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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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2. SPONTANEOUS
CHANGE
Chem 17
2nd Semester AY 2025-2026

University of the Philippines Diliman

Shaping minds that shape the nation

University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Reference
• Chapter 13. General Chemistry Principles and Modern Applications (11th
Edition 2017) by Ralph Petrucci et al
• Chapter 17. Chemistry (11th Edition 2024) by Zumdahl et al

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Learning Outcomes
• Differentiate between spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes
• Identify the factors that affect spontaneity
• Determine whether a physical/chemical change can increase/decrease entropy
• Discuss the second and the third law of thermodynamics
• Calculate ΔS° of reaction using standard absolute entropy (𝑆°)
• Use the Gibbs equation to predict spontaneity of chemical reactions
• Calculate Δ𝐺° of reaction using Δ𝐺° of formation
• Calculate Δ𝑆 for phase transitions
• Determine the appropriate chemical reaction to couple with a nonspontaneous
reaction to achieve spontaneity
• Solve for Δ𝐺 under nonstandard conditions
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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OVERVIEW
• Criteria for Spontaneity
• Entropy (S)
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Third Law of Thermodynamics
• Gibbs Free Energy (G)
• ∆S for Phase Changes
• Coupled Reactions
• Nonstandard Conditions

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Spontaneity
Spontaneous changes happen without any continuing outside influence.

• A waterfall runs downhill

• A lump of sugar dissolves in a cup of

coffee
spontaneous
• Ice melts at room temperature (1 atm)

• Heat flows from a hotter object to a nonspontaneous

colder object
• Gas expands in an evacuated bulb

• Rusting of iron when exposed to oxygen

and water A spontaneous change has a natural
direction. The reverse direction is
nonspontaneous. 5

University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Spontaneity of Reactions
Two factors that affect spontaneity:

(1) It is favored when heat is released during the change (exothermic).

• decrease in enthalpy (negative ∆H)
• NOT all exothermic reactions are spontaneous

(2) It is favored when the change causes an increase in disorder.

• increase in entropy (positive ∆S)
• NOT all reactions with positive ∆S are spontaneous

Spontaneity is determined by the proper combination of ∆H and ∆S.

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Entropy (S)
Entropy (S) is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system.

The greater the disorder, the higher the entropy.

Entropy is a state function. ∆S = Sfinal ⎯ Sinitial

If the change results in an increase in disorder:

Sfinal > Sinitial ΔS > 0 (ΔS is positive)

Unit: Joules per Kelvin (J/K) 7

University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Entropy (S)
Phase Changes
For any substance, the solid state is more ordered than the liquid state and the liquid state is
more ordered than the gas state.

Ssolid < Sliquid << Sgas

more order less order

Melting Evaporation

H2O(s) → H2O(l) ΔS > 0 H2O(l) → H2O(g) ΔS > 0

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Entropy (S)
Dissolution
• Dissolving a solid or liquid
S of a dissolved solid or liquid is usually
greater than S of the pure solute.

ΔS > 0 H2O
Ca(NO3)2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2 NO3⎯(aq)

• Dissolving a gas
A gas becomes more ordered when it O2 gas
dissolves in a liquid or solid.

O2 gas dissolved in H2O

ΔS < 0
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Entropy (S)
Temperature Change
Entropy increases as the temperature rises.
Molecular motions are increased.

ΔS > 0

Volume Change
Entropy increases as the volume of the closed open
container increases.

ΔS > 0 10
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Entropy (S)
Changes in the Number of Moles of Gaseous Substance
Entropy increases for processes that result in an increase in the number of moles of gaseous substance.

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g) ΔS > 0

Chemical Complexity
Entropy is higher for substances with greater number of atoms in their molecular formula.

C2H6 has a higher entropy than CH4. More ways for molecules
to vibrate with greater
number of atoms.

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Practice
Predict whether the entropy change is positive or negative for each of the
following processes:

A. CH3OH(l) → CH3OH(s) freezing ⟹ ΔS is negative

B. H जgझ + O जgझ → H Oजlझ decrease in gas molecules ⟹ ΔS is negative
C. cooling N2 gas from 80°C to 20°C decrease in T ⟹ ΔS is negative

D. Ag+(aq) + Cl⎯(aq) → AgCl(s) precipitation ⟹ ΔS is negative

H2O
E. C12H22O11(s) → C12H22O11(aq) dissolution of solid ⟹ ΔS is positive
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Second Law of Thermodynamics

In spontaneous changes, the universe tends towards a state of greater
disorder.

The entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process.

ΔSuniverse > 0

ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings

ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings > 0

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Entropy and Statistical Probability

Boltzmann Equation:
S = k ln W
k = 1.38 x 10⎯23 J/K (Boltzmann constant)
W = number of probable ways of arranging
the system (available microstates)

At T = 0 K (absolute zero):
Perfect crystal (thermal motion ceases)
W = 1 (only one arrangement)
S = k ln(1) = 0 ⟹ Third Law!
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Third Law of Thermodynamics

The entropy of a pure, perfect
crystalline substance is zero at the
absolute zero of temperature.

The 3rd law permits us to measure the

absolute values of entropy (S) for
substances.

To get S at 298 K:
S = S298K ⎯ S0K S0K = 0
S = S298K

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Standard Entropy of Reaction (∆S°rxn)

∆S°rxn is the entropy change of a reaction measured at standard state
conditions (literature data are often at P = 1 bar or 1 atm, and T = 25 °C).

∆S°rxn can be calculated using the standard molar entropies (S°) of the
substances involved in the reaction.

S°rxn = n × Sproducts − n × Sreactants

where n = stoichiometric coefficients

S° (standard molar entropy) is the entropy of one mole of the substance at

standard state. The unit is J/mol-K.

Note that S° for a pure element in its standard state is not zero (unlike ∆H°f).
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Sample Problem
Calculate Sorxn for the combustion of 1 mol of propane at 25 oC:

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)

S° values are given below:

S° (J/mol-K)
C3H8(g) 269.9
O2(g) 205.0
CO2(g) 213.7
H2O(l) 69.9

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Calculate Sorxn for the combustion of 1 mol of propane at 25 oC:

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)

Sorxn = [(3 × SoCO2) + (4 × SoH2O)] ⎯ [(1 × SoC3H8) + (5 × SoO2)]

Sorxn = [(3 mol)(213.7 J/mol-K) + (4 mol)(69.9 J/mol-K)] ⎯ [(1 mol)(269.9 J/mol-K)

+ (5 mol)(205.0 J/mol-K)]

Answer: Sorxn = ⎯374.2 J/K

decrease in number moles of gaseous substances
⟹ decrease in entropy ⟹ Sorxn < 0
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Entropy Changes in the Surroundings (Ssurr)

Hsys Ssurr is directly related to an opposite change in the heat of
Ssys = the system and inversely related to the temperature at which
T the heat is transferred.

Exothermic Process Endothermic Process

Ssurr > 0 Ssurr < 0
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Gibbs Free Energy (G)

The change in the Gibbs Free Energy (G) is a reliable indicator of
spontaneity of a physical process or chemical reaction.

ΔG < 0 The reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction.

ΔG > 0 The reaction is nonspontaneous as written. The reaction is
spontaneous in the reverse direction.
ΔG = 0 The reaction is at equilibrium (forward and reverse process
are equally favorable).

G tells us if a reaction is spontaneous or nonspontaneous. However, it does not

tell us how quickly the process occurs (reaction rate is governed by kinetics).

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Spontaneity and ΔG
At constant temperature and pressure:

G = H TS

A reaction is spontaneous if G < 0 (negativeG).

• favored if H < 0 (negativeH)
• favored if S > 0 (positiveS)
• temperature-dependent (based on signs of H and S)

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Spontaneity and ΔG
G = H TS negativeG ⟹ spontaneous

There are four possible conditions:

H S G Reaction spontaneity condition

– + – Spontaneous at all temperatures
– – Temp-dependent Spontaneous at low temperatures
+ + Temp-dependent Spontaneous at high temperatures
+ – + Nonspontaneous at all temperatures
(The reverse reaction is spontaneous)
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Standard Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction (ΔG°rxn)

G°rxn is the free-energy change for a reaction when it occurs under standard
state conditions.

G°rxn = n × Gfproducts − n × Gfreactants

n = stoichiometric coefficients

Standard free energy of formation (G°f) is the free-energy change that occurs
when 1 mole of the compound is formed from its elements in their standard
states.

G°f of a pure element in its standard state is zero (just like H°f ).
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Sample Problem
Use Gof values to determine the Go for the reaction below at 25 oC.

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

Gof values are given below:

Gof (kJ/mol)
CH4(g) ⎯50.8
CO2(g) ⎯394.4
H2O(l) ⎯237.2

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Use Gof values to determine the Go for the reaction below at 25 oC.

