CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Following the theory of creation, it is clear that water is as old as man. From time
immemorial, man has resorted to the use of this unique commodity for domestic and other
purposes. Most of our water supplies are from surface water which include: rivers, streams,
lakes, oceans and seas and their water bodies are likely to be polluted with domestic and
Industrial as well as agriculture waste, as populations increase, the problem become more
serious and as such, water can endanger the health and life of human beings because when
polluted by fecal materials it becomes potential carrier of pathogenic organism (Hughes and
Koplan, 2015). Water, is of course, absolutely essential to life, not only human life but all
life, animal and vegetable. Most of the biochemical reaction that occur in metabolism and
growth of living cells involved water, and all take places in water (Ishaya and Grace, 2017).
Man uses water not only for drinking purposes but also for bathing, washing, laundering,
heating, air conditioning, agriculture, stock raising and gardens, Industrial processes and
cooling water power and steam 8 power, fire protection, fishing, swimming and wild life
propagation and navigation (Potter, 2016).
Natural water contains not only then natural flora but also micro – organisms from soil and
possible from animals or sewage. Surface waters in streams or pools and stored waters in
lakes and large ponds vary considerably in microbial content (Miller et al., 2018). Water is
broadly divided into three types viz., surface water which include: streams, rivers, lakes seas,
and oceans (Schleifer and Kilpper-Balz, 2018). The ground water, well, bore hole, many
people have defined the ground water in different ways: ground water is non saturated water
that occurs where all pores in the soil or rock counting materials are saturated (Miller et al.,
2015). The atmospheric water, which include rainfalls. All water bodies consist of a variety
of bacterial and other microorganisms like the Algaes, fungi, which inhabit these natural
water bodies. Some of these micro – organisms are indigenous to thus natural water while
others are transient, entering the water from external environment (Olawuyi, 2016).
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Water is a major solvent in the body and accounts for 65-75% of the total weight of an
average human being (Odison, 2008). It is estimated that 40 percent of the human race does
not have adequate access to safe water. Waterborne diseases are estimated to kill more than
25,000 people daily (kushreshtha, 2006).Water in its pure state is acclaimed key to health and
the general contention is that water is more basic than all other essential things in life
(Edungbola and Asaolu, 2004).
Bole-hole water is the water beneath the surface, it is a source of water for both the rural and
urban inhabitants (Akpan, and George, 2009). A bore-hole is a hydraulic structure which
when properly designed and constructed permits the economic withdrawal of water from an
aquifer. It is a narrow well drilled with machine into the aquifer or ground water zone, which
is usually a fully saturated subterranean zone, some distance below the water table (Odison,
2008).

Borehole water provides potable water to an estimated 1.5 billion people worldwide daily and
has proved the most reliable resources for meeting rural water demand in sub-Saharan Africa
(Muji, 2007).The provision of adequate water supply and sanitation to the rapidly growing
urban population is increasingly becoming a problem for governments throughout the world.
The water resources are threatened not only by this rapidly increasing demand of the
population but also through diminishing quality caused by pollution and saline intrusion (Eja,
2007). As a result borehole water like water from other sources is never entirely pure. It
varies in purity depending on the geological conditions of the soil through which the ground
water flows and some anthropogenic activities (Uzozie, 2001).
Apart from the essential role played by water in supporting human life, it also has, if polluted,
a great potential for transmitting a wide variety of diseases.
According to (Akpan et al, 2009), in most developing countries like Nigeria where dangerous
and highly toxic industrial and domestic waters are disposed of by dumping them on the
earth, into rivers and streams with total disregard for aquatic lives and rural dwellers, water
becomes an important medium for the transmission of enteric diseases in most communities.
Poisonous chemical are known to percolate the layers of the earth and terminate in ground
waters thereby constituting public health hazards.
The generality of bacteria is mostly commonly found ordinarily in fresh water some of which
include: pseudomonas, Archacbacter, and vibrio these are gram negative, the gram-positive
bacterial which are found in 9 water include: micrococcus Archacbacter and actinomycetes
(Onweluzo and Akuagbezie, 2017). Bore hole water, as one of the water sources is mostly
used domestically, it is observed that tap change sometime the water tap will be clear this
calls for load, in order to be sure of its portability. The increase in drinking water from
different sources especially in Imo State has made necessary to investigate the Physical and
Chemical content of water. Water is a potential carrier of not only pathogenic organisms but
chemicals like lead that can endanger human life.
Therefore this study will be based on the physicochemical chemical analysis of selected
lodges in Umuerim, Umudibia Nekede
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
The physicochemical quality of water and its implications for health and safety are critical
concerns in urban areas, particularly in lodging facilities where water is a primary resource
for both consumption and sanitation. In Umuerim, Umudibia Nekede, the increasing number
of lodges catering to residents and visitors raises questions about the quality of water supplied
to these establishments. Despite the essential role of water in daily operations, there is limited
data on the physicochemical properties of water used in these lodges, which may affect the
health and well-being of guests and staff.
Water quality is influenced by various factors, including the source of the water, treatment
processes, and storage conditions. In Umuerim, the reliance on boreholes and other local
water sources may expose the water to contamination from environmental pollutants, heavy
metals, and microbial pathogens. The lack of comprehensive studies assessing the
physicochemical parameters—such as pH, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), and
concentrations of heavy metals—poses a significant risk to public health.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this work is to study the physicochemical chemical analysis of selected lodges in
Umuerim, Umudibia Nekede
The Specific Objectives;
 To collected water samples from different lodge in Umuerim, Umudibia
Nekede
 To determine physical characteristics of Umuerim, Umudibia Nekede
 To determine chemical characteristics of Umuerim, Umudibia Nekede

