1. Explain the idea of covenant in the Pentateuch.

Introduction:
A covenant is an agreement enacted between two parties in which one or both make promises
under oath to perform or refrain from certain actions, stipulated in advance.
As given by the two sections in the Bible - the Old Testament and New Testament (diatheke)
Covenant is the major metaphor used in the Bible to describe the relationship between God
and his people.
Problem with understanding Covenant Today
 The word 'covenant ' is not used much today, except perhaps for legal terms, and
also covenant-based relationships have become almost obsolete, except perhaps
for Marriage.
The development of the notion of Covenant in Israelite history has two contending
positions:
(a) It developed at the beginning of ancient Israel (Moses) as an adaptation of Late Bronze
Age suzerainty treaty form.
(b) It developed at the later time of the monarchy - either introduced by the classical prophets
or Josiah, as an adaptation of "Iron Age ' loyalty oath' " (McCarthy holds this view)
The idea of Covenant is fundamental to the Bible's story.
At its most basic, the covenant presents God's desire to enter into a relationship with men &
women created in his image and likeness. This is echoed in the repeated covenant refrain - 'I
will be your G and you will be my people' Ex 6:6-8; Lev 26:12, etc. Thus, Covenant is all
about the relationship between the Creator and his creation.
Covenant begins (explicitly at least) with the Noah event in the priestly of the Bk of Genesis.
Covenant is essential to God's gracious dealings with his people after the fall. The covenant is
central to the Abraham narrative, which marks the beginning of salvation history.
The Creator God has a plan to restore relationships with his people and this plan works by
way of covenant
The Abraham’s covenant is extended to his descendants Isaac and Jacob before being
expanded to the nation of Israel via Moses, the mediator of the Sinai covenant.
The 'law-based' covenant is reapplied to a new covenant before Israel's entry into the land
(Deuteronomy).
The next major change comes in the form of the covenant with David (2 Sam). The promise
of an eternal line of kings, instruments of YHWH. Yet through it the development of the idea
of covenant in the OT, there is a recurring problem with covenants.
-Hence, we come across the discussion of a 'new' covenant in the Prophets (Jer, Is.), a
promise of a relationship that will lead to a change of heart. By this allusion to a radically
different Covenant, there is prepared for the new covenant acts and the guarantee of a
restored relationship with God.
II Etymology
-The Hb word Berit is translated as 'Covenant'. The Septuagint uses the word διαθήκη
(diatheke) to translate Berit which means 'testament'. The word Berit occurs 286 times in the
OT. There is no consensus on the origin of the word. The most probable is the Akkadian
'biritu' which means 'bond' or 'fetter' Akin to 'barah' to eat
"There is an ambivalence in understanding" English meaning of Berit. Normally, covenant
would mean an agreement with mutual consent. But Gen 6:18 does not fit this 'consent'; but is
rather a one-sided divine annunciation. Thus, if we factor in the ambivalence, Berit can also
mean 'mutual agreement' 'unilateral covenant' 'solemn obligation' 'vow' 'promise' or the like.
III The Form of the Covenant
-There is scholarly debate as to whether the Covenant form is an adaptation of Later Bronze
age, a suzerain treaty, or Iron age 'loyalty oath'. We look at the structure of both:
The Nature of Ancient Covenants
by their very nature, covenants were complex enactments which combined:
(1) Historical events that create relationships, usually between unequal partners.
(2) Customary ways of thinking characteristic of both parties, especially common religious
ideas associated with deities
(3) Description of norms for future behaviour.
(4) Literary or oral forms in which the agreement is couched
(5) Almost always some ritual act that is regarded as essential to the "ratification of the treaty
premise.
Since covenants are typically enacted between parties to create relationships that did not
previously exist, both, the substance & the form of the covenant must be valid and
meaningful to both.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE LB AGE TREATIES
It was the Bronze Age that produced the most highly developed structure of international
treaties. Although these treaties are known primarily through Hittite sources, there is no
evidence that the Hittites originated this treaty form. The structural similarity was pointed out
by Mendenhall in 1954. The structure is as follows:
i. Identification of the Covenant Giver
"The introduction to the treaty text usually began with the formula 'The words of (King’s
Name ) followed by the name of the Hittite king, his genealogy, his titles, with the epithet
'the hero.'
ii. The Historical Prologue
-The Hittite king recounted his past deeds to the vassal. This served as a foundation for the
presentation of the obligation of the vassal to be obedient to the stipulations of the covenant.
iii. The Stipulations
-This section, often phrased as "if....then..." statement, described the interests of the king
which the vassal is bound to protect & obey under a covenantal prelateship.
iv. The Provision for Deposit and Periodic Reading.
-A copy of the treaty was deposited in the temple of the local deity of the vassal, and placed
under its protection. This recognized the treaty as a sacred act.
-The provision for public reading meant that the treaty was made with the vassal king & also
binding upon the population over which he ruled.
v. The List of Witnesses to the Treaty
-The treaty also listed 'third parties' who witness the enactment of the treaty.
-These witnesses were deities or deified elements of the natural world.
Thus, it was hoped that the vassals' obedience would be based on conscientious regard for
higher principles (the gods) rather than simply upon the fear of superior military forces.
vi. The Blessings and Curses
This section of the treaty described in detail the consequences of obedience & disobedience
to the treaty - the rewards and punishments which the witnesses awarded the vassal.
vii. The Ratification Ceremony
Mere writing of the treaty text did not bring the treaty into existence, but a ratification
through formal rituals was always carried out. It was frequently associated with the sacrifice
of an animal.
viii. The Imposition of Curses
-Though there is no certain evidence for a ritual form that effectively imposed the curses for
breach of covenant, it seems probable that such a custom did exist.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE IRON AGE LOYALTY OATHS
In recent decades this form of treaties have been recovered, especially from the Assyrian
Empire. The structure of the Iron age loyalty oaths includes:
i. The preamble
"The name and titles of the Assyrian king and the name of the vassal who is placed under
oath, together with his descendants & population of his realm.
ii. The designation of the Assyrian ruler to whom loyalty is due
iii. The invocation of the deities in whose presence the vassal swears.
iv. The definition of the act of commission or omission that subjects the vassal to the curses
v. The curses or brought upon the disobedient vassal by each deity
In summary we can say that the Later Bronz age is international treaties exhibit a
sophistication & detail that largely lost in the Iron age.
In comparison, the treaties of the Iron age seem to have been based mostly on mere military
power reinforced by superstition.
IV. Covenants in the Pentateuch
Sinai Covenant
There is a scholarly debate whether the Sinai Covenant was indeed a historical reality or a
literary construction of the later Monarchical Period.
If the former position is accepted then the relationship between Later Bronze age treaties &
Sinai Covenant is historically significant and we can conclude that the "Sinai Covenant was
conceived as a type of Suzerain treaty establishing YHWH as King and Israel as Vassal.
If the latter is accepted, then the real relationship between Sinai Covenant & Later Bronz age
treaties is coincidental and the real source of inspiration must be sought in the Monarchic
period, specifically at the time of the Assyrian Empire.
Sinai Covenant in the form of LB treaties
a. Identification & Historical Prologue
Ex 20:2 - "I am the LORD your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the
house of bondage"
b. Stipulations:
The Ten Commandments (20:3-17)
c. Deposit & Public Reading, Witnesses, Blessings & Curses
No Temple (no deposit and/or public reading)
Monotheism - no other gods (as witnesses)
Blessings and Curses - Deut 28
d. Ratification Ceremony
Verbal Assent - Ex 19:8
Sacrifice of animal - Ex 24:5-8
This can also be understood in the simple tripartite form of obligations, God's promises, and
signs.
Obligations:
Ten Commandments (20:3-17)
Promises:
Israel becomes YHWH's particular possession out of the kingdoms of the earth.
A Kingdom of Priests, a Holy Nation (Ex 19:6)
Sign: Sabbath (Ex 31:12-17)
Blessings for observance of the cov and imprecation for its violation.
Covenant with Noah (Gen 9:6f)
Obligations: The prohibition of eating blood & homicide.
God's Promises: Not to destroy humankind again by a flood (Gen 9:11)
Sign: Rainbow in the clouds (Gen 9:12)
Covenant with Abraham
God's promises: multiplication of offspring & inherence of promised land.
Sign: circumcision (Gen 17:10)
As a product of the period of united monarchy, the covenant with Abraham is a part of the
same ideological matrix that brought about David’s Charter.
It is probable that the Abrahamic covenant itself went through at least 2 versions and more
probably three (Mendenhall).
With the fall of Monarchy (586 BCE), the charter had to be revised – the population as a
whole became recipients of the promise of Gen 15, where "seed of Abraham" is now much
more than merely David and his descendants.
The final adaptation of the Abrahamic tradition" is illustrated in Gen 17 where the covenant
is sealed by the ritual of circumcision a marker that designates the recipients of the promise.
From here on circumcision & covenant became virtually identified in the Jewish tradition,
with the Later word Berit having both meanings.
The 'New Covenant'
A new covenant taking the place of the original covenant Israel broke is one of the
fundamental element in Covenantal B/Theology.
Ex. 32-34 describes the breaking of the covenant by the worshippers of the golden calf and
the sub [subsequent] [renewal] of the covenant.
And the foundation of "a new covenant is important in the OT from earlier on
B) Jer 31:31-34
Old Sinai Covenant it was a covenant with persons of civil, with social/political entities.
The structure however has a discontinuity from the old covenant tradition. There is no
historical prologue, but a prediction of the future acts of God which consists of "forgiveness".
The restoration" of the relationship with God is the only benefit mentioned.
There are neither oaths, nor curses or blessings, nor witnesses or any other elements such as
deposit, public reading, ramification rituals, etc.
Instead, the torah will be written on their hearts. This implies a complete internalisation of the
divine will which makes unnecessary the entire machinery of external enforcement.
The community thus, envisioned is not maintained by social control, but maintained by God
Himself.
VI. Covenant Today
The Covenant between YHWH and the Israelites includes a sacred banquet (Ex 24:9-11)
where the elders of Israel went up the mountain and ate and drank in the presence of YHWH.
Sharing with God the flesh of the sacred victim is an integral part of the rite, which seals the
ratification of the covenant.
Thus, Jesus initiates the New Covenant through a banquet.
The Paschal Meal was the most sacred meal in the life of the Israelites.
The Prophets also connected the idea of the covenant with that of a banquet at the Messianic
Feast (Is 25:6-12).
The meal is a sense of conviviality, not just rejoicing, but in the deep sharing of life.
Food keeps us alive, and those who eat at the same table partake in a common sacrificial
meal.
Hence, the deep significance of Christ’s New Covenant within the framework of a meal—this
new people of God draw their communion from the banquet which marks entry into the New
Covenant.
Thus he realities & fulfil" of the OT foreshadow, replace and prepare the NT, while
preserving their profound inner meaning in the very act of sublimely transcending them.
(E) Marriage as Covenant
The narrative of the covenant between Jacob and Laban (Gen 31:43-54) seems to involve
marriage relationships.
Also Malachi uses the word 'covenant' in reference to the 'wife of one's youth' (Mal 2:14-15).
Here, YHWH is explicitly acknowledged to be a witness bet" the two parties of the Marriage,
and there are clear allusions to obligations and curses.
In the Catholic Church as the idea of Marriage as a Sacrament evolved, it was initially
conceived in legal and formal terms as a contract.
This was partly due to the problem of Clandestine Marriages during the Council of Trent,
which regarded the public celebration of Marriage with 2 witnesses and a minister (Tametsi
Decree).
But from the very onset Marriage was understood as a sign of the Covenant relation of God
between Christ and the Church (Eph 5:26-27). Hence its indissolubility. It was with Vat II
(GS 48), that Marriage was termed a covenant.
2. Describe the understanding & identity of personified wisdom in Wisdom Literature.
How was the Wisdom tradition able to provide language and imagery with which the
early Christians could articulate the saving significance and role of Jesus? Comment on
Col 1:15-20 in this regard.
I Introduction
There are Seven books which are regarded as belonging to the Wisdom Tradition: Job,
Psalms, Proverbs, Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes), Ben Sira (Sirach/Ecclesiasticus), Song of Songs
(Song of Solomon) and Wisdom (Wisdom of Solomon).
The Hebrew word term for wisdom 'hokmah' appears 141 times in the Masoretic Text and
more than half of these are in Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes.
The Deutero-Canonical books Wisdom of Solomon and Ben Sira use the Greek Sophia
(Sophia) for wisdom. The personification of Wisdom is something fascinating in the Hebrew
Bible. R.E. Murphy who has written frequently on this subject says 'From a literary,
theological point of view, personified wisdom is simply unequalled in the entire OT.'
