Unit 4 — Fuel Cell Technology

Complete Class Notes | BEV & FCEV | Thermal Management | Hydrogen Fuel Cell |
Types & Applications

1. What is a Fuel Cell?

An electrochemical device that converts chemical energy electrical energy directly

Uses hydrogen (H₂) as fuel and oxygen (O₂) as oxidant
Only by-products: Water (H₂O) + heat — zero harmful emissions
Works continuously as long as fuel is supplied (unlike battery)
Single cell output: 0.6 – 0.7 V at full load
Multiple cells in series = Fuel Cell Stack higher voltage
Components in order: Anode Catalyst Electrolyte Catalyst Cathode

Fuel Cell vs Battery vs Engine

Feature Fuel Cell Battery ICE

Fuel H₂ (external) Stored charge Petrol/Diesel

Emission Water only None CO₂, NOx

Refuel time ~5 min 30 min–8 hrs ~3 min

E!iciency 40–85% ~80% ~22–35%

By-product H₂O + heat Heat CO₂ + heat

e⁻ flow

H₂ O₂
 CATALYST

CATALYST
ANODE ELECTRO- CATHODE
(−) LYTE (+)
Load
H⁺ ions

H₂O

Fig. 1 — Fuel Cell Structure: Anode | Catalyst | Electrolyte | Cathode

Remember: Anode = (−), Cathode = (+). Electrons go through external circuit (electricity).
Protons (H⁺) go through electrolyte.

2. Chemical Reactions in a Fuel Cell

At Anode — Oxidation

H₂ → 2H⁺ + 2e⁻
Hydrogen splits into protons + electrons using Pt catalyst

At Cathode — Reduction

O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e⁻ → 2H₂O

Oxygen + protons + electrons form water

Overall Reaction

2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O + Electrical Energy + Heat

Voltage Loss Mechanisms

Activation loss — energy barrier to start the reaction at electrodes
Ohmic loss — electrical resistance in membrane and components (I²R heat)
Concentration loss — at high load, reactants can't reach sites fast enough
Catalyst: Platinum (Pt) at anode, Nickel (Ni) at cathode. It speeds up reaction without
being consumed.

Step-by-Step Working
1 H₂ enters at anode — catalyst (Pt) splits it into 2H⁺ ions + 2 electrons

2 Electrons flow through external circuit — this electron flow IS the electric current that
powers devices

3 H⁺ ions cross the electrolyte — electrolyte only allows ions through, not electrons

4 O₂ enters at cathode — combines with H⁺ ions + electrons forms water (H₂O)

5 Outputs: Electricity + water vapour + heat. Process is continuous as long as H₂ is supplied.

e⁻ external circuit

ANODE ELECTROLYTE CATHODE

H₂ 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ H⁺ O₂+4H⁺+4e⁻ 2H₂O

H₂ in blocks e⁻ O₂ in
H₂O out

Fig. 2 — Ion and Electron Flow in Fuel Cell

3. History of Fuel Cells

1839 Sir William Robert Grove — invented first fuel cell (Gas Voltaic Battery). Used H₂ & O₂
with sulfuric acid electrolyte.

1932 Francis Thomas Bacon — developed 5 kW stationary Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC). Later
named "Bacon Fuel Cell."

1955 Grubb & Niedrach (GE) — developed first PEM Fuel Cell using sulfonated polystyrene
membrane & platinum catalyst.

1967 GM Electrovan — General Motors built the world's first fuel cell passenger vehicle.

1969 NASA Apollo & Moon Missions — AFC used to power spacecra#. Also produced
drinking water as a by-product!

2015 Toyota Mirai Gen 1 — first mass-market FCEV. Oct 8 = National Hydrogen Day (1.008 =
 atomic weight of H).

2021 Toyota Mirai Gen 2 — improved design. Range ~500 km. H₂ stored at 700 bar
pressure.

1839 — Grove's 1st Fuel Cell

1932 — Bacon 5kW AFC

1955 — Grubb PEMFC (GE)

