FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid dynamics is a sub-discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow in motion. There

are many branches in fluid dynamics, aerodynamics and hydrodynamics few among the popularly

known fluid mechanics. It involves in a wide range of applications such as calculating force &

moments, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather

patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and modeling fission weapon detonation.

Fluid flow is more complex than fluid at rest. This is because the study of fluid at rest is devoid of

shear forces. In the study of fluid flow, there is velocity due to the variation of the velocity of fluid

flow at the boundary to that far away from the boundary.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

• Density (ρ): Mass per unit volume (kg/m³)

• Specific weight (γ): Weight per unit volume (N/m³), γ = ρg

• Viscosity (μ): A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow (Pa·s)

• Pressure (P): Force per unit area exerted by the fluid (Pa or N/m²)

• Surface tension: Force at the fluid interface (N/m)

• Temperature: Affects fluid properties

4.1 Types of flow

Conditions in a fluid may vary from time to time at any given time, and may very from point to

point. A fluid flow is said to be uniform, if the velocity of the fluid at a given time is the same in

magnitude and direction at every point in the fluid. If the velocity changes from time to time at a

given instant it is termed non-uniform flow. Flow can be said to be uniform, if the size and shape

of the cross-section of the stream of fluid is constant. A fluid is said to be steady, if the pressure,
velocity and cross-section of the stream do not change from time to time. It may change form point

to point. If the flow conditions change with time, the flow I said to be unsteady. Flow generally

can be categorized into four types.

(i) Steady Uniform Flow: the velocity cross-sectional area of the stream of fluid do not

change with time or position. An example is a pipe of uniform diameter running

completely full.

(ii) Steady non-uniform flow: conditions do not change from time tot time but with

positions. An example is flow of liquid at consent rate through a tapering pipe flowing

completely full.

(iii) Unsteady uniform flow: the velocity from time to but the same at every point. an

example is and accelerating fluid in a pipe of uniform diameter such as when a pump

(iv) Unsteady Non-Uniform Flow: The cross-sectional and velocity change with time and

from point to point. An example is a wave travelling in a channel. Flow can again be

classified into two distinct flow types.

1. Laminar Flow (Viscous Flow)

This occurs when, at every point, the velocity vector is identical in magnitude and direction at any
given instant i.e du/ds = 0 in which time is held constant and s is the displacement in any direction.
This equation states that there is no change in the velocity vector in any direction throughout the
fluid at any instant. It states nothing about the change in velocity at a point in time.
 Figure 4.1: Reynolds’s Laminar and Turbulent flow laboratory experiment for

From Figure 4.1, the nature of the streak-line formed by injecting the dye depends on the fluid
velocity. When the fluid is moving slowest, there is a well-defined streak-line. This flow condition
is called laminar flow. When the fluid is moving faster, the irregular streak-line which blurs and
spreads the dye out is formed where streak-line also fluctuates randomly with time. This flow
condition is called turbulent flow. When the fluid is moving at an intermediate velocity, there are
irregularities in the streak-line, but the streak-line is still well defined. This is called transitional
flow.

In the flow of a real fluid in an open or closed conduit, the definition may be extended in most
cases, even though the velocity vector at the boundary is always zero. When all parallel cross-
sections conduit are identical, and the average velocity at each section is the same at any given
instant, the flow is said to be uniform. An example is the flow of a liquid been pumped through a
long straight pipe (uniform in the direction of flow). This type of flow is governed by Reynolds
number. In other words, whether a flow will result in laminar or turbulent flow is primarily
determined by the Reynolds number,

vd
Re = 4.1


Where

Re is the Reynolds number

ρ = the mass density

v = velocity of flow

d = pipe diameter

μ = viscosity

• The flow is laminar when Re < 2000

• The flow is transitional between 2000 < Re < 4000

• The flow is turbulent for Re > 4000

These values depend on the shape of pipe, roughness, shape of pipe inlet. The limits are

also soft numbers.