Personified Wisdom occurs in the following passages of scripture:
Proverbs 1:20-33; 4:4-5; 8:1-36; 9:1-6
Job 28:12-28
Baruch 3:9-4:4
Sirach 1:1-10; 6:18-31; 24:1-24
Wis 6:12-10:12
Of all these texts, the texts in Proverbs are the earliest examples of personification of Wisdom
in post-exilic Jewish literature.
II Origin of Personified Wisdom
In Biblical exegesis, the consensus is that the image of Wisdom is a poetic personification.
Personification is a subgenre of the poetic form of the metaphor and originates through an
interaction between a 'source' and a 'target'.
The target is personified Wisdom herself. The source cannot be clearly identified. Since
personified Wisdom is a figure of the divine sphere, the source could be God, gods or
goddesses.
There are three major approaches in understanding the origin of personified Wisdom. (1)
Historical Approach (2) Sociological Approach (3) Literary Approach
(1) Historical Approach - Ancient Near Eastern Influence
The wisdom literature of Egypt on the subject of personified Wisdom has been of great
interest to scholars. Many scholars believe that the Biblical writers derived their idea of the
personification of Lady Wisdom from the Egyptian goddess Ma'at. Ma'at is a central concept
in the Egyptian view of life and the world. Ma'at may be translated as 'order', 'truth', or
'justice' As a goddess Ma'at was the daughter of the sun god Re.
She held a prominent position within the pantheon because all other deities are subject to her,
the cosmic principle. She is also one of the patron deities of royal order. Scholars show that
the Israelite sages borrowed Egyptian wisdom teaching. The strongest evidence is in the
adaptation of the teachings of Amenemope in Prov 22:17-23:11.
Scholars have also found strong similarity between personified Wisdom and Ma'at. (1) Like
Ma'at, personified wisdom stands like a goddess next to the creator God and is co-creator of
the cosmos. (2) She is also connected to kingship because in Prov 8:15-16 and Wis 6:1-11
she appeals to the political leaders. (3) Job 28 presents 'hokmah' as a type of cosmic order.
(1) The personification of Wisdom as female is unique in the Hebrew Bible. Its unique
nature gives rise to a number of questions, the most striking of being 'Why?'
(2) Although extended personification of Wisdom is unique in the Bible, personification of
virtues is something we find quite often. Eg: Ps 85:10 "Steadfast love and faithfulness will
meet; righteousness and peace will kiss each other."
These personifications in Psalms are seen by Crenshaw as 'small steps to personified
Wisdom.'
Sociological Approach
This approach understands personified Wisdom as having been influenced by the social
trends within Israel, especially concerning the social role of Israelite women.
"Claudia Camp" has been the most prominent scholar to follow this approach.
She identifies six female types that influenced the personification of wisdom: the wife, the
lover, the harlot, the wise woman, the woman who influenced God's final decisions, and the
woman who authenticates written tradition. She understands that the position of women in
post-exilic Jewish society would have changed quite significantly – for their role would have
been quite central, as monarchy was destroyed and the family would emerge as the central
element in society.
The primary place where the faith could be taught and handed on would have been in the
family.
Prov 1:8 "Hear my child your father's instruction and do not reject your mother's teaching."
Thus for Camp, the figure of Lady Wisdom was the result of the social roles played by
Israelite women.
(3) Literary Approach
B.W. Anderson sees personified Wisdom in Prov 8:22-36 as a metaphor which explores
God's relationship to the world and to humanity. In the literal sense, personification is the
endowing of non-human objects, abstractions, creatures with life and human characteristics.
Personified Wisdom is placed in different settings such as the marketplace, at the city gates,
even sitting by the throne of God. She also performs actions.
Wasserman summarizes the literary device as follows: "Personification is a means of clothing
the universe in imagery effective to the senses, of transferring the abstract of the intellect to
the imagination." The biblical writers used the personification of Wisdom to describe the
Wisdom of God anthropomorphically, in presenting not an inert divine attribute but a God
who communicates with all creation and in particular, with human beings.
III Personification of Wisdom in Wisdom Literature (1) Proverbs
The main question here is 'Why is wisdom personified as a woman?' Why in a patriarchal
culture, in a book written for the instruction of young men, is the goal of the instruction, the
gaining of wisdom, presented in female form?
As far as the dating of the Bk of Proverbs goes, scholars argue that the bulk of the book (chs
1-9) could have come form the time of monarchy. Many scholars agree however that the from
(prov 1-9 and 31: 1-31 ) were composed in the post-exilic period.
It cannot be ignored that the Book of Proverbs is androcentric (in that the main audience is
young men seeking to learn from their elders). The simplest explanation for the
personification of Wisdom as a woman in the context of teaching young, excitable men, is
that it is a pedagogical device.
So wisdom is made an attractive woman with whom one could be secure & raise a family.
The hearers are invited into a long-term relationship with the wise woman and warned against
entering into a relationship with the other woman (women of folly). It is notable that at the
beginning of Proverbs, the early courtship is hinted, but by the end of the book of Proverbs,
we have an image of a wonderful wife - the 'prize' for those who follow wisdom.
This personification seeks to connect God and woman, the human, concrete, this-worldly
with the divine, universal, other-worldly; to connect YHWH with the street, the house, love,
the Wisdom tradition, and the life of the Israelite Woman.
(2) Sirach
Personified Wisdom appears in all parts of Sirach and therefore plays an important role for
the whole writing. Large text passages at the beginning, middle, and end of the book are
dedicated to her. She appears right in the introduction - Sir 1:1-27. In Sirach 24, she gives a
long speech in which she praises herself. This chapter forms the book's center and connects
the two halves. In the appendix, personified Wisdom is again praised by the wisdom teacher
and author of the book (Sir 51:13-26). Additionally there are also 'wisdom poems' in the
book. Eg: Sir 6:18-37.
In Sir 1:10-20, personified wisdom is closely connected to the 'fear of God' (Prov 1:7).
In Sir 6:18-37 the relationship between wisdom and education is emphasized. In Sir 24:1-22,
she speaks in a style of sacred biography. She emphasizes that she was created by God and
then unfolds her connection to Israel's history. At the end of the Book in Sir 51:13-26, the
wisdom teacher looks back on his life with wisdom and praises her.
(3) Wisdom of Solomon
The Book of Wisdom, like Sirach, attempts to create a synthesis of Israelite and Hellenistic
thought. Personified Wisdom is the dominant figure in the first part (Wis1:1-11:1) and
appears at least implicitly in the other parts. In Wis 9:7-8, the book's speaker claims to be
king Solomon. The Hymn on Wisdom (Wis 6:22-11:1) speaks explicitly about personified
Wisdom. It praises her being, her works."
She was already present at the beginning of creation (WIS 6:22) and knows all of creation as
she is the 'master craftswoman'. Thus personified wisdom appears as God's co-creator.
Personified Wisdom in Wisdom of Solomon differs in some points from Proverbs and Sirach:
(1) She is portrayed as a historically powerful being who intervenes on behalf of the people
(10:1-11:1). (2) She is connected to immortality which Solomon hopes to attain by making
right decisions and acting properly. (Wis 8:13,17). (3) Personified Wisdom does not have her
own voice in the book does not present any first-person speeches and she instead appears
only in the speeches of 'Solomon'.
IV. Jesus and Wisdom
The Gospels speak of personified Wisdom in connection to Jesus. Lk 11:49 says "Therefore
also the Wisdom of God said, 'I will send them prophets and apostles, some of whom they
will kill and persecute.'" Jesus spoke of wisdom and her works, that she is the one who 'sent
prophets and apostles'. Yet Matthew records Jesus speaking these words in the first person
(Mt 23:34) "Therefore I send you prophets and wise men and scribes...." thus recognizing that
Jesus himself was the Wisdom of God.
Celia Deutsch explains that this substitution of 'I' for the 'Sophia of God' makes explicit the"
"presentation of Jesus as personified Wisdom.
(Also, in Lk 7:35, Jesus says "Yet wisdom is justified by all her children." This text gains
significance in understanding Jesus as the wisdom of God, when we examine the context. In
the previous verse, Jesus is accused of being a glutton and a friend of tax collectors and
sinners. He is accused based on whom he is associating with. Yet by his 'children'—i.e. his
accomplishments which include association with all people and calling them to repentance,
and revealing to them the love of God—he is justified.
(3) Prologue of John and Wisdom Tradition
There are many similarities between the Logos of the Prologue of the Gospel of John, and
Sophia of the Wisdom Tradition:
Pre-existence is common to both (Jn1:1; Prov8:22)
The difference: Logos→begotten, Wisdom→created.
(2) Both are said to be with God (Jn1:1; Prov 8:30) (3) Both are said to be Divine (Jn1:1; Wis
7:26) (4) Both are said to be instruments of creation (Jn1:3; Prov 8:30) (5) Both are called the
Source of Life (Jn 1:4; Prov 8:35) (6) Neither can be overcome by darkness & evil (Jn1:5;
Wis 7:30) (7) Both continually come into the world (Jn1:9; Wis 6:13) (8) Both are rejected by
humans generally (Jn1:10-11; Bar 3:10-12) (9) Both create a relationship with God among
those who are receptive (Jn1:12-13; Wis 7:27) (10) Both appeared on earth and lived among
humans making a tabernacle among them (Jn1:14; Bar 3:37)"(11) Both possess glory as
monogenes (unique) (Jn1:14; Wis 7:22) (12) Both know God and make him known
(exegegeus) (Jn1:18; Wis 8:3)
(4) Paul
Beyond the gospels, Paul provides the most explicit identification, calling Jesus 'the wisdom
of God' (1Cor1:24). There are some reasons why the fourth Gospel chooses to use Logos
over Sophia: (1) Logos is masculine while Sophia is feminine, and the evangelist needed a
masculine noun to explain the incarnation. (2) Possibility that Jn is influenced by the way the
first book in the Septuagint begins - en arche (in the beginning)
There is a continuity between the Word who was in the beginning with God, and the Word of
Life.
V. Col 1:15-20 (1) Sources (a) R. Bultmann attributes the origins of the passage to pre-
Christian gnosticism, primarily to a gnostic redeemer myth. (b) Ralph Martin holds that the
text is a pre-Pauline Christian composition embodying a tribute set in a hymnic form, which
the writer borrows from liturgy that was familiar to both himself and his readers. (c) Some
scholars argue that the passage is a "Pauline composition, a midrashic exposition from the
mind of Paul. midrashic (2) Structure (a) The majority opinion is that the passage is hymnic
or liturgical in form. In terms of the actual structure however, the opinion is divided. (b) C.F.
Burney offered the thesis that in Col 1:16-18, Paul was giving a midrashic exposition of the
first word in Genesis 1:1.
(3) Category of Thought (a) The position of Bultmann leads to the of gnostic redeemer myth
leads to the understanding of the thought being Hellenistic.
B.S. Fossum has attacked this view that a gnostic redeemer myth underlies Col 1:15-20, on
the basis of a lack of evidence that such a myth existed before time of Mani.
Rather, he posits the influence of the Jewish tradition out of which both Christianity and
gnosticism emerged, especially that of Jewish mysticism. (b) H. Ridderbos ascribes the
background of Col 1:15-20 to Jesus Christ as the second Adam, excluding the other
categories of thought considered.
He supports this by the references to Christ as the 'image of God', as 'first born' of all
creation, and 'first born' from the dead. (c) Several scholars see the wisdom tradition as the
fabric of thought from which Col 1:15-20 flows.
Col 1:15-20 has many parallels in Proverbs 8, Sirach 24 and Wisdom of Solomon 1 and 7."
In summary, the passage encapsulates Jewish wisdom thought that wisdom which is active in
creation is also active in redemption. (4) Dissimilarities between the Christological hymn and
Wisdom Tradition (1) Christ is not only mediator of all creation but also its goal (v16) — this
predication is absent of wisdom. (2) References to death (v20) and resurrection (v18) of
Christ have no precise parallel in Jewish wisdom tradition. The closest is the descent,
rejection and ascension of wisdom in I Enoch 42. Rather than weakening the argument, this
shows that Paul creatively adopts and adapts Jewish wisdom traditions in his depiction of
Christ.
(5) Christological Significance
This addition supports the doctrine of the pre-existence of Christ, but this is not through
proposition, but by appealing to the wisdom framework of interpretation. This framework
conceived of creation as conforming to the pattern of torah (wisdom), affirming a continuity
between creation and revelation, nature and grace. In teaching that Christ was the agent of
creation, Paul was seeking to express a similar truth. We note that the wisdom tradition is not
only the provider of content, but also the form. Hence Col 1:15-20 cannot be reduced to
wisdom tradition only by content or only by form, but both are essential. Hence when we
interpret it with both form and content, we will resist the temptation to break it into formal
propositions, but examine it as a whole hymn.
Taken as a whole, we realize that the twofold function of wisdom in Judaism, in creation and
in redemption, has been transferred to Christ.
Christ is the wisdom of God in both spheres.
Taken as a whole, the passage extols the cosmic dimension of Christ and his works. And in
doing so it speaks of the preeminence of Christ. Thus, the passage does not present a series of
merely propositional statements of metaphysical reality. Rather, it uses the full scope of the
wisdom framework as a vehicle of communication, to present Christ in his pre-eminence, in
terms of his creative and redemptive significance."

