Chapter 3: Physiology of Neural Cells

Introduction to Neural Physiology

The physiology of neural cells focuses on how neurons function, communicate, and
maintain homeostasis. Neurons are excitable cells specialized for electrical signaling.

Neurons are capable of generating rapid changes in membrane potential, allowing them to
transmit signals over long distances. This ability is essential for sensory perception,
movement, cognition, and emotional regulation.

Neurons communicate using two main mechanisms: electrical signaling within neurons and
chemical signaling between neurons. Electrical signals allow rapid conduction, while
chemical signals allow modulation, integration, and amplification.

The human brain contains approximately 86 billion neurons, forming trillions of synaptic
connections. Each neuron can connect to thousands of other neurons, creating complex
networks that underlie all brain activity.

Unlike many body cells, most neurons are post-mitotic, meaning they cannot divide or
regenerate easily. This explains why neuronal damage in the CNS often results in
permanent deficits.

1: Structure of the Neuron (Functional Perspective)

The structure of neurons is tightly linked to their physiological function. The main regions
are:

 Soma (cell body)

 Dendrites

 Axon

 Axon terminals

 Myelin sheath

 Nodes of Ranvier

Each component has a specific role in communication, signal integration, or signal

conduction. Understanding the structure is essential for understanding how neurons
generate and transmit action potentials.

Neurons are polarized cells, meaning that information flows in a specific direction:
dendrites → soma → axon → terminals.
A. Cell Body (Soma)

The soma contains the nucleus, which directs all genetic and metabolic activities.
It contains Nissl bodies, which are involved in protein synthesis needed for neurotransmitter
production and axonal repair.

The soma integrates incoming signals from dendrites. If the integrated signals reach a
threshold, an action potential is generated at the axon hillock.

The soma also contains mitochondria for energy production, essential for active transport
and maintaining the resting membrane potential.

Its cytoskeleton provides structural support and helps in transporting molecules and
vesicles along the axon.

B. Dendrites

Dendrites are branched extensions from the soma that receive synaptic input from other
neurons.
They contain numerous receptor proteins, which bind neurotransmitters and convert
chemical signals into graded electrical signals.

The number and complexity of dendrites determine how much input a neuron can receive.
Dendritic spines are dynamic structures that change in response to learning and
experience.
Dendrites integrate signals spatially (from multiple synapses) and temporally (from repeated
signals). This integration determines whether the neuron will generate an action potential.

D. Axon

The axon is a long, slender projection that conducts electrical impulses away from the
soma.
Axons can vary in length—from millimeters to over a meter in humans (e.g., spinal cord to
toes).

Axons contain voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels that propagate the action potential.
They also contain axoplasmic transport systems that move proteins, neurotransmitters, and
organelles anterogradely (toward terminals) or retrogradely (toward soma).

Axonal diameter influences the speed of conduction: larger diameter axons conduct
impulses faster due to lower internal resistance.

E. Myelin Sheath

The myelin sheath is a fatty layer that insulates the axon.

In the PNS, it is formed by Schwann cells; in the CNS, it is formed by oligodendrocytes.

Myelin increases conduction speed by preventing ion leakage and allowing saltatory
conduction.
The action potential “jumps” between nodes of Ranvier, which are gaps in myelination rich
in sodium channels.

Demyelination, as seen in Multiple Sclerosis, slows conduction and can produce

neurological deficits like weakness and sensory disturbances.

F. Nodes of Ranvier

Nodes are unmyelinated gaps along the axon.

They contain clusters of voltage-gated Na⁺ channels that regenerate the action potential
during saltatory conduction.

These nodes allow impulses to travel quickly and efficiently, reducing energy expenditure.
Saltatory conduction is 10–50 times faster than continuous conduction in unmyelinated
axons.

Nodes also support rapid signaling in large neural networks, essential for reflexes and
complex behaviors.
G. Axon Terminals / Synaptic Boutons

The axon terminal is the site of neurotransmitter release.

Vesicles in the terminal contain chemical messengers that are released into the synaptic cleft.

The terminals convert electrical signals (action potentials) into chemical signals
(neurotransmitter release).
Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, generating excitatory or
inhibitory responses.

Terminals also contain machinery for reuptake, vesicle recycling, and enzyme-mediated
neurotransmitter degradation.

2: Types of Neurons on the basis of function

Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system that transmit information
throughout the body. They vary in structure and function, and based on their roles, neurons
are classified into three main types: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.
Each type has a distinct function and structure that allows it to perform specific tasks in the
nervous system.

a. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

 Function: Sensory neurons carry information from sensory receptors in the body
(like skin, eyes, ears, nose, and tongue) toward the central nervous system (CNS).
They help the body perceive the external and internal environment.

 Pathway: They transmit signals from the peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord
and brain.

 Structure: Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and a short axon. This
allows them to efficiently receive stimuli and send impulses to the CNS.

 Example: Touching a hot object triggers sensory neurons in the skin, sending signals
to the spinal cord, which then processes the sensation of pain.

