JIMMA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Chapter - 1: Introduction to Food Process control

and Instrumentation (FSPT3092)

By:- Tafere A. (Ass. Prof)

 Content;
▪ The meaning and importance of process control

▪ Classification of the variables in a food process

▪ Design steps of a control system

▪ Instruments of a control system

 Introduction:
▪ The two main subjects of this course are process dynamics model and
statical model.
▪ A dynamic mode
• Is variables change with times (transient process
behavior).
▪ A static model is one, which is ✓ Transient operation occurs during important
developed based on the steady state situations such as;
information, in which nothing ▪ start ups and shutdowns, unusual
changes with time. process disturbances, and planned
✓ are typically transitions from one product grade to
represented with another
algebraic equation • described by differential equations

▪ So, control systems are needed to handle such changes (transient) in the process

(variable change).
 Meaning and Importance of Process Control
❑ The foundation of Process control is process understanding.
❑ Process is the conversion of feed materials to products using chemical and
physical operations.
▪ The terms is tends to be used for both the processing operation and equipment.
❑ Control in process industries refers to;
▪ The regulation of all aspects of the process.

➢So, Control means;

▪ measuring the value of the controlled variable of the system and applying the
control signal to the system to correct or limit deviation of the measured value
from a desired value.
 Con’t …
❑ Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process
variables when manufacturing a product.

▪ For example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to another,

the temperature of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and
the pressure under which the materials are held can significantly impact
the quality of an end product.

➢Process Control is the main important part in a process plant to;

▪ ensure that plant will run successful.

 Con’t …
❑ Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:
Reduce variability
Increase efficiency
Ensure safety
1. Reduce variability:
▪ Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which ensures a
consistently high quality product.

▪ Manufacturers can also save money by reducing variability.

▪ For example, in a blending process as many as or more different

components may be blended to make a specific grade .
 Con’t …
❑ Reducing variability can also save money by;
▪ reducing the need for product padding to meet required product
specifications.

❑ Padding refers to the process of making a product of higher quality

than it needs to be to meet specifications.

▪ When there is variability in the end product (i.e., when process control
is poor), manufacturers are forced to pad the product to;
▪ ensure that specifications are met, which adds to the cost.
 Con’t …

▪ With accurate, dependable process

control, the set point (desired or

optimal point) can be moved closer to

the actual product specification and

thus save the manufacturer money.

Fig 1. Relation between high and low
variability.
 2. Increase Efficiency
▪ Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize
efficiency.
▪ For example, a control point might be the temperature at which a
chemical reaction takes place.
▪ Accurate control of temperature ensures process efficiency.
▪ Manufacturers save money by minimizing the resources required to
produce the end product.
 3. Ensure Safety
▪ A run-away process, such as an out-of-control chemical reaction/process
plant, may result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control of all
▪ Causing sudden
of the process variables.
damage or suffering.
▪ The consequences of a run-away process can be catastrophic.
▪ For example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by;

▪ Controlling the inflow of air used in combustion and

▪ The outflow of exhaust gases is crucial in preventing boiler

implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of workers.
 NEEDS OF PROCESS CONTROL
❑ Process control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers:
➢ To keep their operations running within specified limits and
➢ To set more precise limits to;
▪ Maximize profitability, ensure quality and safety.
❑ Importance of process control are;
• To Reduce variability/maintain product quality
• To help processes operate efficiently/resourcefully
• To ensure the safe operation of processes (loss prevention)
• To meet environmental regulations (discharge).
• To meet operational constraints inherent to the operation of equipment's used in a process plant
(over flow, dry, flooded).
• Economics (Minimum operating cost and maximum profits).
 Con’t …
▪ Increase productivity/Production rates.

▪ Increase stability

▪ Optimize the performance

▪ Minimize the influence of External Disturbance.