3. Elucidate the place and meaning of the Servant songs in Deutero-Isaiah and their
significance in the New Testament?
Introduction
Prophet Isaiah lived during the 8th and 7th century B.C.E. It is said that he prophesied during
the reign of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Until the 18th century, it
was presumed that Isaiah of Jerusalem wrote or at least the oracles contained in all the 66 chs
of his book.
Bernhard Duhm said that that the book comprised three different collections of Oracles:
Proto-Isaiah (Chs 1-39)
Deutero-Isaiah (Chs 40-55)
Trito-Isaiah (Chs 56-66)
Proto-Isaiah contains the words of Isaiah.
•Deutero-Isaiah is the work of an anonymous 6th-century BCE author, written during the
exile.
One opinion is that this author never preached but only made use of his pen to address the
message to his contemporaries. Trito-Isaiah was composed after the return from exile.
Separate authorship for Trito-Isaiah does have a strong consensus. But almost all seem to
concede that the Sitz-im-Leben (life situation) is definitely different.
The Pontifical Biblical Commission in 1908 said that there was insufficient evidence to
support the theory that the book of Isaiah was written by several authors.
But 'Divino Afflante Spiritu' of Pius XII (1943) and subsequent documents of the Church
have indirectly withdrawn conservative positions and indirectly encouraged critical approach
to the books of the Bible.
The Servant Songs
Again, it was Bernard Duhm who isolated four texts in Deutero-Isaiah, and he called them
the Servant Songs. "Servant" = ebhedh.
They are (1) Is 42:1-4 - Presentation of the Servant of YHWH
Is 49:1-6 - Self-Presentation of the Servant.
Is 50:4-9 - The Servant describes his lot
Is 52:13-53:12 - The Suffering Servant
There is a general consensus regarding the number of songs, though some scholars like R.
Tournay or Mowinckel divide into six parts. As regards the delimitation of the songs there are
different proposals for the first three songs, but for the fourth song there are no differences of
opinion. C.R. North makes the following comments about the authorship of the songs:
(1) The Servant songs are by Deutero-Isaiah
(2) The songs are somewhat later than the main prophecy.
(3) The songs were composed not at the same time but probably at intervals.
III. Who is the Servant?
•Mainly, there are two trends in the identification of the servant.
(1) Individual Interpretation
When Isaiah speaks of the Servant as an individual, rather than a corporate figure, it is
difficult to know whether he is referring to a concrete historical figure or not. There are only
three individuals within the book that are explicitly identified as Servants.
David (Is 37:35) Eliakim (Is 22:20) Isaiah himself (Is 20:3)
Some link the Servant figure with the Messiah through the similarity of language.
(1) The Messiah prophecy of Is 11:2-4 and the first servant song - Is 42:1.
(2) God's servant and the Messiah are both chosen (Is 42:1;49:7) and called (42:6;48:15)
(3) Both are "taken by the hand" by YHWH
(4) Both are associated with the eternal covenant that YHWH makes with his people. (Is
42:6) (iii) •
There is also language connecting the servant figure with Israelite Priest, especially in the
fourth servant song is a development in the thought of the Servant;