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Health Risks from Contaminated Water
Water quality is directly linked to public health. Contaminated water can harbor pathogens
and harmful substances that pose significant health risks, including gastrointestinal diseases
and other waterborne illnesses. Given that lodges serve as temporary residences for many
individuals, ensuring the safety of the water they consume is paramount. This analysis will
help identify any potential contaminants, such as heavy metals and microbial pathogens,
thereby safeguarding the health of guests and staff
.Increased Vulnerability of Populations
Lodges often cater to a diverse clientele, including students, travelers, and workers who may
have varying levels of immunity. Vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly,
are particularly at risk from poor water quality. By assessing the physicochemical properties
of water in these lodges, we can better understand the risks faced by these groups and take
necessary actions to mitigate them.
Adherence to Safety Standards
The analysis will provide essential data to evaluate whether the water quality meets local and
national safety standards. Regulatory bodies often set specific physicochemical parameters
that water must meet to be deemed safe for consumption. By conducting this study, we can
identify any deficiencies in compliance and advocate for necessary improvements in water
sourcing and treatment practices among lodge operators.
Empowering Stakeholders
The results of the physicochemical analysis will empower lodge owners and the local
community with knowledge about the quality of their water supply. Increased awareness can
lead to better practices in water management and encourage lodge operators to invest in water
treatment solutions that enhance safety.
Promoting Sustainable Practices
By highlighting the importance of water quality, this study can promote sustainable practices
among lodge owners. Understanding the physicochemical characteristics of their water can
encourage them to adopt environmentally friendly methods for sourcing and treating water,
ultimately benefiting both public health and the environment.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The scope of the study is limited to the physicochemical analysis of selected lodges in
Umuerim, Umudibia Nekede
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATIVE REVIEW
Water takes part in many reactions including those with complex organic compound like
amino acids. It is vital in industrial and manufacturing activities and various agricultural
aspects, especially irrigation. Water is essential natural resources as it is impossible for life to
exist without water and most manufacturing industries cannot function in its absence. An
essential pre-requisite for the establishment of a stable community is the presence of safe
and reliable sources of water (Erah etal, 2002). Historically, (Okonkwo etal, 2009) water
scarcity has led to severe conflict, migration and change in agricultural patterns.
Human activities often result in water pollution making such water unfit for use. Water
pollution is a change in the quality of water which renders it unstable or dangerous as regards
foods, man and animal health, industry, agriculture, fishing or leisure (Ademorati, 1996).
However, before the advent of industrialization, the degree of contamination of water by
pollutant was low. New age activities like manufacturing process led to pollution of service
water source. Typical example is the location of chemical industries at river banks with
effluent released into the river. Sewage disposal into water bodies, as is practiced in
Lagos lagoon, leaves streams and rivers polluted (Okonkwo etal, 2009).
Agricultural processes involving the use of fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides produce toxic
substances that are transported as effluents into water sources and these pollute water
bodies (Obi etal, 2007). Similarly, textile industries emit waste water that contains
organic dyes which introduce different ions into water that can alter it’s composition (Olowe
etal, 2005). Oil spills pollute water bodies and form a film on the water surface that cuts off
oxygen supply. This leads to anaerobic condition and death of fish and other life forms in the
water (Edward, 2019). In oil drilling activities, ground water supplies are often contaminated
by the introduction of certain ion or compounds into water and these in turn reduced
the water quality. When surface and ground water are contaminated, the presence of
poisonous ions is evident. However, some ions introduced into water bodies may combine
with other compounds to form insoluble compounds which, when introduced into the body
system course serious harm (Hutton, 2011).
This work is needed to increase our awareness on issues concerning water quality. Across
Umuihi town, water is used in houses for activities such as cooking, washing and
gardening. Fishing is also done in some streams in the town and farming is the occupation of
many people in the town. The farms use water daily in feeding and washing up processes.
Cottage industries like bakeries, restaurants, mills, clinics and hospitals require water
for their daily uses.
2.1 WATER POLLUTION
Industrial Pollution: are used water which contained chemical compounds and trace element
such as metals. Raw active pollution from atomic plats can also be brought in this way rain
infiltrating through waste disposals, accidents like breaking of pipe line. Domestic Pollution:
is carried to the aquifer by rain intelterating through sanitary lard tills accidents, like breaking
septic tanks. Agriculture Pollution: is due to irrigation water or rain carrying away fertilizers,
mineral salt herbicides and pesticides (Ryan and Ray, 2018)
Environmental Pollution: is mainly due to sea water infusion in water aquifer bacteriological
pollution mainly originates in domestic water such as fecal erosion and is the main source of
pathogens in water.
Ryan and Ray (2018) started the routine bacteriological examination of metropolitan water
supply when he employed Kochs gelatin method. One must look for organism’s characteristic
of sewage to provide evidence of dangerous pollution, for the purpose of determining the
portability of a water supply. It is necessary to establish that the water is not contaminated
with pathogenic, if present could be greatly outnumbered by normal inhabitant it is more
satisfactory to examine the water for presence of the pathogens could be present. More
emphasis has been placing on faecal discharge.
2.2 UNDER GROUND WATER