▪ Safety

▪ Reduce energy

❑ So, the primary objective of process control is;

✓ To maintain a process at the desired operating conditions, safely and
efficiently, while satisfying environmental and product quality
requirements.
 Con’t …
❑The subject of process control is:
➢ Concerned with how to achieve these objectives.
 Con’t …
❑ A control system can meet the operational objectives of a control it needs the
combination of the following:
i. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances,
ii. Ensuring the stability of a chemical process, and
iii. Optimizing the performance of a chemical process.
I. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances
❑ Suppressing the influence of external disturbances on a process is;
▪ The most common objective of a controller in a chemical plant.
▪ Such disturbances denote the effect that the surroundings (external) have on a
reactor, separator, heat exchanger, compressor, etc., and;
❑ To introduce a control mechanism that will make the proper changes on the process to;
▪ Cancel the negative impact that disturbances may have on the desired operation of a chemical plant.
 ii. Ensure the stability of a chemical process
❑ Consider the behavior of the variable x shown:
▪ At time t = to, the constant value of x is disturbed by some external
factors.
▪ As the time progresses the value of x returns to its initial value to
stays there.
▪ If x is a process variable like temperature, pressure,
concentration, flow-rate, etc.,
▪ This means;
Fig1. Response of a stable system
– The process is stable or self-regulating;
▪ x returns to steady-state without an • Needs no external intervention for its stabilization.
intervention in a self-regulating • No control mechanism is needed to force x to return to
process its initial value.
 Con’t …
▪ In contrast to the above behavior; the variable y shown, does not return
to its initial value after it is disturbed by external influences.
▪ Processes whose variables follow the pattern indicated by y , (curves a, b,
c) are called unstable processes and require external control for the
stabilization of their behavior.
▪ Un Stability process. A process is said to be unstable if its output becomes
larger and larger (either positively or negatively) as time increases.
Fig 2. Response of a unstable Examples:
system
– The explosion of a hydrocarbon fuel with air is such an unstable
– y never returns to steady-
system.
state in three different
– Riding a bicycle is an attempt to stabilize an unstable system and we
unstable processes (A, B, C)
attain that by pedaling, steering and leaning our body right or left.
 iii. Optimizing the performance of a process;
❑ Optimization: is a major requirement to achieve maximum profit.

❑ Safety and satisfaction of the production specifications are the two main operational

objectives for a process plant.

❑ Once these are achieved, the next goal is;

➢ How to make the operation of the plant more profitable.

❑ Conditions that affect the operation of the plant do not remain the same, it is clear that we would like to be

able to change the operation of the plant (flow rates, pressures, concentrations, temperatures) in such a way

that an economic objective (profit) is always maximized.

❑ This task is undertaken by the automatic controllers of the plant and its human Operators.
 1.2. Classification of Process variable
❑ A process variable; is a condition of the process fluid that can change the
manufacturing process in some way.
Common process variables include:
▪ Pressure, Flow, Level, Temperature, Density, Ph (acidity or alkalinity), Liquid
interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are combined in a vessel),
concentration, Mass and Conductivity.
 Con’t …
❑ The variables (flow rates, temperatures, pressures, concentrations, etc.)
associated with a chemical process are classified into two.

1. Input variables; which denote the effect of the surroundings on a chemical

process.
▪ It normally refers to those factors that influence the process and

❑ The input variables can be further classified into the following categories:
A. Manipulated (or adjustable) variables; if their values can be adjusted freely by the
human operator or a control mechanism and
▪ Typically flow rates of streams entering process that we can change in order to
control the plant.
 Con’t …
B. Disturbances; if their values are not the result of adjustment by an operator or a
control system.
▪ It is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process
variable

❑ Disturbances, based on their direct measurability or not, can be

further classified into two categories:
▪ Measured e.g. the disturbances Fi and Ti of the stirred tank heater and

▪ Unmeasured disturbances e.g. the feed composition for a distillation column,

extraction unit, reactors and the like.
 2. Output variables;
▪ Output variables; which denote the effect of the process on the surroundings.

▪ Are Called controlled variables.

❑ The output variables are also classified into the following categories:
▪ Measured output variables; if their values are known by directly measuring them.

• Examples, Flow rates, compositions, temperatures, levels, and pressures in the

process that we will try to control either;

i. Trying to hold them as constant as possible or

ii. Trying to make them follow some desired value .

▪ Unmeasured output variables; if they are not or cannot be measured directly.

 Con’t …
Error Controlled Manipulated Disturbance
Signal Variable

Set-point/ Output
+
Reference input Controller Actuator Process

-
❑ It is a dynamic system:
▪ To control the desired measurement
Feedback Signal
variable by comparing
with required set point.
 Set point (Sp);
▪ is a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained.
▪ For example, if a process temperature needs to kept within 5 °C of 100 °C,
then the set point is 100 °C.

➢A temperature sensor can be used to;

▪ Maintain the temperature at set point.

