormones:
 Adrenal cortex:
 mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone: increases reabsorption of sodium by kidneys
to regulate water balance
 glucocorticoids, such as cortisol and related hormones: long-term stress response
hormones that increase blood glucose levels by stimulating synthesis of glucose and
gluconeogenesis (converting a non-carbohydrate to glucose) by liver cells; promote
the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue

 Adrenal medulla:
 epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline): short-term stress
response (“fight-or-flight”) hormones that increase heart rate, breathing rate, cardiac
muscle contractions, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; accelerate the
breakdown of glucose in skeletal muscles and stored fats in adipose tissue; release
of epinephrine and norepinephrine is stimulated directly by neural impulses from the
sympathetic nervous system

Gonads: produce sex steroid hormones that promote development of secondary sex
characteristics and regulation of gonad function:

Ovaries: In females, the ovaries, located on both sides of the uterus, produce estrogen and
progesterone as well as eggs. These hormones control the development of female
characteristics (for example, breast growth), and they are also involved in reproductive functions
(for example, menstruation, pregnancy).

 estradiol/estrogen: regulates development and maintenance of ovarian and

menstrual cycles
 progesterone: prepares uterus for pregnancy

Testes : In males, the testes, located in the scrotum, secrete hormones called androgens; the
most important of which is testosterone. These hormones affect many male characteristics (for
example, sexual development, growth of facial hair and pubic hair) as well as sperm production.
Testosterone is produced by the interstitial cells (Leydig) located between the seminiferous
tubules which produce the sperm.

Pancreas

Pancreas is located between the stomach and the proximal portion of the small intestine; The
pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions. One part of the pancreas, the exocrine
pancreas, secretes digestive enzymes. The other part of the pancreas, the endocrine pancreas,
secretes hormones called insulin and glucagon. These hormones regulate the level of glucose
(sugar) in the blood.

 insulin: decreases blood glucose levels by promoting uptake of glucose by liver and
muscle cells and conversion to glycogen (a sugar storage molecule)
 glucagon: increases blood glucose levels by promoting breakdown of glycogen and
release of glucose from the liver and muscle

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland, or pineal body is located in the middle of the brain. It secretes a hormone
called melatonin, which is involved in the regulation of the circadian rhythm (daily physiological
and behavioral changes).

Thymus.

Thymus is a large mass of lymphoid tissue located in the upper part of the chest and covering
the great vessels at the base of the heart. It is indicated that the thymus is the source of the
lymphoid cells that are liberated into the circulation and are responsible for the production of
antibodies in the spleen and lymph nodes.