Underground water usage follows in rank to the surface water sources, ground water sources
embrace all water sources embrace all water source obtained below the earth surface these
include spring well borehole, underground dam (Ryan and Ray, 2018).
2.3 WELL WATER
Wells, are used for a variety of purposes including exploration for mineral resources,
drainage, disposal and water supply, it can be shallow deep well. Well water is stagnant it
may contain a lot of clay and other mineral salt it may also contain the remains of dead
organisms which might have fallen into it. It may as well be hard as a result have fallen into
it. It may as well be hard as a result of the presence of lime stone on the bed, thus well water
requires treatment to be suitable for both domestic and industrial uses, according to (Miller et
al., 2015) it may contain acid and an abundance of trace element including poisonous arsenic
it occurs in saturated treat called aquifer which is present nearly everywhere. Well, is very
difficult to protect from contamination because they may be polluted by surface water flow
through an inadequately sealed well cover by seepage polluted ground water etc (Miller et al.,
2015) well maintenance is very important through sanitary protection maintenance of the well
seal and connection, protection from surface drainage is extremely important, since detraction
of well safety component may allow it to become polluted. Wells over thirty (30) meters deep
are considered as deep wells, those less than thirty (30) meters in depth are considered
Shallow wells (Amyes, 2017) underground water accumulated by infiltration of rain water,
melt water (form snow and ice) and other source of water of stream, ponds, lakes, and
reservoirs the movement of water into the ground and down ward zone of saturation is called
infiltration and the amount of cufiltration depends on the quality of water involved.
Ground water sources are safer than surface water, is less susceptible to pollution, Although
ground water is less exposed to pollution by domestic and industrial pollutants it is easily
more contaminated by salts which dissolves a lot of mineral substances as it passes through
such ground water are classified as brackish water having not 17 more than 1 % dissolved
salts for this reason, some ground water sources are not immediately useful (Adewuyi et al.,
2018) started that the total fresh water sources available to man is less than 0.5% of the
world’s total water contents. This is due to the high concentration of salts in ground water
which results in hardness. Ground water is an important of supply for much of our water,
people have used ground water for nearly all of recorded history and millions of wells have
been bunk all over in the containing bench for it. Ground water system have Three
characteristic that make supply, they are of adequate surface water supply they are:
(1) They are extensive in distribution and location
(2) They are large reservoirs and are free evaporation losses.
(3) They improve water quality by infiltration during percolation maintenance of uniform
temperature by retention of undesirable element of soil particle altercation by allowing time
for short life radioactive substance to decay during slow percolation. In support of this, (Boss,
2016) revealed that ground water in many respects is preferable to surface but in some area, it
may not be sufficient and in addition in some parts of the temperate countries.
2.4 PIPE BORNE WATER
It can be defined as channels of distribution of water through urban area or as water supplies
to urban area through pipe, it is underground waters which collect on the top of impervious
earth layer or strata. This is sourced by drilling holes to a depth of between 100 - 150ft or
more into the earth crust depending on the geological nature of the area. Pipe borne water has
been extended to rural areas from central urban undertaking (Craun et al., 2016).
However, because of inadequacies supply technological problems and ignorance of the
people, many of the rural communities served in these ways have not been able to derive
maximum benefit it is little wonder that our rural people still depend very much on rivers,
stream, ponds and shallow wells for their water supply from the observation made therefore
of the urban and rural water supplies, it is necessary to determine or carry out series of
experiment on water sources available to know microbial or bacteria contents if within the
acceptable unit 50 as to guide against water pollution which could result in water borne
disease as earlier discussed. Pipe water, as one of the water sources is mostly used domestics
show colour change and be clear. Sometimes this cell for need to actually verify its microbial
load.
2.5 SURFACE WATER
Majority of the water used both municipally and industrially are derived from surface water
sources. It includes all the bodies of water available on the earth surface viz: streams, rivers
Dams, canals, ponds etc. according to (De-Zuane, 2019).
2.6 POTABLE WATER
Potable water is any water that is fit for human consumption, and also water which in free
from chemical substances like lead, Arsenic acid, Ag, Ag etc and also microorganism like
Escherichia coli, Salmonella specie, Shigella specie etc. Potable water is required mostly for
drinking and processing of food raw materials pharmaceutical etc. therefore non potable
water is implicated with many types of health hazard and also it is pertinent to subject water
to necessary specified treatment before human consumption (Summerscales and McBean,
2016). The presence of bacteria in ground water is particularly to those bacteria of faecal
organ e.g Escherichia coli streptococcus fecalis the world health organization (WHO) has set
up human certain microbiological parameters for water quality which aim to exclude all
microbes of human and animals feacal origin because most pathogenic microbes found in
water are introduced, into the water through feacal contamination These parameters are as
follows;
1) No sample should contain 10 E coli in 100 ml of sample.
2) Throughout any year, 95% of the sample as examined should not contain organism in
any 100 ml sample.
3) It should contain less than 10 Coliform organisms per 100ml (Summerscales and
McBean, 2016)
4) Coliform organisms should not be detectable in any 100 ml of two consecutive
samples. For water meant for individual or small communities such as well, springs
lakes etc should have Coliform counts, less than 10/ 100ml. Persistent failure to
 achieve this, especially if Escherichia coli is repeatedly found in these samples, the
sources of water should be condemned