(1)The servant will 'sprinkle' many nations (Is 52:15). This is parallel to the Priest sprinkling
the blood of the Sacrifice on Yom Kippur (Lev 16).

(2) The servant is said to become a 'guilt offering' (53:10) "in order to take upon himself the
guilt of the people".

(IV) • Some scholars argue that the servant in the servant songs refers to Moses.
(1) No-one in the OT is more frequently identified as the 'Servant of the Lord' than Moses (18
out of 23 occurrences).

(2) Moses functioned as a priest and king-like figure as well.

(3) Moses was also known as God's 'chosen one' and the mediator of the covenant.

(B) Collective Interpretation

In general, those who hold for this interpretation look for a group which would be designated
as the Servant in the songs.

(i) Remnant Theory: This holds that the faithful remnant, a minority within Israel, is
the Servant.
(ii) (ii) Corporate Personality Theory: The Servant stands for the whole community
of Israel.

(C) Hybrid Interpretation • Many scholars hold that instead of watertight categories of
individual or collective, there is a development in the thought of the servant.

C.R. North has the following view:

The first song has the closest connection with passages outside the songs, and the thoughts
seem of a collective Servant - destined to carry the light of the true religion to all the world.
In the second song the prophet realizes that only a purified Israel (a remnant) can fulfill this
mission, and this mission is to Israel. The third song deals with the suffering and shame that
the servant will experience in his mission. It is unclear here whether the servant is thought of
as collective or an individual representative. The fourth song is unmistakably individual, and
it perceives that the suffering will be instrumental to the mission. It contemplates an
individual who will fulfill the mission of Israel through his own meritorious and vicarious
suffering, and who will pass from shame and death to exaltation and triumph.
IV. The Servant's Story
Joost Bekker uses the hybrid model to read the servant songs as a single story. The Servant
Story is first and foremost about Israel, a nation presented to as the Servant of the Lord, and
destined to be a light to the nations and establish righteousness. But Servant Israel itself
appears to be blind and deaf, and consequently it fails to fulfil its mission. Thus, as Israel
persists in its blindness, another figure, a prophetic one, is appointed by the Lord to be his
Servant. He is called to restore the survivors of Israel and make Israel's mission his own
mission. (5) From the beginning itself, the prophetic figure struggles in executing his difficult
task. The Israelites themselves do not want to listen to the voice of this servant. (6) He is
confronted by resistance and humiliation. In the end, the Servant is even put to death. (7) But
then, unexpectedly, the stunning awareness breaks through - that the suffering and death of
the Servant has been for the people. He had made his life as an offering for their sin. (8) This
means that the story is not finished by the servants death. It continues by focusing on his
spiritual offspring. This offspring is called the Servants of the Lord. They share in the
benefits of the Servant's death.
"Summary of the Servant Songs
(1) Is 42:1-4 - Presentation of the Servant of [YHWH]
In this introductory poem, YHWH introduces his servant. The servant is divinely chosen,
called, equipped and commissioned. The Lord sustains the Servant who is to be a prophet,
priest, and teacher. The Servant is characterized as gentle in manner, yet strong and resolved.
(vv2-3). The task of the Servant is to establish 'justice in the earth.' The Hebrew word used
here for Justice - mishpat - to bring about a just/right order. The word Torah is parallel to
mishpat
Matthew quotes this servant song in Mt 12:18-21 attributing it to Jesus' ministry in Israel.
Jesus did the Father's Will. Jesus was led by the Holy Spirit. the task of establishing justice
on earth can only be done by Emmanuel - God with us.
(2) Is 49:1-6 - Self-Presentation of the Servant
The Second song brings out the same basic concepts as the first song, but the establishment
of a worldwide righteous order is not stressed. Instead, greater emphasis is placed on the
physical and spiritual restoration of the people of Israel." In this second poem, the Servant is
seen as a prophet addressing his call and commission for the restoration of Israel and the
redemption of all humankind.
•The two main points of 42:1-4 are taken up again in 49:1-6: : His installation as God's
servant : The commission that embraces the gentiles. Thus, because of the similarities, 42:1-4
can be seen as a biographical narrative, and 49:1-6 as an autobiographical narrative.
Paul and Barnabas witnessed the rejection of the Gospel by a Jewish audience. They then
turned to the gentiles (Ac 13:46-48), quoting Is 49:6. Thus, Paul uses this verse to support his
identification of the Servant as the Messiah, Jesus Christ.
In Mt 3:17 & Mt [reference to Jesus in the third person] "This is my son", while Lk (9:35)
and Mk (1:11) refer to Jesus as "You are my Son". Mt seems to be influenced from the First
servant song which says "This is my servant" (Is 42:1). Also, in the narrative of the
transfiguration all three synoptics refer to Jesus in the third person (Mt 17:5; Mk 9:7; Lk
9:35)."
There are clear allusions to the Second Song in the Gospel of Luke. This Gospel advocates
universal salvation to Jew and Gentile alike. This is most solemnly expressed when Simeon
lifts up the baby Jesus and proclaims him as bearer of salvation for the Gentiles as well as for
Israel.
(3) Is 50:4-9 - The Servant describes his lot
•In the third poem, we encounter the sufferings of the servant for the first time in the poems.
The desire of his heart is to do the will of God. In spite of suffering, he will remain
unfaltering his faith in God. He is set as a flint to do God's will, although He will be rejected
by his people.
Influence on NT
The sufferings of the Servant are similar to those experienced by Jesus at his passion. Jesus
was abused and insulted, his back was beaten, his face was hit, and he was spat upon. (Is
50:4-9; Mt. 27:30).
This is because God YHWH stands by his Servant so that he can accept insult and suffering
(v.7). Next, a legal process is described where the servant exhibits tremendous confidence
and"
"challenges those who dare to take him to court? He is positive about the outcome (vv8-9)
(c) • Paul uses similar language to encourage Christians, telling them about the love of God in
Jesus Christ. (Rom 8:31-33).