▪ If the temperature reading is 110 °C, then the controller determines that
the process is above set point and signals the fuel valve of the burner to
close slightly until the process cools to 100 °C.
 1.3. Design steps of Process Control System
❑ How do we use the knowledge of process behavior to reach control
objectives/Design Aspects of Process Control System?
❑ A broad categorization of the steps followed during the design of a control
system includes:
1. Defining the Control Objectives
2. Selecting the Measurements
3. Selecting the Manipulated Variables
4. Selecting the Control Configuration
5. Designing the Controller
1. Defining the Control Objectives
▪ the process that we want to control is always the central element in any
control configuration.
▪ At the beginning, control objectives are defined only qualitatively and
later on that they are known quantitatively (usually in terms of the
output variables).
 2. Selecting the Measurements
❑ For any control objective, it is always necessary to monitor the;
▪ Performance of the chemical process that we want to control.

▪ This can only be done by measuring the values of relevant processing

variables (temperatures, pressures, concentrations, flowrates, etc.).

▪ We always prefer to monitor directly the variables (making primary

measurements) that;
▪ represent our control objectives, and this is what is done whenever
possible.
 3. Selecting the Manipulated Variables
❑ What are the manipulated variables to be used to control a chemical process ?

❑ Once the control objectives have been specified and the various measurements
identified, the next question is how do we effect a change on the process, i.e.

▪ Usually in a process we have a number of available (input variables) which

can be adjusted freely.

▪ Which ones we select to use as manipulated variables is a crucial question as

the choice will affect the quality of the control actions we take.
 4. Selecting the Control Configuration
❑ After the control objectives, the possible measurements, and the available
manipulated variables have been identified;
▪ The final problem to be solved is that of defining the control configuration.
❑ A control configuration is the information structure which is used to connect the
available measurements to the available manipulated variables.
❑ Which is the best control configuration for a given chemical process control
situation ?
✓ Feedback control
✓ Feed forward control
✓ Inferential control
 Con’t …
❑Depending on how many controlled outputs and manipulated inputs we have in a chemical process, we can
distinguish the control configurations into:
• single-input, single-output (SISO) or
• multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) control systems.

❑ For example, for the tank heater system:

• If the control objective (controlled output) is to keep the liquid level at a desired value by manipulating the
effluent flow rate, then we have a SISO system.
• On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to keep the level and the temperature of the
liquid at desired values, by manipulating (more than one) the steam flow rate and the effluent flow rate, then
we have a MIMO system.

▪ In the chemical industry most of the processing systems are multiple input, multiple-
output systems.

28
 1. Feedback control configuration
❑ Uses direct measurements of the
controlled variables to;
▪ adjust the values of the
manipulated variables.
❑ The objective is to;

▪ keep the controlled

variables at desired levels
(set points).

29
 2. Feedforward control configuration
❑ Feedforward control configuration
uses direct measurements of the
disturbances;
▪ to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables.

❑ The objective is;

 to keep the values of the controlled

output variables at desired levels.

 Con’t …
▪A feed-forward controller measures the disturbance variable and sends this value to
a controller, which adjusts the manipulated variable.

▪ This control uses no knowledge of the output

▪ is future focused. It provides information about what a person could do differently
in the future

▪ A feedback control system measures the output variable, compares that value to the
desired output value, and uses this information to adjust the manipulated variable.

▪ This control action is dependent on the output variable.

▪ is past focused. It provides information about past activity and performance.

 3. Inferential control configuration
❑ Uses secondary measurements, because the controlled
variables are not measured, to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables.

❑ The objective is to keep the (unmeasured)

controlled variables at desired levels.
▪ The estimator uses the values of the available
measured outputs, along with the material and
Estimator:
energy balances that govern the process to;
Computes an estimate of the

➢ compute mathematically (estimate) values of the unmeasured

controlled variables
the values of the unmeasured controlled
variables.
❑ These estimates in turn are used by the
controller to adjust the values of the Controller
manipulated variables.
 5. Design the Controller
❑ In every control configuration, the controller is the active element that receives
information from the measurements and takes appropriate control actions to;
▪ adjust the values of the manipulated variables.
▪ For the design of the controller we may need to make the following question:
▪ How is the information taken from the measurements used to adjust the values
of the manipulated variables?
❑ The answer to this question constitutes the control law( types of controller
structure, P - PI - PID ) , which is implemented automatically by the controller
and Controller tuning parameters (Kc, τI, τD ?)
 1.4. Instruments of a control system
❑ Measuring instruments or sensors: Such instruments are used to measure the
disturbances, the controlled output variables or to measure secondary variables, and are
the main sources of information about what is going on in the process.
❑Characteristic examples are:
▪ Thermocouples or resistance thermometers: for measuring the temperature

▪ Venture meters: for measuring the flow rate

▪ Gas Chromatographs: for measuring the composition of a stream, etc.