 Some sensory neurons are specialized to respond to specific stimuli, such as

photoreceptors in the retina for light or mechanoreceptors in the skin for pressure.

b. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

 Function: Motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to muscles and glands,
allowing the body to perform actions and respond to sensory input.
  Pathway: They transmit impulses from the brain or spinal cord to effectors such as
muscles, causing contraction, or glands, causing secretion.

 Structure: Motor neurons usually have short dendrites and a long axon, which
helps transmit commands over longer distances from the CNS to peripheral organs.

 Example: When you decide to lift a cup, motor neurons carry the signal from your
brain to the muscles in your arm and hand, enabling movement.

 Motor neurons are critical for voluntary movements (like walking) and involuntary
movements (like reflex actions).

c. Interneurons (Association Neurons)

 Function: Interneurons act as connectors or mediators between sensory and motor

neurons. They process information and determine the appropriate response.

 Pathway: Located primarily in the brain and spinal cord, interneurons receive
impulses from sensory neurons, integrate the information, and send commands to
motor neurons.

 Structure: Interneurons are typically short neurons with many dendrites and
complex branching to facilitate communication between multiple neurons.

 Example: In a reflex action like withdrawing your hand from a hot surface,
interneurons in the spinal cord immediately connect sensory input to motor output,
allowing a quick response without needing to involve the brain.

 Interneurons are responsible for higher-order functions such as thinking, learning,

and memory, as they form complex neural networks in the CNS.

Types of Neurons on the basis of Location and Structure:

a. Unipolar Neuron

Structure: A unipolar neuron has only one process arising from the cell body. This single
extension mainly functions as an axon.

Function and Location: True unipolar neurons are rare in humans and are mostly found in
invertebrates. They usually perform simple sensory functions.

b. Bipolar Neuron
Structure: A bipolar neuron has two processes: one dendrite and one axon. The dendrite
receives signals, and the axon transmits them away from the cell body.

Function and Location: These neurons are involved in special senses such as vision, smell,
and hearing. They are found in the retina and olfactory region.

c. Pseudounipolar Neuron

Structure: A pseudounipolar neuron appears to have one process, but it divides into two
branches.

Function and Location: One branch carries sensory information from receptors, and the
other sends it to the central nervous system. They are responsible for general sensory
functions like pain, touch, and temperature and are found in dorsal root ganglia.

d. Multipolar Neuron

Structure: A multipolar neuron has one axon and many dendrites.

Function and Location: It is the most common type in the human nervous system. These
neurons function mainly as motor neurons and interneurons in the brain and spinal cord.

Key Points to Remember

1. Sensory neurons → carry information to CNS.

2. Motor neurons → carry commands from CNS to muscles/glands.

3. Interneurons → connect sensory and motor neurons, and handle processing.

4. Neurons differ structurally based on function: unipolar, bipolar, multipolar.

 5. Neurons work together to enable perception, movement, reflexes, and complex
thought.

3: Communication Within a Neuron

Communication inside a neuron is electrical. It happens very quickly because of tiny changes
in electrical charge inside the cell.

The signal moves in one direction:

Dendrites → Cell Body → Axon → Axon Terminals

1. Dendrites Receive Signals

Dendrites receive messages from other neurons. These messages are small electrical signals
that travel toward the cell body.
They have receptors that detect neurotransmitters released by other neurons.
More stimulation from different neurons increases the strength of the signal.

2. Cell Body Decides

The cell body adds up all the signals it receives. If the signal is strong enough, the neuron
becomes active and prepares to send its own message.
It performs an important role in integrating information from multiple inputs.
If the incoming signals are weak, the neuron will not fire.

3. Action Potential Starts

If the signal reaches the required level (called threshold), an electrical impulse called an
action potential is produced. This response follows the “all-or-none” rule, meaning it either
happens completely or not at all.
Voltage-gated ion channels open to allow ions to move across the membrane.
This sudden change in electrical charge creates the nerve impulse.

4. Signal Travels Along the Axon

The electrical impulse moves down the axon toward the axon terminals. This movement
happens because of the flow of sodium and potassium ions in and out of the cell membrane.
The signal regenerates along the axon to maintain its strength.
This process ensures the message reaches the end of the neuron without losing power.
5. Myelin Speeds It Up

If the axon is covered with myelin, the signal moves much faster. It jumps from one gap
(Node of Ranvier) to another. This is called saltatory conduction.
Myelin acts as insulation and improves signal efficiency.
Damage to myelin can slow down or disrupt communication.

This whole process happens in just a few milliseconds, allowing the body to respond quickly
to changes. It is the basic way the nervous system sends information from one part of the
body to another.
It supports learning, movement, thinking, and reflex actions.
Without this fast communication, coordinated behavior would not be possible.

4: Communication Between Neurons (Synaptic Communication)

Neurons communicate with each other at specialized junctions called synapses. A synapse is
a tiny gap that allows one neuron to pass a signal to another neuron in a controlled and
precise manner. Most synapses are chemical synapses, where communication occurs through
chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.