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

=0
Gorxn = [(1 × Gof CO2) + (2 × Gof H2O)] ⎯ [(1 × Gof CH4) + (2 × Gof O2)]

Gorxn = [(1 mol)(⎯394.4 kJ/mol) + (2 mol)(⎯237.2 kJ/mol)] ⎯ [(1 mol)(⎯50.8 kJ/mol)]

AnswerGorxn = ⎯818.0 kJ

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Sample Problem
Determine the Go for the reaction below at 25 oC.

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)

So and Hof values are given below:

So (J/mol-K) Hof (kJ/mol)
N2(g) 191.5 0
O2(g) 205.0 0
NO(g) 210.7 90.25

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Determine the Go for the reaction below at 25 oC.

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)

Gorxn = Horxn ⎯ TSorxn

Calculate Horxn and Sorxn from the given values.

=0 =0
Horxn = [(2 × Hof NO)] ⎯ [(1 × Hof N2) + (1 × Hof O2)]

Horxn = (2 mol)(90.25 kJ/mol)

Horxn = 180.5 kJ

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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N2(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO(g)

Sorxn = [(2 × SoNO)] ⎯ [(1 × SoN2) + (1 × SoO2)]

Sorxn = [(2 mol)(210.7 J/mol-K)] ⎯ [(1 mol)(191.5 J/mol-K) + (1 mol)(205.0 J/mol-K)]

Sorxn = 24.9 J/K

Gorxn = Horxn ⎯ TSorxn T= 25 oC = 298 K

Gorxn = (180.5 kJ) ⎯ (298 K)(0.0249 kJ/K)

AnswerGorxn = 173 kJ

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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At what temperature will the reaction be spontaneous?

Horxn = 180.5 kJ
Sorxn = 24.9 J/K
Gorxn = 173 kJ nonspontaneous at 25 oC

Horxn and Sorxn are positive ⟹ reaction will be spontaneous at high T

To be spontaneous, Gorxn < 0 Gorxn = Horxn ⎯ TSorxn

Horxn < TSorxn

Horxn 180.5 kJ reaction will be spontaneous when

T > T >
Sorxn 0.0249 kJ/K T > 7249 K 29

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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∆S for Phase Transitions (Phase Changes)

At the phase transition temperature, the two phases are in equilibrium.
∆G = 0 (at equilibrium) ⟹ G = H ⎯ TS = 0
∆H = T∆S
∆S = ∆H/T
Example:

Hfus Hfus
H2O(s) H2O(l) Sfus =
Hfreeze Tfus
Reversible Process
where Tfus = Melting point in K
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Sample Problem
Hg is liquid at room temperature. Its normal freezing point is ⎯38.9 oC, and its
molar enthalpy of fusion is 2.29 kJ/mol. Calculate the entropy change in J/K
when 50.0 g of liquid Hg freezes at the normal freezing point.

freezing mol
Hg(l) Hg(s) mol Hg = 50.0 g = 0.249 mol
200.59 g

Hfreeze ⎯Hfus ⎯2290 J/mol

Sfreeze = = = = ⎯9.78 J/mol-K 1 mole
Tf Tf 234.25 K

Ans: Sfreeze = ⎯9.78 J/mol-K ✕ 0.249 mol = ⎯2.44 J/K 50.0 g

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Coupled Reactions
To drive nonspontaneous reactions, we change the conditions (e.g. temperature
change, electrolysis).

Another method is to couple two reactions.

• Couple a reaction with a positive ΔG (nonspontaneous) with a reaction
having a larger, negative ΔG (spontaneous)
• The overall reaction is spontaneous (i.e., the sum of the two ΔG’s is negative)
• Since Gibbs free energy is a state function, the ΔG values for each reaction
may be summed to give the ΔG of the coupled reaction.

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Coupled Reactions
First step in utilizing glucose (in all organisms) is the phosphorylation of glucose:
Glucose + Pi → Glucose 6-phosphate + H2O ΔG = +13.8 kJ/mol
Nonspontaneous 

ATP (energy source in cell) provides free energy through its hydrolysis
reaction:
ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi ΔG = ⎯30.5 kJ/mol Spontaneous

(1) Glucose + Pi → Glucose 6-phosphate + H2O

Coupled Reaction
(2) ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi

Glucose + ATP → Glucose 6-phosphate + ADP

ΔG = ⎯30.5 kJ/mol + 13.8 kJ/mol = ⎯16.7 kJ/mol Spontaneous 
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Coupled Reactions
Smelting Copper Ore – extracting Cu from its ore (e.g. Cu2O) by a process
involving heating and melting.
Δ
Cu2O(s) → 2 Cu(s) + ½ O2(g) ΔG673K = +125 kJ