WATER QUALITY CONTROL

The use of water for industrial, agricultural and domestic, purposes causes deterioration in
quality. This polluted water is harmful to the environment if not treated before its release
back into use.
Water quality control includes the removal of;
i. Excessive colour, test and odour.
ii. Objectionable dissolved matter.
iii. Aggressive constituents
iv. Bacterial indication of feacal pollutant
However, different water samples contain different level of contaminant. Therefore,
parameters defining the quality are diverse and they vary with the corresponding
water samples or use to which the water is put.
PARAMETERS FOR DEFINING WATER QUALITY
The properties of water can be best on: its physical, chemical and biological properties.
Physical properties/characteristic
 Electrical conductivity: this is a quantitative measure of the ability of water to
conduct electric current. It can also be defined as a numerical expression of the ability
of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current (Lind, 1959). Electrical
conductivity is influenced by the presence of dissolved salts such as sodium chloride
and potassium chloride which produce ion that migrate in solution and then generate
electric current. Electrical conductivity is also a measure of the total dissolved
solid (TDS) or salinity (Lind, 1959).
 Turbidity: is a measure of the loss of transparency of a solution. The presence of
colloidal solid gives water a cloudy appearance which reduces its transparency.
 Taste and odour: when impurities are dissolved in water, the taste and odour
become objectionable.
 Solids (Total dissolved and suspended solids)
 Total suspended solid (TSS): these are discrete particles that can be measured by
filtering the sample through appropriate filters. The magnitude of these solid depends
on the type of filter (paper or sintered glass used), the pore size, the physical nature
and the size of the particles (ASTM, 2004, APHA, 1985). Increase in suspended
 solid in water is proportional to the increase in the extent of pollution and
also account for odour and colour (Golterman, 1978). The materials
deposited on the filter are the principal factors affecting separation of suspended solid
from dissolved solid.
 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS): total dissolved solids are due to soluble materials.
These refer to the portion of total solid that pass through the filter and is express in
Mg/L (APHA, 1985). High water with high dissolved solid is generally of inferior
palatability and may induce an unfavourable physiological reaction in the transient
consumer (ASTM 2004; APHA, 1985). High concentration of dissolved solid in
water is also responsible for hardness, turbidity, odour, taste, colour and
alkalinity (ASTM, 2004). The maximum permissible concentration of TDS is
500mg/L in potable water.
 Colour: good water should be transparent and clear. The colour of water is
expressed in Hazen units which correspond to the colouration of a series of
platinum/cobalt.
 Temperature: the temperature of water is not the main issue when considering it as
physical parameter, but its effect on other properties e.g. changing solubility of
gases. Table 1: Main Physical Properties of Pure Water (Kirk- oltmer, 1964)
S/N PROPERTY Value
1 Relative molecular 18.0152
mass
2 Boiling point 1000C
3 Freezing point 00C
4 Dielectric constant at 200C 77.94
5 Sound velocity 1496.3ms-
6 Specific heat at 00C 4.179jg-
7 Heat of formation at 180C -285.89kjmol-

8 Heat of ionization +55.71kjmol-

9 Heat of fusion at 00C -6.010kjmol-
10 Heat of vaporization at 1000C +40.651kjmol-
11 Density 1.0gml- (at 40C)
12 pH 7.0
13 Colour Colourless
14 Odour Odourless
15 Taste Tasteless
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES/CHARACTERISTICS

 pH Value: pH measures the level of acidity or alkalinity of the water sample. The pH is
indicated by the the concentration of hydrogen ion present (Edward, 2018). It is expressed
on a scale of 0-14 where 7 is neutral, below 7 is acidic and above 7 is basic. Practically,
every phase of water treatment such as softening, precipitation, coagulation, disinfection
and corrosion are pH dependent (ALPHA, 2015). Natural water has pH values in the
range 4 to 9 and most are slightly basic due to the presence of bicarbonate and carbonates
of alkali and alkaline earth metals (ALPHA, 2015).
 Hardness: hardness of water is a phenomenon which hardness is caused by sulphate
and chloride of calcium and occurs when soap does not lather easily with water, scales are
produced in pipes and boilers/kettles. Hardness is caused by metallic salt (ion) of
Calcium and Magnesium and sometimes Fe. These salts are usually in the form of
bicarbonate, sulphates and chlorides (ALPHA, 1999). Water hardness could be temporary
or permanent. Temporary hardness is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium
bicarbonates. It can be removed by boiling. Permanent magnesium and it cannot be
removed by boiling but by addition of sodium carbonate or ion exchange methods.
Water hardness is usually expressed as mgl-1CaCO3.
Table 2: Qualitative classification of water according to

Description Mg/l or ppm

Soft 0 - 17.1

Slightly hard 17.1 - 60

Moderately hard 60 - 120

Hard 120 - 180

Very hard 180 & over

Source: U.S. Department of Interior and the Water Quality Association, (2015)