(4) Is 52:13-53:12 - The Suffering Servant

i) Structure
• Introduction - YHWH presents the Servant to Israel and possibly also to the nations.
• Main Section - This has three parts:
(a) Description of the man of sorrows (53:1-3)
(b) Interpretation of the servant's suffering (53:4-7)
(c) Innocence of the Servant (53:7-9)
• Conclusion (53:10-12) - YHWH will vindicate his Servant.
Summary:
• The Servant poems reach a climax in this last poem. Isaiah sees the Servant wounded,
bruised, chastised, pierced, plagued and cursed for the sins of others. Nowhere else in the
Hebrew thought do we find the idea of the innocent suffering vicariously for the guilty sinner.
Israel is never said to suffer for others, she only suffers for her own guilt. The Suffering
Servant is the Suffering Saviour."
(iii) Influence on NT
When we study this passage in the light, death, and resurrection of Jesus it becomes quite
clear that He is the suffering servant of YHWH. The fourth song is of paramount importance
for the interpretation of the Passion and Death of Jesus in particular. In fact, one wonders
whether the evangelists are describing the events as they took place, or whether they are
reading the Passion through the glasses of the fourth song (and Psalm 22).
Luke insists that there was something like a foreordained plan of God which Jesus, the
Servant, willingly accepts. And this is exactly how the Risen Lord speaks to the disciples on
the Road to Emmaus: 'Was it not necessary that the Messiah should suffer these things and
then enter into glory?' (Lk 24:26-27). Jn also shows that this was the understanding about the
Passion in the early Church by his text of Jn 3:13 'And just as Moses lifted up the serpent in
the wilderness, so must the Son of Man be lifted up, so that whoever believes in him may
have eternal life.' Only in the Acts of the Apostles do we find explicit reference to Jesus as
God's servant. Acts 3:13-14 'The God of Abraham...'" "His servant Jesus whom you handed
over and rejected... But you rejected the Holy and Righteous One? Two other texts in Acts
call Jesus servant (pais). Acts 4:27-28 and Acts 4:29-30.
VI. Conclusion
During the lifetime of Jesus, it is only Jesus who referred to himself as the Son of Man. What
Jesus says about the fate of the Son of Man is exactly what the Servant Songs say about that
of the Servant of YHWH. Also, when Jesus refers to his suffering and violent end in
fulfilment of the Scriptures, no other suitable text can be found for this besides the Servant
Songs of Deutero-Isaiah. This interpretation of Jesus as the Suffering Servant of YHWH can
be found in the Gospels, Acts and also in Paul."
4. How would you understand a lament in Hebrew Psalmody? Explain the remote and
proximate background to the lament, their structure and the meaning of the
imprecation in laments.
Introduction
In today's society which is saturated with wars terrorism, natural calamities, broken
relationships and other forms of suffering, many Christian believers still wonder whether they
can bring their anger and frustrations in prayer? Can they be honest with God? Does our
liturgical setting have the capacity for lament? Or has phenomena such as 'prosperity Gospel'
or 'ultra-bright' forms of worship, suppressed the cry within?
The Psalms of Lament provide a resonance for those undergoing suffering and pain.
If as John Calvin asserted 'The Psalms are the mirror of the soul' then lament is a major theme
For more than a third of the Palter consists of lament psalms.
I Lament in Psalms
There are 42 are individual laments, and another 16 are corporate laments. Lament is a bold
faith and not pretence. We need not pretend before God. Therefore in our conversation with
God, we cannot withhold anything. Everything is addressed to God for he alone is the refuge.
To pray the Psalms of lament (of disorientation) means that we trust that he is attentive to
darkness. Our life always remains a pilgrimage, a process, a walk through the darkness at
times. Lament can be source of new life for us.
The function of a Lament is to provide a structure for crisis, hurt, grief or despair, to move
the worshipper from hurt to joy, from darkness to light, and from despair to hope. This
movement is not only a psychological or liturgical experience, though it includes them.
It is also not a physical deliverance from the crisis, although that is often anticipated. The
movement from hurt to joy is a profoundly spiritual one.
Individuals or the community can pray laments. Some laments were written for the king to
pray on behalf of the nation. A lament arises from that human immediate or emotional state
that faces the worshipper
This can range from physical threat, or externally (an invading army), or internally (2)
Interpersonal conflict with others in the (3) Betrayal or injustice perpetuated by friend or
family. All of these can be referred to metaphorically as 'the enemy' or 'foes', even when the
cause is physical illness.
III Structure
Westermann outlines the structure of laments as follows:
(1) Address - someone who is close (2) Complaint (3) Expression of Trust (4) Petition (5)
Motive (6) Vow of Praise
(1) Address: Laments are prayers addressed to someone named, someone who is close to the
psalmist. With the name, contact is made. The addressee cannot help, but hear. This name is
the sign of the immediacy: e.g. "My Lord, My God".
Large introductions are not necessary: intimacy and familiarity are presumed. A reference to
the past may accompany the opening address 'God of our Ancestors'. An immediate cry for
help can also accompany the opening address. Eg: Ps 140 'Deliver me O Lord from evil ones.'
2) Complaint: The complaint or lament proper is expressed in the three primordial relations
of human being: relationship to God, to oneself and to others.
(a) Relationship to God - like God abandoning you.
The psalmist accuses God of going back on his word, of having abandoned the psalmist to
injustice Eg: How long will you hide your face? Will your anger burn forever? Accusing God
presumes an intimacy, that to ordinary casual acquaintances would consider outrageous.
Here, the accusation rests on great expectation and trust in God.
(b) Relationship to Oneself - human life
The most painful lament is the outpouring of vulnerability the psalmists trouble. All the
fragility, solitude and vulnerability of human existence find their expression in the personal
lament of the psalmist. The troubles described may originate from many sources:
(1) False accusation in which the psalmist cannot defend himself.
(2) Moral suffering where the psalmist recognizes
opening address 'God of our Ancestors'. An immediate cry for help can also accompany the
opening address. Eg: Ps 140 'Deliver me O Lord from evil ones.'
(2) Complaint
 The complaint or lament proper is expressed in the three primordial relations of
human being: relationship to God, to oneself and to others. (a) Relationship to God -
like God abandoning you
 The psalmist accuses God of going back on his word, of having abandoned the
psalmist to injustice Eg: How long will you hide your face? Will your anger burn
forever?
 Accusing God presumes an intimacy, that to ordinary casual acquaintances would
consider outrageous.
 Here, the accusation rests on great expectation and trust in God.
  (b) Relationship to Oneself - human life
 The most painful lament is the outpouring of vulnerability the psalmists trouble.
 All the fragility, solitude and vulnerability of human existence find their expression in
the personal lament of the psalmist.
 The troubles described may originate from many sources: (1) False accusation in
which the psalmist cannot defend himself. (2) Moral suffering where the psalmist
recognizes
 the source for much of the imagery that describes the enemy in individual laments.
 Whatever was tearing people away from the covenant, was tearing apart the psalms.
 Expression of Trust
 The lament is voiced from the standpoint of hope and trust.
 Even the most extreme forms of lament turn to God precisely because the psalmists
trusts in the faithfulness and power of God.
 This trust is expressed by recalling former acts of love and aid.
 The psalmist recalls either: (1) Salvation events where the Lord has shown particular
favour to Israel, or (2) Power of God expressed through images of creation.
 Eg: Ps 74:13-17 @You did divide the sea, You crushed the head of Leviathan You
have fixed all the bounds of the earth, etc.
 These declarations of trust can be placed anywhere throughout the psalm of lament.
 Petition
 In light of the trust, which is the foundation of the lament, the psalmist then makes
known the specific petition.
 Often, the petition is a duplication of the address. Eg: 'Listen to my cry', 'Turn your
face to me', 'Give heed to my supplication', etc.
 The actual petition corresponds to specific elements in the lament proper: "Save me
from my distress", "Do not let me down to sheol", "Save me from my enemy"
⑤ Motives
 The petitions often blend in with the motives as to why God should heed to the
petition.
 The additional motive besides those given (for the psalmist), is that God will benefit
from this intervention: 'For the sake of your name', 'What will the nations say?'
 The understanding underlying these motives is that God cannot risk the destruction of
his people, for in that case the greatness of God will be defeated.
 The origin of this motive is the argument of Moses which was used to hold back the
hand of God from destroying the people after their apostasy (Ex.32:11).
⑥ Vow to Praise, H- confidence!
 The basic trust that has motivated the psalmist to address God in the midst of crisis
and turmoil now bursts forth in confident praise.
 In fact this very act of praising God is one of the motives for asking God's
intervention: 'Save me that I might announce and declare'"
"power and the glory of your name", "Can the dead in Sheol sing your praises?"
 Sometimes the vow of praise is expressed simply as the address at the beginning of
the psalm: "I will give praise to your name forever" (142:7).
 The dynamic of the psalms of lament clearly revolve around a deep sense of trust in
the Lord. ① It is trust that brings the psalmist who is at the brink of despair to pour
out his heart before God. ② It is trust and hope that carries the psalmist through the
entire lament to explain the plight in the threefold relationship of God-Self-Other. ③
It is trust and hope that brings the psalmist to petition to the Lord to intervene and to
cope with the enemies of the psalmist. ④ Finally, it is trust in the Lord that induces
the psalmist to praise God for his intervention that assuredly will take place.
Background to the Psalms of Lament (A) Remote Background (B) Social Oppression
 The OT deals a lot with the oppression of the poor by the rich within Israelite society
itself.
 The ministry of the prophets such as Amos and Ezekiel was to a considerable extent
occasioned by this oppression."
Ahab and Jeezbol were Chemosh/Mars.