❑ Transducer/transmitter; In process instrumentation, sensors are used to measure physical

quantities such as pressure, temperature, flow etc. of the process.
 Con’t …
➢ The sensor generates output in the form of voltage which is sent to the transmitter attached
with the sensor.
➢ The transmitter converts voltage signal into current signal.

▪ Transmitters are current-output devices

▪ Transducers are voltage-output devices

❑ The term transmitter means that the sensor has a current output directly proportional to

a variation in pressure or other mediums.

❑ Controller:
▪ This is the hardware element that has "intelligence".
▪ It receives information from the measuring devices and decides what action should
be taken.
 Actuator/Final control element;
▪ This is the hardware element that implements in real life the decision taken

by the controller.

❑ For example if the controller “decides” that the flow rate of the outlet

stream should be increased or decreased in order to;

▪ keep the liquid level in the tank at desired value, it is the valve that
will implement this decision, by opening or closing the
recommended amount (example; Control valve is the most
frequently encountered final control element.
 Basic elements of closed loop system
▪ Compares the reference value with the
measured value and produces an error signal
Error = reference – measured value

This produces a signal related to the

variable being controlled and provides
the signal fed back to the comparison
element to determine if there is an error
 Example
▪ Consider a hot water heater for a home and examine its

control system, using closed loop type of diagram.

▪ The desired hot water temperature is selected by the

homeowner, and typically it is in the neighborhood of 120

to 140 ℉.

▪ Let assume that the set point is 130 ℉.

▪ The thermocouple measures the temperature of the water

in the tank and sends a signal to the thermostat indicating

the temperature variation.

Block diagram of a hot water heater control system
 Con’t …
❑ The thermostat (controller) determines the error as:

▪ Error = Tset point - T measured value

▪ If the error is positive (> 0), the measured temperature is lower than desired and the thermostat
opens the fuel valve to the burner which adds heat to the tank.

▪ If the error is less than zero or negative (< 0), the thermostat closes the fuel valve and no heat is
added to the tank.

▪ Disturbances to the system, which decrease the temperature of the water in the tank,
include ambient heat losses and hot water demand by the household which is replaced
with a cold water feed.
 Examples;
1. Consider a home heating system consisting of a natural gas-fired furnace and a
thermostat. In this case the process consists of the interior space to be heated. The
thermostat contains both the measuring element and the controller. The furnace
is either on (heating) or off. Draw a schematic diagram for this control system.
▪ On your diagram, identify the controlled variables, manipulated variables, and
disturbance variables.
Answer:

Fig. Schematic diagram of

home heating control system
ON/OFF SWITCH
 Con’t …
▪ Controlled variable- T (house interior temperature)
▪ Manipulated variable- Q(heat from the furnace)
▪ Disturbance variable- QL (heat lost to surroundings)
❑ Other possible sources of disturbances are:
▪ loss of gas pressure;
▪ the outside door opening;
▪ change in outside temperature;
▪ change in outside wind velocity (external heat transfer
coefficient);
▪ the opening of doors or windows into the house;
▪ the number of people inside (each one generating and
transmitting energy into the surrounding air);
▪ other electric lights and appliances of any nature are being
used.
 Individual Assignment (5%):
❑ A process furnace heats a process stream from
near ambient temperature to a desired
temperature of 300°C.
The process stream outlet temperature is regulated
by manipulating the flow rate of fuel gas to the
furnace, as shown below.

a) Discuss the objectives of this control strategy.

b) What is the measured output?
c) What is the manipulated input?
d) What are possible disturbances?
e) Is this a continuous or batch process?
f) Is this a feed-forward or feedback controller?
 Quiz (5%)
Question: If the level of a liquid in a tank must be maintained within 5 ft
of 50 ft, what is the liquid’s set point?

Ans: To maintain the level of a liquid within 5 ft of 50 ft, the set point is
the midpoint of that range.
• The range is from: 5 ± 50 → 50 − 5 = 45 ft to 50 + 5 = 55 ft.

𝟒𝟓+𝟓𝟓
• Thus, the set point is: = 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒕; So the liquid's set point is 50 ft.
𝟐