 Dissolved Oxygen (DO): it is a measure of the oxygen content in water. Different life
forms in water need oxygen for survival. Water low in dissolved oxygen has an
unpleasant smell while waters high in dissolved oxygen are good for drinking
purposes.
 Biological oxygen demand (BOD): is oxygen used by microorganism per unit
volume of water at a given time.
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the amount of oxygen required to
decompose/oxidize the oxidizable compound of waste water.
 The presence of element nitrogen and chlorine: nitrogen is a very important
element and all biological reaction begins when it is present. Thus the
concentration of nitrogen can be used to determine the quality of water samples. The
chloride content in water is another important factor for water quality analysis.
 Alkalinity: the presence of hydroxides, carbonate and bicarbonate in natural water
cause alkalinity. Alkalinity is defined by (Ademorati, 1996) as a measure of the
ability of water samples to neutralize strong acids to an arbitrary pH or an indicator
end-point.
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD
3.1 MATERIALS
Gram strain- Grystal violet, Gram’s iodine solution, Ethanol, Safranin, Lacto cotton phenol blue,
Hydrogen peroxide, Distilled water, Glass ware, Conical flasks, Beakers, Pipette, Measuring
cylinder, Glass rod, Glass slides, Incubators, Refrigerator, Petri dishes, Microscope, Beam
balance, Wire loop, Bunsen burner, Autoclave, Test tubes, Hand glove, Malachite green dye.
Media Used
Eosin methylene blue agar (EMB), Nutrient agar, MacConkey broth, Blood agar, Mannitol
salt agar (MSA)and Nutrient broth
3.2 STUDY AREA
Nekede is a town in southeastern Nigeria. It is located near the city of Owerri. This is an Igbo
speaking town that is made up of three distinct towns, viz Umualum, Umudibia, and
Umuoma. Nekede also hosts the Imo State new Owerri capital territory popularly known as
new Owerri. Federal University of Technology Owerri is 20 minutes drive from Nekede. It
lies on the junction of the Nworie River and the Otamiri River. The population of Nekede is
fast developing into a city with increasing population due to the citing of the Federal
Polytechnic, Nekede, a federal government-owned higher institution.
The Federal Polytechnic, Nekede is a federal government-owned higher education institution
located in Nekede, Owerri West local government area, Imo State, south-eastern Nigeria. It
was established on a temporary site at the premise of Government Technical College by the
Imo State government in 1978 as the College of Technology, Owerri before it was moved to
its present location in Nekede. On April 7, the Polytechnic was changed to a federal
government institution and was named "The Federal Polytechnic, Nekede." The Federal
Polytechnic, Nekede offers National Diploma and Higher National Diploma courses at
undergraduate levels
SAMPLE COLLECTION
Borehole waters sample were collected from different Lodges comprising; four tap water
samples from different compounds, two borehole water samples from different compounds
and two stream water samples. Sterile universal sampling bottles was used to collect the
samples. The samples were thereafter brought to the laboratory for analysis in a cellophane
bag containing ice block. The samples were examined within two hours of collection.
ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE
PHYSIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS
The physiochemical tests included the determination of temperature, turbidity, odour, colour,
total solid, total hardness, total alkalinity, pH, conductivity, iron content, acidity, total
hardness, and chloride content using the methods of FAO (2019).
Physical tests such as Colour, Turbidity, Total solids,Dissolved solids, Suspended Solids,
Odour and taste were carried out using standard instrument.
CHEMICAL TESTS
Preparation of Samples