2. Turbulent Flow

This occurs when the fluid particles moves in very irregular paths causing an exchange of

momentum from one portion of field to another. Laminar flow tends to occur when the fluid

velocity is small or the fluid viscosity is large or both. In cases where the given flow can be either

laminar or turbulent, the turbulent flow sets up greater shear stresses and causes more mechanical

energy to be converted to thermal energy. For flow in pipes, Turbulent flow is said to occur when

Reynolds number is greater than 2100.

GENERAL DEFINITION

LOCAL FLUID
A fluid assumed to have zero viscosity. There is no conversion of mechanical energy into thermal
energy with an incompressible ideal fluid. If an ideal fluid is initial at rest, it can be shown
that subsequently all particles must continue to have the same total mechanical energy.

REAL FLUID

Flow of a real fluid involves the conversion of mechanical energy to mechanical energy i.e
viscosity is present.

LAMINAR FLOW

Fluid particles move along in layers or laminae with one layer sliding over an adjacent layer. The
flow is govern by newton’s law of viscosity which state that, shear stress is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain (viscosity gradient) with the constant of
proportionality define as the co-efficient of absolute viscosity

T=udu/dy (for straight parallel motion)

Where T=Force/area = shear stress

Du/dy= viscosity gradient or rate of shearing strain

M= co-efficient of absolute viscosity

The degradation in mechanical energy for lamina flow varies approximately as viscosity.

PATH LINE

This is the path of a single fluid particle taken over a length of time. Path lines may cross each
other.

EXAMPLES OF FLOWS

Steady Uniform Flow: The flow of a liquid through a straight horizontal pipe at a constant rate.

Unsteady Uniform Flow: The flow of a liquid through a straight horizontal pipe at a changing
rate.

Steady Un-uniform Flow: the flow of a liquid through a conical pipe at a constant rate.
Unsteady, non-uniform Flow: The flow of a liquid through a conical pipe at a changing rate.

STREAMLINE

This is a curve which is everywhere parallel to the direction of flow. No stream lines can ever
cross each other. Streamlines and path lines become identical if the flow does not change
with time i.e flow is steady. Streamline pictures allows fluid flow to be visualized.

STREAM TUBE

The total flow can be divided into paths, each taking place along an Imaginary tube, called a
stream tube. A stream tube is bounded by streamlines and hence no flow can cross the
boundary of a stream tube. If the fluid is ideal i.e energy is not degraded, then the total
mechanical energy per unit mass of fluid remains constant along a stream tube.

The product of velocity and cross-sectional area is assumed constant for all stream tubes when
drawing stream lines fields for an incompressible fluid.

BOUNDARY LAYER

When a real fluid flows past a solid boundary, the fluid in the immediate neighborhood of the
boundary is retarted by viscous shear forces set up within the fluid. The retarted layer of
fluid is called boundary layer.

CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

(a). Classification based on Reynolds’s number

i. Turbulent flow: the most prevalent in nature. If we think of fluids as particles, then this
particles move in irregular paths, colliding, exchanging momentum and generally acting in
an apparently random fashion. The fluid particles can also be viewed as moving in erratic
paths causing instantaneous fluctuation in the velocity component. This turbulent
fluctuations cause an exchange of momentum setting up additional shear stresses of large
magnitude. Reynolds’s number (Re=ƪVl/µ) is greater than 4000. ƪ and V are density and
flow velocity respectively, L is the characteristics length which may diameter in the case
of a pipe and µ=viscosity.
ii. Laminar Flow: fluid particles move along smooth layers, one layer gliding over an adjacent
layer i.e, movement of any particle in a path is identical to the next particle in the path.
Viscous shear stresses dominant inthis kind of flow in which the shear stress and velocity
distribution are governed.