1967 — GM Electrovan (1st FCEV)

1969 — NASA Apollo Moon

2015 — Toyota Mirai Gen 1

2021 — Toyota Mirai Gen 2

Fig. 3 — Fuel Cell Historical Timeline

4. Types of Fuel Cells

Type Electrolyte Temp. E!iciency Catalyst Best For

PEMFC (Proton Nafion 50– 40–60% Platinum Cars,

Exchange polymer 100°C buses,
Membrane) (solid) portable
AFC (Alkaline) KOH or 70– 60–70% Nickel Space
NaOH 140°C (NASA),
solution submarines

PAFC Phosphoric 150– 40–50% Platinum CHP,

(Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) 200°C commercial
Acid) buildings

MCFC (Molten Li/K 650°C 55–65% Nickel (no Pt) Large

Carbonate) carbonate power
salt plants

SOFC (Solid YSZ ceramic 800– Up to Nickel/ceramic Stationary

Oxide) 1000°C 85% power, CHP

DMFC (Direct Polymer 90– 20–30% Platinum Phones,

Methanol) membrane 120°C laptops,
portable

PEMFC — Most Important for Vehicles

Uses solid Nafion polymer membrane — allows H⁺ through, blocks electrons
Low operating temp quick startup, ideal for cars
LT-PEMFC: 50–100°C | HT-PEMFC: 120–200°C
Key challenge: membrane must stay hydrated (not too wet, not too dry)
Target life: 5,000 hrs (auto) and 40,000+ hrs (stationary)
First commercially viable fuel cell type

SOFC & MCFC — High Temperature Types

SOFC — uses ceramic (YSZ) electrolyte, conducts O²⁻ ions from cathode to anode
MCFC — molten salt electrolyte, conducts CO₃²⁻ ions
Both: no platinum catalyst needed — cheaper!
SOFC: fuel flexible — can run on natural gas, propane, hydrogen
Both suited for stationary applications — too slow to start for vehicles
Combined with gas turbine e"iciency up to 85%

5. BEV vs FCEV
 BEV — Battery Electric Vehicle
Runs on electric motor + rechargeable battery
Charged via existing electricity grid
Can use solar/wind renewable energy
Charging time: 30 min to 8 hours
Tank-to-wheel e"iciency: ~80% (higher than FCEV)
Emits less pollution than ICE vehicles
Examples: Tesla Model 3, Nissan Leaf, Tata Nexon EV

FCEV — Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle

Runs on hydrogen fuel cell electric motor
H₂ stored in high-pressure tank (700 bar)
Refuelling time: ~5 minutes (same as petrol)
Range: ~500 km per fill
Only emission: water vapour — truly zero tailpipe pollution
Tank-to-wheel e"iciency: ~38%
Examples: Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo, Honda Clarity

BEV — Power Flow FCEV — Power Flow

Inverter H₂ Fuel Cell DC/DC
Grid/ Battery M M
DC AC Tank Stack Conv.
Solar
VS
H₂O

Charge Battery Motor Wheel H₂ Fuel Cell Motor Wheel

Fig. 4 — BEV vs FCEV Power Flow Comparison

6. FCEV Components & Layout

Main Components (8 Parts)

 Core unit — electrochemical reaction produces electricity from
Fuel Cell Stack
H₂ + O₂

High-pressure tank at 700 bar; lightweight composite; filled via

H₂ Fuel Tank
fuel neck

Stores energy from regenerative braking; provides extra power

Battery Pack
during acceleration

Low-voltage; starts vehicle before traction battery engages;

Battery (Auxiliary)
powers accessories

DC/DC Converter Steps up/down voltage between fuel cell, battery and motor

Brushless DC motor — drives wheels; high power-to-weight

Electric Traction Motor
ratio, low maintenance

Controls fuel cell output; manages battery charge/discharge and

Power Control Unit
power distribution

Keeps fuel cell stack at 60–80°C using radiator, pump & coolant
Thermal System
loop