samples of water were obtained from three water boreholes in three different locations
(wards) in Umuihi town.
PH TEST
The pH of water was measured using pH meter and it measured the acidity and
alkalinity of the different boreholes water from different wards. The pH was
expressed in pH unit, and it is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration (H+) as pH = -
log (H+)
Jenway pH meter model was rinsed with de-ionised water and dried with soft tissue paper.
100cm3 of the sample was measured and placed in a sample bottle after which the
electrode was placed in the water sample, and meter reading was recorded. The
procedure was repeated for the other samples and the results obtained.
PROCEDURE FOR TURBIDITY MEASUREMENT
The turbidity of the water was measured daily and hourly. The turbidity of raw water was
measured daily before jar test analysis. The turbidity water was determined by the use of
turbidity meter through the following procedures.
- The water sample was poured in the sample bottle to the mark on the bottle.
- The blank sample was placed in the cell holders on the meters; the blank sample
was the distilled water in the blank sample bottle.
- The meter was put on followed by pressing PRG 95 followed by Enter, then zero,
the meter showed zero NTU.
- The water sample in the sample bottle was placed in the cell holder after removing
the blank sample and the read button was pressed thereafter, the meter displayed
the turbidity of the water in NTU.
SUSPENDED SOLID DETERMINATION (SS)
On the turbidity meter was pressed program select the program number 94 and measured
25mls of the sample was shaken to homogenise, and the standard removed. The sample was
inserted, followed by pressing read button and the meter automatically displayed the result.
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLID (TSS) DETERMINATION
In order to obtain the total suspended solid (TSS) the values of TDS and SS were added;
TDS + SS = TSS.
TDS TEST (TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS)
The TDS test was carried out with the same procedure and meter with that of conductivity
test, and its value was selected from the conductivity meter.
PROCEDURE FOR ALKALINITY TEST
100 mls of final water was measured into the conical flask where phenolphthalein indicator
was added. The colour remains unchanged. A methyl orange indicator was added which
changed the colour to yellow. 0.1M HCl was titrated against the mixture in the conical flask
up to the attainment of reddish coloration which marked the end-point of the first titration,
where the reading was taken. The mixture in conical flask was boiled and allowed to
cool where the same 0.1M HCl was again titrated against the mixture i.e. the second titration
up to the formation of faint yellow coloration, the second reading was taken. The first reading
and the second were summed and multiplied by (50) which is the approved standard
conversion factor to obtain the total alkalinity of the final water expressed in mg/l.
PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTIVITY TEST
The conductivity test was carried out using conductivity meter. The conductivity of both raw
and treated water were carried out. The water(s) were obtained in beakers where button on
the meter was pressed which displayed the conductivity of the water sample, either raw or
treated. It is expressed in NTU.
TEST FOR HARDNESS
50 ml of raw and final water were measured into separate conical flask. 2 ml of buffer
solution were added to each sample, the colour remained unchanged. A small amount of
eriochrome black T was added to each sample, a pink coloration was observed.
The samples were titrated with ethylenediaminetetraacetic (EDTA) up to the observance of
blue colouration. The titre values of both raw and final water samples were multiplied with
(44.892) as the approved conversion factor where the hardness of both raw and final Rwater
were expressed in mg/L.