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1

The diameter of a pipe of the sections 1 and 2 are 15cm and 20 cm respectively. Find the
discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe of section (1) is 10
m/s and also determine velocity at section (2)

Given data:

Section (1)

Diameter of the pipe (D1) = 15 cm

Velocity of the pipe (V1) = 10 m/s

Section (2) Diameter of the pipe (D2) = 20 cm

Solution:

1. Discharge through the pipe (Q) = A1V1

A1 = 0.01767 m2

Q = 0.01767 × 10

Q = 0.1767 m3/s

2. According to continuity equation

A1V1 = A2V2

V2 = A1V1 / A2

A2 = 0.0314 m2

V2 = 0.01767 × 10/0.0314

V2 = 5.624 m/s

Result :

(i) Q = 0.1767 m3/s

(ii) V2 = 5.624 m/s

Example - 2

Water is flowing through a horizontal tapered pipe. The diameter of larger end is 250 mm and
the diameter at smaller end is 100mm. The velocity of water at largest end is 3 m/s. Determine

a) The velocity head at smaller end

b) The velocity head at larger end
c) The discharge through the pipe
Given data:
Diameter of larger end D1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m

Diameter of smaller end D2 = 100 mm = 0.1 m

Velocity at larger end V1 = 3 m/s

To find:

a) The velocity head (V12/2g) at larger end

b) The velocity head (V22/2g) at smaller end

c) Discharge through the pipe (Q)

Solution :

= 0.0490 m2

= 7.85 × 10-3m2

3. According to continuity equation A1V1= A2V2

V2 = A1V1/A2

= 0.0490 × 3/7.85 × 10-3

V2 = 18.73 m/s

4. Velocity head at larger end = V12/2g = 32/2 × 9.81

= 0.4587 m/s

5. Velocity head at smallest end = V22/2g

= 18.732/2 × 9.81
= 17.88 m/s

6. Discharge through pipe (Q) = A1V1 = A2V2

Q = A1V1 = 0.0490 × 3

Q = 0.147 m3/s

Q = 147 liters/s

Result :

(i) Velocity head at larger end = V12/2g = 0.4587 m/s

(ii) Velocity head at smallest end = V22/2g = 17.88 m/s

(iii) Discharge through pipe (Q) = 147 litres/s

Example - 3

The diameter of a pipe at 40 cm conveying water into two pipes of diameter 30 cm and 20 cm
respectively. If the average velocity in the 40 cm diameter pipe is 3.5 m/s. Find the discharge
in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 20 cm pipe, if the average velocity in 30 cm diameter
pipe is 3 m/s.

Given data:

Diameter of pipe at (1) D1 = 40 cm = 0.4 m

Velocity of the pipe at (1) V1 = 3.5 m/s

Diameter of pipe at (2) D2 = 30 cm= 0.3 m

Velocity of the pipe at (2) V2 = 3 m/s

Diameter of pipe at (3) D3 = 20cm = 0.2 m

To find:
1) Discharge of pipe at (1) Q1

2) Velocity of the pipe at (3) V3

Solution :

Result:

(i) Discharge of pipe (Q1) = 0.439 m3/s

(ii) Velocity of pipe at (3) V3 = 7.232 m/s

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is the primary difference between a fluid and a solid?
A) Fluids have fixed shapes, solids do not.
B) Fluids deform continuously under shear stress, solids do not.
C) Fluids have high density, solids have low density.
D) Fluids cannot flow, solids can.

Answer: B

2. Which of the following properties of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow?

A) Density
B) Viscosity
C) Pressure
D) Temperature

Answer: B

3. In fluid statics, the pressure at a certain depth in a fluid depends on:

A) The depth and the density of the fluid
B) The velocity of the fluid
C) The temperature of the fluid only
D) The shape of the container

Answer: A

4. The Continuity Equation in fluid mechanics represents:

A) Conservation of momentum
B) Conservation of mass
C) Conservation of energy
D) Conservation of heat

Answer: B

5. Bernoulli’s equation is applicable under which of the following conditions?

A) Compressible, viscous flow
B) Incompressible, non-viscous, steady flow
C) Unsteady turbulent flow
D) Any flow condition

Answer: B

6. Reynolds number helps to determine:

A) The temperature of the fluid
B) The flow regime (laminar or turbulent)
C) The pressure in the fluid
D) The viscosity of the fluid

Answer: B