Power Flow: Fuel Cell System DC/DC Converter DC Bus Inverter (DC AC) AC
Electric Motor Wheels

Fill

Fuel Cell H₂ Electric

Stack Tank Motor

Battery Power Control DC/DC Conv.H₂O

Top view of FCEV layout

 Fig. 5 — FCEV Component Layout (Top View)

7. Fuel Cell Thermal Management (FCTM)

De!nition & Why It Matters

FCTM controls the operating temperature of the fuel cell stack
PEMFC optimal range: 60°C – 80°C
Real fuel cells are ine!icient — excess heat must be removed
~50% of input energy becomes waste heat

What Happens at Wrong Temperatures?

<60°C
Slow reaction, low voltage, poor e!iciency

60–80°C
Max e!iciency, balanced membrane hydration

>80°C
Membrane dries out, material degrades

3 Sources of Heat (Losses)

Activation Loss — energy needed to start the electrochemical reaction at electrode
surfaces
Ohmic Loss — electrical resistance in membrane, electrodes, contacts I²R heating
Concentration Loss — at high current density, reactants can't reach reaction sites fast
enough extra heat

Key Formulas
Q gen = ΔH reactants − ΔH products − W electrical
Heat generated = Enthalpy change − Electrical work done

Q = h · A · (T surface − T fluid )
Convective heat transfer (h = heat transfer coefficient)

A radiator = A base + (ΔT ambient /10) × (0.10–0.20)

Radiator sizing: +0.1–0.2 m² per 10°C ambient rise

4 Cooling Methods

1. Air Cooling
Air flows through cooling channels. Simple & cheap. Best for small/low-power fuel cells. Limited
heat removal.

2. Liquid Cooling (Most Common)

Water/glycol mix circulates through bipolar plate channels. Superior heat removal. Ideal for
automotive FCEVs. Precise temp control.

3. Phase Change Cooling

Uses latent heat of water evaporation. Highly e!icient & compact. But requires complex water
management.

4. Thermoelectric (Peltier Effect)

Uses electricity to remove heat (Peltier elements). Very precise temperature control. No moving
parts. Lower e!iciency overall.

System Components: Radiator, Pump, Fan, Reservoir (coolant storage), Heater (for cold
start), Temperature Sensors, Control Unit

Thermal Management Cooling Loop

 Heat air

Sensors & Heater

Fuel Cell Hot coolant Radiator Reservoir
Pump Heat Exchanger coolant store
Stack
+ Fan Control Unit
(heat source)

Cool coolant returns to stack

Fig. 6 — FCTM Full Cooling Loop: Stack Pump Radiator Reservoir back to Stack

Advantages of FCTM
Maintains stack at optimal 60–80°C — max e"iciency and membrane life
Prevents membrane drying or flooding — both damage PEMFC
Allows high power operation without thermal damage
Prevents thermal runaway — ensures reliable, safe operation
Enables real-time response to load changes

Challenges of FCTM
Pump & fan consume 5–15% of stack output — parasitic power loss
Large radiators add weight and volume to vehicle
Cold start delays — system must heat to optimal temp before full power
Coolant leakage into stack can poison platinum catalyst
Liquid cooling requires precise sealing — complex engineering

8. Why Hydrogen as Fuel?

Non-toxic — safe if inhaled in small amounts

Disperses quickly — lighter than air, does NOT pool like petrol
Only water on combustion — zero CO₂, zero NOx
Does not leach — does not contaminate soil or groundwater
Stable at ambient temperature — safe to store
Highest energy density by weight of any fuel (~142 MJ/kg)
Reduces greenhouse gas emissions and oil dependence
 Hydrogen Production Challenge
95% of H₂ today is made from fossil fuels = "grey hydrogen" — NOT clean
Green hydrogen = made by electrolysis using renewable energy — ideal but
expensive
Requires 700 bar high-pressure tanks — costly but compact
Only 330+ stations worldwide (2019) — limited network
Station cost: $1–4 million each — major investment needed