Worship of his imaged and have him stay (legs 21).

In Ps.35:21 "there is a wind reference/. They opened their mouths wide against me, they say,
Aha! Aha! our eyes have seen it."
This was what we were you, you do not be silent, O Lord, be not far from me.
The gods bricklaying lips of old lacked personal control and we unjustly disadvantaged.
This had speedy criteria in both judging and accepting lips of elohim.
Thus and our unjustly disadvantaged and are therefore background.
Positive background
The immediate background - It was a good work to "fear the Lord" - Israel related to God.
God was a causal relation. Is the liturgy of the "covenant relationship".
The provisional part of this patterns is - blessing for those who were obedient to the covenant
and cursing for those who remained out.
If the curse or woe comes to the covenant Israel relatable to God, following the
Deuteronomic pattern, the curse is due to the broken covenant.
Eg: Deut 27:24"

"Importance of the "Lament"

 No shade. Posture of the Psalms came as the conscious effort to turn toward God in
distress.
 It is not that "trouble" had they woke out of nowhere but that we go naturally to God.
Nevertheless, man had trouble with his relationship to the Old Testament world. This
world was positively God centered.
 They were interpreting all experience in the context of their relationship with God.
God was a book of the positive distortions of the OT Israel was not convinced that an
unjust displacement was -- we for another reason -- any less a displacement of the
"world of Yahweh."
 Israel refused to draw a sharp distinction between the LORD and the events of
heaven.
 It was not as if neighborhood had broken down but rather it was a flood that rebelled
and turned from the presence of the LORD with the fair treatment of the soul whom
the LORD loved but rather of the dissonance drawn to the presence of the divine.
 The OT soul refused to deal with the confusion (Ps.23:4) "even though I walk through
the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for thou art with me." The failure
of the treatment of the reality of the divine presence offered to the personal nature of
the God's."

Interest
 In this approach, rather than seeing them as prayers of vengeance, they should be
righteous prayers for God's rule to be plain in the lives of the wicked. (i) This
approach fails to appreciate the situation that stands behind each of psalms. (ii) Even a
cursory reading of the Psalter that the Israels prayers were anything but disinterested -
rather, they were intrinsic to the realities that confronted her.
B. Certain elements of the Psalms of Lament help us to place the imprecations in their
perspective: (1) For the greater part of their history, Israelites speculated very little of life
beyond the grave.
 They wanted God to show himself just in the here and now.
 The curses therefore are prayers to God himself as just in day-to-day experience.
(2) There is no biographical data on them: no names, no life history.
  We do not seem to be dealing with individuals, or even with a group, but with
structures of evil and malice.
3. The curses follow a monotonous pattern.
 The enemies are called lions, dogs, hunters and liars.
 If we were dealing with individuals, then the vocabulary of abuse would vary.
 Rather, the treatment of enemies is in general, and the enmity is expressed to the
forces of evil in society.
4. We have to remember that the imprecations are in a liturgical setting.
 Even we at Mass say "Mia Culpa."
 The liturgy is not the time to proclaim our personal worth but God's judgment and
mercy.
 So it was with the psalmist.
Conclusion
The Psalms of Lament and the Imprecations stand as a challenge for the contemporary
Church. In today’s society, suffering has seemingly been pushed to the fringes of the Church.
The result is that faith seems superficial and removed from the realities of life around us. The
Psalms of lament and the imprecations remind us that what occurs in the experience of faith
must be brought before God. Faith and experience should never be divorced as if faith is
some abstract concept. Rather, faith calls us to deal with all the realities of our experience and
present them before the Lordship of Christ.
Q5. Explain the setting, context, and message of the Sermon on the Mount in Mt 5-7.

I. Introduction

The Sermon on the Mount is the first of five great discourses of Jesus mentioned in Matthew's
Gospel.

Jesus delivered this sermon from the top of mountain (Mt 5:1; 7:28-8:1) hence the designation
sermon on the mountain.

It is the example par excellence of Jesus' teaching that he delivers in his authority as the Son of God.

The theme of the SM: 'greater righteousness'

The SM contains some of the most familiar and popular passages of the Bible such as:

(1) The Beatitudes (2) The Our Father (3) Sayings about turning the other cheek (4) Of loving
enemies (5) Going an extra mile (6) The birds of the air and lilies of the field (7) The narrow gate (8)
The Golden Rule, etc.

II. Interpretations

Despite its familiarity and popular appeal, SM came to be interpreted differently in the course of
time.

(1) For some, SM presents an impossible ideal.

(2) For others, SM is a perfectionist code.

(3) Some hold that the demands of SM constitute an interim ethic, meant to"

"observed only for a select period of time, namely during the period of waiting for the second
coming of Christ.

 But Mt in the SM reports Jesus' discourse which are to be followed by his disciples in
their life and conduct.
 For Mt, Jesus demands from his disciples a changed way of life - a new type of
attitude in their relationship with others, with God, and with the world.
 From this perspective many scholars today regard the SM as containing principles of
New Christian Ethics, the Messianic Torah of Jesus, a new programme of life for his
followers, the 'magna carta' of discipleship.

III. The SM and the Torah - (law of moses).

 Though Mt does not state explicitly about the Jesus - Moses parallel, the introductory
setting (5:1-2) indicates such a parallel in the SM.
 As Moses promulgated the Old Law from Mt. Sinai (Ex 19-24), Jesus ascends to the
mountain and promulgates the New Law (Mt 5:1-2).
 SM contrasts the righteous demands of Jesus' disciples with that of the scribes and
pharisees. (5:20)
 Thus the SM can be considered as the 'New Torah' or the Messianic Torah of Jesus in
place of the Old Torah of Moses.
 While speaking of the old Law, Jesus clearly"

"states that he has come not to abolish but to fulfill it (Mt 5:17).

The comparison and contrast between Old Law and the New Moral Law in the antithesis brings out
the greatness of our Moses and that Jesus' law which is more perfect, requires greater observance.

IV. The Structure of the SM

(1) 5:1-2 The narrative frame [mention of Jesus and]

(2) 5:3-16 Introduction

(i) 3-12 The beatitudes

(ii) 13-16 The mission of the disciples

(3) 5:17-20 The programmatic statement

(i) 17-19 The role/mission of Jesus

(ii) 20 Programmatic statement (Greater)

(4) 5:21-48 Anti-theses

(5) 6:1-18 Practice of Piety

(6) 6:19-7:12 Attitude to material goods and with one another.

(7) 7:13-27 Conclusion

(i) 13-23 Three warnings emphasizing the gravity of the demand in 5:20

(ii) 24-27 Parables of the houses, emphasizing the importance of doing the new law

(8) 7:28-8:1 The narrative frame:

mention of the crowd

Jesus descends from the mountain"

"The introducing (Mt 5:1-2) presents a solemn introduction to address the crowds to either learn
from him or to follow him. Thus, Jesus ascends the mountain unlike Moses and rather than receive
the law, he gives it. Jesus sits down. The Sermon is not so much a sermon as it is teaching. The law of
the kingdom (5:17-20) Jesus declares that he has not come to abolish the law but to fulfill it. The
programmatic statement of 5:20 is thus stated: 'For I tell you, unless your righteousness exceeds
that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven.' This statement acts
as a structural pivot of the SM. It introduces the anti-theses that follow and places them in the
context of the demand for a greater righteousness than that of the scribes and the Pharisees. The
anti-theses, taken together, unfolded and explained the way of righteousness. Because of the
importance of the antitheses for the discourse and the kingdom itself, Jesus precedes them with a
programmatical statement and follows them with three warnings emphasizing their gravity."

"of discipleship.

 Here there may also be an allusion to Moses and the giving of the Law in the OT.

(c) Solemn Actions (i) Sat Down

 The evangelist mentions that Jesus sat down.

 Sitting was the posture assumed by the rabbis, and it was a sign of their
authority/dignity as teachers.
 Thus at the beginning of SM, Mt presents Jesus as an authoritative teacher, and that
his teaching that follows is something important and official.

(ii) He opened his mouth

 This additional phrase is intended to emphasize the solemnity of this significant

teaching

VI. The Beatitudes (Mt 5:3-12)

 The beatitude is a statement which describes the blessedness of certain persons.