TEST FOR CALCIUM

50 ml of both raw and final water were measured into separate conical flasks and 2 ml
of 0.1M NaOH were added to the samples, their colours remained unchanged. A small
amount of monoxide was added to the samples and violet coloration was obtained. The
samples were titrated with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) to permanent pink
colour. The titre values of both raw and final water were multiplied with (18.025) as the
standard conversion factor, the concentrations were expressed in mg/L.
MAGNESIUM HARDNESS
In order to determine the magnesium hardness, immediately after the end point of calcium
hardness, to the same sample was added 3ml of 5.0M HCl then 6 ml of concentrated
NH3 solution was also added and small amount of eriochrome black T indicator,
titrated with EDTA until a faint blue colour appeared then the colour
PREPARATION OF THE SOLUTIONS
PREPARATION OF 0.1M EDTA
3.72g of disodium dihydrogen- ethylenediammnetetraacetate dehydrate was dissolved in
water and the resulting solution was transferred into a litre volumetric flask, and de-ionised
water was added to the mark (Vogel, 2011).
PREPARATION OF BUFFER SOLUTION (pH=10):
17.5 g of ammonium chloride was weighed and 142 ml of concentrated ammonia solution
was added, and the resulting mixture was diluted to 250 ml with distilled water.
(Vogel, 2011)
PREPARATION OF 0.1M NaOH:
4 g of sodium hydroxide was dissolved in a beaker and then transferred into 1000 cm3
volumetric flask and the volume was made to the mark with distilled water.
PREPARATION OF ERIOCHROME BLACK INDICATOR:
1 g of eriochrome was dissolved in 100ml of ethanol.
PREPARATION OF MEROXIDE INDICATOR:
1g of meroxide indicator was dissolved in 100ml of methanol. indicator changed from wine-
red to blue.
STATISTICAL METHOD
National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index method classified water quality into nine
quality parameters according to the degree of purity by using the most commonly measured
water quality variables (Tyagi et al., 2008). The water quality data are recorded and
transferred to a weighting curve chart where the numerical values of Qi are obtained.
Mathematically, NSFWQI is expressed below:
NSFWQI ∑𝑛𝑖 1 𝑊𝑖𝐼𝑖 (1)
where NSFWQI is National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index, I i is sub-index for ith
water quality parameters, Wi is the weight associated with ith water quality parameters, n is
the number of water quality parameters.

[1] Tyagi, F., Chatterji, D. & Raziuddin, A., Use of water quality indices to verify
the impact of Cordoba City (Argentina) on Suquia River. Water Research, 34, pp.
2915–
2926, 2008.