There are three main parts of a synapse:

1. Presynaptic neuron – the sending neuron that releases the neurotransmitter.

2. Synaptic cleft – the small gap between the two neurons (about 20–40 nanometers
wide).

3. Postsynaptic neuron – the receiving neuron that has receptors for the
neurotransmitter.

This process ensures that signals move in one direction only, from the presynaptic neuron to
the postsynaptic neuron.

Steps of Synaptic Transmission

1. Arrival of Action Potential

When an action potential (nerve impulse) reaches the axon terminal, it causes voltage-gated
calcium channels to open. Calcium ions enter the terminal, which triggers the next step.

2. Release of Neurotransmitters
The increase in calcium causes synaptic vesicles (small sacs filled with neurotransmitters) to
fuse with the presynaptic membrane. This process is called exocytosis, and neurotransmitters
are released into the synaptic cleft.

3. Crossing the Synaptic Cleft

The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft within a fraction of a second. This
movement is very fast due to the extremely small size of the gap.

4. Binding to Receptors

Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane. Each

receptor is highly selective, meaning only certain neurotransmitters can attach to it (like a
lock-and-key mechanism).

5. Generation of a New Signal

Binding of neurotransmitters may open ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane. This can
produce:

 Excitatory effects (EPSP) – increasing the likelihood of a new action potential.

 Inhibitory effects (IPSP) – decreasing the likelihood of a new action potential.

If the excitation reaches the threshold level, a new electrical impulse is generated in the
postsynaptic neuron.

Key Differences Between Communication Within vs. Between Neurons

Feature Within Neuron Between Neurons

Type of Electrical (action potential) Chemical (neurotransmitters) or sometimes

signal electrical

Mechanism Movement of ions along Neurotransmitter release and receptor

axon activation

Speed Very fast (ms) Slightly slower due to chemical diffusion

(~ms)

Location Inside axon Across synapse

Purpose Conduction of signal to Transmission of signal to next neuron or

terminal effector
5: Nerve Impulse (Action Potential)

A nerve impulse, also known as an action potential, is an electrical signal that travels along
the axon of a neuron. It enables neurons to communicate rapidly with other neurons, muscles,
and glands. This electrical signal moves in one direction and allows information to be
transmitted throughout the nervous system.

Resting Potential

When a neuron is not actively sending a signal, it is in a resting state called the resting
potential. During this state, the inside of the neuron is negatively charged compared to the
outside due to the distribution of ions across the membrane.

The resting potential is approximately -70 millivolts (mV). This negative charge is
maintained by ion channels and the sodium-potassium pump, which actively regulates the
movement of sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) ions to keep the neuron stable and ready to
fire when stimulated.

Depolarization
Depolarization occurs when a strong stimulus triggers the neuron to send a signal. In this
process, sodium (Na⁺) channels open, allowing sodium ions to rush into the cell.

As sodium enters the neuron, the inside of the cell becomes less negative and eventually
turns positive. This rapid change in electrical charge creates the action potential, which then
travels along the axon to transmit the signal.

Repolarization

After depolarization occurs, repolarization begins to restore the neuron to its resting state.
During this phase, potassium (K⁺) channels open and potassium ions move out of the cell.

The loss of positive potassium ions makes the inside of the neuron negative again. This
process helps the neuron reset so it can be ready to generate another action potential if
needed.

All-or-None Law

The all-or-none law states that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all. There is
no partial action potential.

If the stimulus is strong enough to reach the threshold level, a full action potential occurs. If
the stimulus is too weak and does not reach the threshold, no action potential is generated.
This ensures clear and consistent transmission of signals in the nervous system.

Importance of Nerve Impulse

 Controls voluntary and involuntary movements:

Nerve impulses help control movements like walking, writing, and talking (voluntary)
as well as automatic actions like heartbeat and breathing (involuntary).

 Transmits sensory information to the brain:

They carry information from sensory organs (eyes, ears, skin, etc.) to the brain so we
can feel, see, hear, and respond to our environment.

 Coordinates reflexes and rapid responses:

Nerve impulses enable quick reactions such as pulling your hand away from
something hot. Reflex actions happen fast because signals travel directly through the
spinal cord.
  Supports thinking, learning, and memory:
Communication between neurons through nerve impulses allows the brain to process
information, store memories, and support learning and decision-making.

 Maintains homeostasis by regulating internal processes:

Nerve impulses help regulate body functions like temperature, blood pressure,
digestion, and hormone release to keep the body balanced and functioning properly.

Major Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are the body’s chemical messengers. They carry, boost, and balance
signals between nerve cells (neurons) and other target cells throughout the body. These target
cells can be other neurons, muscles, or glands.

 Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory, muscle movement (deficit linked to Alzheimer’s).

 Dopamine: Reward, motivation, voluntary movement (too little: Parkinson’s; too

much: schizophrenia).

 Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite (low levels linked to depression).

 Norepinephrine: Arousal, alertness.

 GABA: Major inhibitory neurotransmitter (low levels linked to anxiety).

 Glutamate: Major excitatory transmitter (involved in learning).

 Endorphins: Natural painkillers.