 The Greek word for blessed is makarios, and it is used to describe a person who is
especially favoured by God, and who is in some sense happy or fortunate because of

(a) Beatitudes in OT and NT

  In the OT, especially in the Book of Psalms and in wisdom literature, there are several
beatitudes"

"beatitudes (Ps 1:1; Prov 3:13; Sir 14:1-2).

 Both in OT and in NT, they have a common form.

 A beatitude begins with the formula "Blessed is/are" and then mentions the
person/group, and finally the reason for the blessedness is also sometimes stated. (OT)
• Blessedness spoken of in OT primarily related to earthly blessings such as well
being, peace, honour, children, wisdom, piety, etc. (NT) • In the NT however, the
beatitudes are not related to earthly goods or values.
 They are related to Jesus' proclamation of the Kingdom - to God's definitive salvation
which is inaugurated in the person and ministry of Jesus and which awaits its fullness
at the end of time.

(b) Comparison of Beatitudes in Mt and Lk

 Mt 5:3-12 contains nine beatitudes whereas the Lukan parallel 6:20-23 has only four.
 The four woes that follow in Luke are proper to Luke.
 A comparison between the beatitudes in Mt and Lk shows four beatitudes which are
common and which presumably come from the 'Q' source.
 These four beatitudes are about the poor, the mourners, the hungry, and the
persecuted.
 The other five beatitudes concerning the meek, the merciful, the pure in heart, the
peacemakers and the persecuted, are proper to Mt."

Beatitudes in Mt

 The Matthean beatitudes are framed by the saying 'for theirs is the kingdom of
heaven'.
 This probably points to Matthew's understanding of the theme of the beatitudes.
 Mt seems to have 'spiritualized' the beatitudes, applying them to the life and spiritual
needs of his community.
 In the Matthean version, the emphasis falls on qualities or virtues to be practiced in
order to share the blessings of the Kingdom.
 The Christological foundation of the beatitudes is also clear because the beatitudes
describe what Jesus himself is.

VII. The Mission of the Disciples (Mt 5:13-16)

 The disciples are called to be salt of the earth and light of the world.
 Probably these sayings about salt and light may not have been originally part of the
SM, but Mt may have added them from the Q source. (a) Salt
 When Jesus compares his disciples to salt, he tells them that if they do not witness to
the world by their 'good works' (5:16), they will be like useless, tasteless salt, only to
be thrown out.
 But more important than the threat of condemnation is the life-giving mission of the
disciples spoken in the metaphor of the salt (5:13).
 In the process of giving taste, seasoning and preserving the food, the salt disappears
so"
"to exist.

 This is the mission of the disciples too. In the endless process of fulfilling their
mission, the disciples give their life for others.

(b) Light

 The metaphor of the light in 5:14 also has the same significance.
 The image used is of an oil lamp which, when it is lit, will give light to the whole
house.
 This expresses the mission of the disciples.
 Just as the oil is consumed and the wick is burnt away in the process of giving light,
so too the disciples fulfill their mission and find their identity by giving their lives for
the service of others.
 In all this Jesus himself is the supreme example and the ultimate norm of life for his
disciples.

VIII Mt 5:17-19 - Programmatic Statement

 By placing these verses before the main section of the SM, the evangelist wants to
bring out their importance.
 The 'law and the prophets' is a roundabout saying for the whole teaching of the
Hebrew Bible.
 It is the very mission of Jesus to fulfill the law and prophets completely and
comprehensively.
 These verses can be considered as a preamble to the rest of the SM, especially the
antithesis"

IX Higher Righteousness (5:20)

This serves not only as a conclusion to the

programmatic statement, but also as an

introduction to the antitheses that follow.

Thus, it functions as a hinge in the SM.

'For I tell you, unless your righteousness...'

(1) Jesus addresses his disciples directly

(2) He announces to them what is expected of them

to enter the kingdom of God.

(3) What Jesus demands of his disciples is righteousness

and in a greater measure than that of the Scribes

and Pharisees.

(4) Here, righteousness simply means moral action

in accordance with God's Will.

(5) The Jews believed that observance of the law

made them righteous.

The implication in this saying of Jesus is

that the righteousness of the Scribes and

Pharisees which is based on the external observance

of the Mosaic Law, is insufficient for entering

the kingdom of God.

The higher righteousness that Jesus requires

of his disciples is to be practiced in different

areas of life:

(i) In their relationship to one another (5:21-48)

(ii) In their relationship to God (6:1-18)

(iii) In their relationship to material things (6:19-"

X Relationship to one another (5:21-48; 7:1-12) (A) The Antitheses (5:21-48)

 There are six antitheses in 5:21-48.

 The Old Law (thesis) relating to six areas of life is quoted and contrasted with more
radical and demanding teachings (antithesis).
 The antitheses deal with the question of: (1) Murder (5:21-26) (4) Oaths (5:33-37) (2)
Adultery (5:27-30) (5) Retaliation (5:38-42) (3) Divorce (5:31-32) (6) Love of
enemies (5:43-48)
 Each time the formula "You have heard that - it was said" introduces a thesis of the
Mosaic Law.
 Similarly after the formula "but I say to you" introduces the antithesis.

(1) Murder and Anger (5:21-26) (First Antithesis)

 Jesus not only forbids murder, but goes to the root and forbids anger that leads to
murder (5:21).
 Jesus also speaks of the urgency of reconciliation in 5:25-26.
 There is also an affirmation of the priority and primacy of brotherly love over the
offering of sacrifice to God.

(2) Adultery (5:27-30)

 Jesus goes to the root cause of adultery and forbids lustful looks (5:28).
 The strong and harsh language in 5:29-30 suggests that the salvation of the whole
person is to be achieved even at the cost of any"

(3) Divorce (5:31-32)

  Jesus prohibits divorce which was permitted in Mosaic Law (Dt 24:1).
 In the exceptive clause, the word 'porneia' (unchastity) can mean any illicit sexual act
or adultery.
 Some scholars argue that the exception clause is referring to nullity and not divorce -
hence divorce is altogether prohibited.

(4) Oaths (5:33-37)

 While the OT forbade swearing falsely, Jesus revokes swearing altogether (Mt 5:34).
 Probably 5:34-35 implies that there is nothing in creation that is not related to God,
and not under his Presence and Glory.
 So Jesus advocates simplicity and directness in speech which manifests truthfulness
and integrity.

(5) Retaliation (Mt 5:38-42)

 Jesus prohibits retaliation (5:39) which was meant to restrict revenge and keep
violence in bounds.
 For Jesus, non-violence and non-retaliation should be the norm for his followers.
 Violence should be repayed with kindness.

(6) Love of Enemies (Mt 5:43-48)

 Hating one's enemy was taken for granted in OT.

 Jesus radicalizes this and asks them to love their enemies as well as to pray for their
persecutors."

"(B) On Judging Others (7:1-6)

 Jesus asks the disciples to show the greater righteousness in the area of judging
others.
 Perhaps the mind of Jesus was to forbid unjust judgment based on insufficient
grounds.
 The passive voice "that you be not judged" (7:1) is a divine passive indicating that it
is God who judges.
 So the disciples should not take the place of God in judging others.
 What is required then is to be charitable in our judgement and correct ourselves before
correcting others (7:3-5).

(C) The effect of Prayer and the Golden Rule (7:7-12)

 Jesus exhorts his disciples to be constant and persevering in prayer.

 The passive voice is divine passive indicating that God will answer our prayers.
 The Golden Rule (7:12) can be regarded as the summary of Jesus' teaching in the SM.
 The basic message in the Golden Rule is the love of neighbour.
 Jesus asks his disciples to do to people what they would have expected others to do to
them.

XI Relationship with God (6:1-18)

  Mt explains the higher righteousness in the disciples relationship with God, through
three pious practices (1) Almsgiving (6:2-4), (2) Prayer (6:5-6)"

 Almsgiving (6:2-4): Jesus teaches that giving should be done without expecting anything
in return, as an act of love toward neighbors which will be rewarded by God.
 Prayer (6:5-6):

 Hypocrisy should be removed from prayer and replaced with sincerity

 The inner motive and attitude of the heart are decisive factors in prayer

 Fasting (6:16-18):

 Jesus contrasts fasting done for show with fasting done privately
 Jesus wants disciples to fast in a way that only God sees
 Jesus demands pure intention to love God and others
 These acts should be without interior motive of being seen by others

 Attitude to material things (6:19-34): The notes indicate this section consists of four
groups of sayings
transitory and insecure nature of earthly possessions. • Jesus exhorts his disciples to store up
treasures in heaven—ie before God.
2. In the second group (6:22-23), Jesus is probably speaking of the inner eye
(conscience?) of the person which guides his moral and religious life. • If the inner
eye is clouded by evil, it would prevail in his moral and religious life too.
3. In 6:24, Jesus teaches his disciples of the impossibility of serving both: God and
wealth. • The necessity of making a choice between the two is implied in this verse.
4. The fourth group (6:25-34) contains sayings of Jesus about cares and anxieties of life.
• Jesus does not forbid the basic human anxieties and cares of life, but asks his
disciples to reflect on God's care shown in nature, and to put their complete trust in
God's care and providence.
XIII. Conclusion to the SM (MT.7:13-29) • The sermon ends with a series of contrasts in the
form of warnings to the disciples to make the right decision. • These contrasts include:
1. Narrow and wide gate, 2. Easy and hard way, 3. Destruction and life, 4. Many and
few, 5. Sheep and wolves, 6. Good tree and bad tree, 7. Good fruit and bad fruit, 8.
Those who say 'Lord' and
Image 3:
those who do God's will, 9. Wise man and foolish man, 10. House built on the rock and house
built on sand. • All these symbols and images describe kinds of people: those who will
receive reward or punishment at the Last Judgment based on their present life. • For Mt,
Jesus' teaching in the SM is not just for a few at a specific time. Rather, it is for all followers
of Jesus and for all time. • The followers of Jesus are implicitly asked to choose for
themselves the way that leads to eternal life. • Mt closes the SM with the parable of two
builders, what is important is not just hearing Jesus' words but also putting them into action in
one's life.