9. Ef!ciency Comparison

Ef!ciency by Fuel Cell Type

SOFC/MCFC (with CHP) 85%

AFC (Alkaline) 70%

PEMFC (vehicle, low load) 60%

PAFC (phosphoric acid) 50%

FCEV (average driving) 36%

DMFC (direct methanol) 25%

Diesel/ICE Vehicle 22%

Energy Balance Diagram

 100% Hydrogen Energy Input

~50% Electricity ~45% Heat

Electrical power output (~50%)

Waste heat generated (~45%)

Unreacted hydrogen (~5%)

Theoretical max ≈ 100% | Practical: 40–60%

With CHP (heat recovery): up to 85%
Fig. 7 — Fuel Cell Energy Balance

10. Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages of Fuel Cells / FCEV

Zero emissions at point of use — only H₂O + heat produced
High e!iciency — up to 85% with CHP systems
Less greenhouse gases — reduces CO₂ & air pollution significantly
Quiet operation — no combustion, no engine noise
Fast refuelling — ~5 min (compared to hours for BEV)
Long range — ~500 km per fill
Robust reliability — 99.9999% uptime in stationary power use
Fuel flexible — SOFC can run on natural gas, propane
Reduced oil dependence — can use locally produced hydrogen
Lower operational costs long-term due to high e"iciency

Disadvantages of Fuel Cells / FCEV

 Disadvantages of Fuel Cells / FCEV
High cost — platinum catalyst is expensive (~$67/kW for automotive)
Limited H₂ stations — only 330+ worldwide, poorly distributed
H₂ storage di!iculties — requires 700 bar high-pressure tanks
Grey hydrogen problem — 95% of H₂ made from fossil fuels today
Less e!icient than BEV — BEV ~80% vs FCEV ~38% tank-to-wheel
Expensive infrastructure — $1–4 million per H₂ refuelling station
Slow startup — high-temperature types (SOFC, MCFC) need warm-up time
Membrane sensitive — PEMFC membrane must stay precisely hydrated
Catalyst poisoned by CO or coolant leaks reduced performance

11. Applications of Fuel Cells

Transportation
Cars: Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo, Honda Clarity
Buses: 100+ FCEV buses worldwide; 39–141% better fuel economy vs diesel
Trains: Alstom Coradia iLint (Germany, Sweden, UK)
Trucks: Toyota/Hino light duty; Daimler heavy duty
Marine: Type 212 submarines (Germany); passenger ferries (Norway)
Forkli"s: widely used in warehouses & logistics

Stationary Power
Commercial, industrial, residential buildings
CHP systems — Combined Heat & Power 85% e"iciency
Remote areas — weather stations, military, rural communities
Spacecra" & satellites — NASA Apollo used AFC
Data centers — UPS & emergency backup power
99.9999% reliability (<1 min downtime in 6 years)

Portable Power
 Laptops, phones, tablets — DMFC systems (SFC Energy)
Portable generators — camping, RVs, oil & gas wellsites
Telecom backup — mobile base stations (Motorola)
Military: soldier power packs, remote outposts
Medical devices — implantable enzymatic fuel cells
Food preservation (oxygen removal)

Quick Recap — Key Numbers & Formulas

0.6–0.7V 60–80°C ~85%

Per single fuel cell PEMFC optimal temp Max e!iciency (with CHP)

~50% 5 min ~500 km

Energy lost as heat FCEV H₂ refuel time FCEV range per fill

700 bar 1839 95%

H₂ tank pressure Year fuel cell invented H₂ from fossil fuels today

Key Formulas to Know

Q gen = ΔH react. − ΔH prod. − W elec

Heat Generation

Q = h · A · (T s − T f )
Convective Heat Transfer

A rad = A base + (ΔT/10) × 0.15

Radiator Sizing Formula

Chemical Reactions Summary

H₂ → 2H⁺ + 2e⁻
Anode (oxidation)

O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e⁻ → 2H₂O

Cathode (reduction)

2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O + Energy

Overall reaction

Unit 4 — Fuel Cell Complete Class Notes | For classwork reference