6 The Demands of Discipleship in Mark's Gospel.

 Introduction
 Etymology • Discipleship
 Vocation and Mission of the Disciples
 Following Jesus
 Renunciation Demands
 Being with Jesus
 Mission of the Disciples
 Aspects of Discipleship in Mark
 Positive
 Negative
 Conclusion

I Introduction

 The Greek word for Gospel is euanggelion, meaning Good News.

 It is the Good News of God's Love for humankind and salvation in Jesus Christ.
 Though chronologically in the order in the Bible Mt precedes Mk, today most
scholars hold for 'Markan priority'.
 Weisse & Holtzmann established the priority of Mk i.e. Mk was the first gospel to be
written, followed by Mt, Lk and Jn.
 The scholars' dating of Mk is between 69-70 CE.
 One of the main themes in the gospel is discipleship.
 Markan theology has its root in the kingdom of God because it was the main topic of
Jesus' preaching"

"Discipleship

 Discipleship is the result of a call to follow Jesus the initiative and call
 It is Jesus who calls people to discipleship and by responded
 This is apparent in the Synoptics.
 Mark especially had the following of Jesus is not just a physical accompaniment but
an entire personal attachment.
 It is also a personal attachment loyally committed to Jesus and the realization of his
command.
 It may be an obstacle to his command

Etymology

 Two words are used to express the call of discipleship in the NT.
 The verb "akolutheo" - "to follow," "follow after"
 The verb "mathetes" - "disciple," "one who learns."
  The word disciple itself is derived from a verb which means "to learn"
 The worth disciple is used for the direct disciples of Jesus as well as for the
 The word disciple is also widely used in religious circles
 Thus, disciples of Moses.
 The Pharisees had a gospel(?) of the gospels
 Therefore disciples of the Pharisees.
 All those who have decided to follow Christ are disciples (Acts 11:26)."

Following Jesus

 The following of Jesus which is fundamental to the concept of discipleship. In Mk

1:16-20 and 2:14, He called people to discipleship and they responded.
 All through the Gospel, there is only the verb 'akolouthein' - to follow - but a process.
 The purpose of following is expressed in the promised reward found in the phrases
(1:17, 2:14)
 It is not to pursue wealth or position.
 The call to disciples is a call to follow Jesus.
 It is a personal attachment loyally but at a cost - to leave possessions and relations.

(2) Renunciation of Jesus

 The following of Jesus demands total renunciation and allegiance to him, and freedom
from all ties.
 Thus implies:
 That those who follow Jesus are to follow him exclusively, making himself is derived
 The new word disciple itself is derived from a verb which means "to learn."
 Thus explained that the disciples had to connected to his word himself
 The worth disciple is used for the direct disciples of Jesus. The term is also used by
Jewish rabbis.
 Andrew, James, John and Peter were all later called to be disciples.
 The Pharisees had a gospel(?) of their own
 The word disciple (mathetes) is derived from the root of the gospel is "mathein,"
 "to learn,"
 "be an apprentice,"
 "to attach oneself to a teacher."

the rich man in 10:17-22..

 The call to be a disciple is a call to renounce all to follow Jesus, it:

 It includes giving up : (i) Property and possessions (Mk 10:21) (ii) Denying oneself,
ambition for positions of power and prestige (Mk 8:34; 9:33-37) (iii) and even life
itself in the service of others

(3) Being with Jesus

 To be with Jesus is one of the constituent elements of discipleship.

 It is an obligation to be fulfilled by every disciple of Jesus.
 In Mk 5:18-19, the healed man wanted to be with Jesus.
 At the Jewish trial of Jesus, Peter was identified as a disciple because he was with
Jesus. 'You were also with him.' (14:67) said the maid to Peter.
  The disciple is called to be with Jesus, to live in communion with his by a life of total
commitment and allegiance to him.
 After the resurrection, the risen Lord inaugurated a new way of following and of
being with him for his disciples.

(4) Mission of the Disciples.

 Jesus appointed the Twelve that they might be with Him and that he may send them
out"

"to preach and have authority to cast out demons (3:14-15)...

 They are to be bearers of Jesus' mission to:

 to preach the Good News
 to expel demons and powers of evil
 and to heal
 In this way they will continue and prolong the mission of Jesus (Mk 6:7-13)
 The call to discipleship is therefore a call to be with Jesus and share his mission.
 Thus it is both Christocentric and Apostolic.

Demands of Discipleship

 The demands of discipleship are brought out in the central section of Mark - 8:27-
10:52:
 The Messianic Confession of Peter (8:27) acts as a bridge passage.
 From this point on, Jesus manifests himself plainly (8:32a).
 The Messianic Confession of Peter is a point of departure for a new stage in the
formation of the disciples, and Jesus begins to instruct them on the demands of
discipleship.
 This section is built around the three passion-resurrection teachings of Jesus, each of
which is followed by the disciples' misunderstanding and Jesus' instructions to them.
Passion Prediction Misunderstanding Instruction 8:31 8:32b-33 8:34-38 9:31 9:32
9:33-37 10:33-34 10:35-41 10:42-45"

iii) Follow me

The verb is in the present imperative and it is

to have a continuous following.

It means that discipleship is not

a static reality
but a process and one is always in the process
of becoming a disciple.

The one who follows Jesus has to set his

priorities right – put Jesus first and the rest
becomes secondary.
B) The Second Instruction

After the disciples were not concerned

about Jesus above the second prediction but
about who was the greatest.

The second instruction (9:33-37) was a result

of the disciples misunderstanding.

If the first instruction was about the disci

ples' relationship to Jesus, the second
was about the disciples' relationship to one
another.

The relationship among them is to be one of

service.

The one who is greatest should serve the rest.

(C) The Third Instruction

First it was Peter who had failed, now it is

James and John who fail.

The third instruction (10:3-45) is delivered as

service.
One who is greatest should serve the rest.
To instruct the disciples Jesus set a child
before them.

As a result of the disciples' failure to understand

the Messiahship of Jesus.
The word "cup" - metaphor for Jesus’
suffering.
Similarly, the word "baptism" is also used.
Symbol of passion.

Jesus' answer to them was a challenge

that the only way to glory is by suffering
of Jesus.
Authority is for service.

Using the imagery of the domestic servant

and slave, Jesus reveals before them the
manner of exercising authority.

One in authority must be servant

of all.
This is parallel to Mk 10:1-12, where
the disciples' worldly understanding of authority
is to use authority for themselves.
It also goes back to the O.T. concept
of authority (i.e. hierarchy of the clergy).

The service of the disciples of Jesus is

to be measured not by worldly standards, but by
being the last and servant of all.

The structure of the Gospel of Mark is as follows:

1. Introduction (Mk 1:1-13)

2. Jesus' Ministry in Galilee (1:14-6:6a)
3. Jesus' Apostolic Journeys (6:6b-10:52)
4. Jesus' Ministry in Jerusalem (11:1-13:37)
5. Jesus' Passion and Death (14:1-15)
6. Resurrection (16:1-20)

Conclusion:

 Writing from within: could for the prescribed text in Romeo Martel: poor truth of the
falling and even of Peter who denied Jesus.
 disciples would be a powerful at time: for those Christians who failed or denied Jesus
in the face of persecution.
 Thus is eloquently in 9th since Peter also had denied Jesus next probably died a
martyr's death.
 By thus Peter had learned that the deity persecutors, Jesus was not so much labeled to
of his readers, Jesus was powerfully. Messiah, but to Hand of suffering one.
 (B) - In the first half of the gospel the disciples do not model the to be imitated, in fact
he said half they should as examples to be avoided."

This is my best attempt at transcribing the visible text, though some portions are unclear or
difficult to read with certainty. There appears to be additional text in both images that is