Nonspontaneous reaction: Cu2O(s) → 2 Cu(s) + ½ O2(g) +125 kJ

Spontaneous reaction: C(s) + ½ O2(g) → CO(g) ⎯175 kJ

Cu2O(s) + C(s) → 2 Cu(s) + CO(g) ⎯50 kJ

Spontaneous reaction!
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Ellingham Diagram
• Shows plots of ΔG° vs. T
• Evaluates ease of reduction of
metal oxides (or ease of extraction
of metals from their oxides)

1. Lower line = more stable metal

oxide (i.e., more difficult to reduce to
metal)
2. Lower line will reduce higher line
3. Bigger gap between lines means
easier reduction

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Sample Problem Consider the Ellingham diagram on the left

and the metal oxides listed below.
MgO, Al2O3, ZnO
Rank the three metal oxides in terms of
increasing stability at 1000 °C.

ZnO < Al2O3 < MgO

How about at 2000 °C?

ZnO < MgO < Al2O3

At 1000 °C, which among Mg, Al and Zn

can be extracted from its oxide by the
reaction: 2 C(s) + O2(g) → 2 CO(g)?
Zn
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Sample Problem MgO(s) + C(s) → Mg(s) + CO(g)

Consider the Ellingham diagram on the left
(take note of Point B). Is the reaction above
Spontaneous at 1500 °C? No.
Spontaneous at 2000 °C? Yes.
B
(1) 2 MgO(s) → 2 Mg(s) + O2(g)

(2) 2 C(s) + O2(g) → 2 CO(g)

2 MgO(s) + 2 C(s) → 2 Mg(s) + 2 CO(g)

Reaction (2) will be able to extract Mg

from MgO at 2000 °C but not at 1500 °C.
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Standard vs. Nonstandard Conditions

Standard states of matter:
• Gaseous mixtures: effective partial pressure (or fugacity) = 1 bar (or 1 atm)
• Aqueous solutions: effective concentration (or activity) = 1 M
• Pure substances: pure liquid or solid: activity = 1 (unity)
• Thermodynamic functions with the plimsoll symbol: ∆H°, ∆S°, ∆G°

Nonstandard if:
• Pressure ≠ 1 bar (or 1 atm)
• Concentration ≠ 1 M
• Thermodynamic functions without the plimsoll symbol: ∆H, ∆S, ∆G

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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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∆S and ∆G Under Nonstandard Conditions

• Nonstandard Entropy Change
∆S = ∆So − R ln Q

• Nonstandard Gibbs Free Energy Change

∆G = ∆Go + RT ln Q
where:
∆S = nonstandard entropy change in J/mol-K
∆So = standard entropy change in J/mol-K
∆G = nonstandard Gibbs energy change in J/mol
∆Go = standard Gibbs energy change in J/mol
R = ideal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol-K
T = temperature in K
Q = reaction quotient
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Reaction Quotient (Q)

aA+bB ⇄ cC+dD a, b, c, d are stoichiometric coefficients
reactants products

For any solution: For gases only: [ ]

Q=
[ ]
[ ] [ ]
Q= Q= Products over
[ ] [ ] Reactants!

where:
[A] = effective concentration (or activity) of A
treat as dimensionless quantity
PA = effective partial pressure (or fugacity) of
A
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Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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Reaction Quotient

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇄ 2 NH3(g) Q=

AgCl(s) ⇄ Ag+(aq) + Cl⎯(aq) Q = [Ag ][Cl ]

Pure solids and liquids (e.g. H2O) are omitted from the Q expression.
They have an activity value of 1.

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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∆G and ∆Go ∆Go is constant for a particular

reaction at a given T.
∆G = ∆Go + RT ln Q
∆G changes as the reaction
proceeds.

At standard conditions (e.g. all concentration fixed at 1 M): Q = 1 ⟹ ∆G = ∆Go

During a reaction, conditions are nonstandard (e.g. concentration of products

and reactants are changing): Q varies ⟹ ∆G changes

∆G will continuously vary as the reaction proceeds, eventually reaching zero at

equilibrium.

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

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∆G and the Equilibrium Constant (Keq)

When the system is at equilibrium, no further net change in composition will occur.
⟹ Q becomes constant = Keq

Thus, if the reaction is at equilibrium:

∆G = 0 and Q = Keq
0 where:
∆G = ∆Go + RT ln Keq Keq is the equilibrium constant (unitless).
It is the special value of Q that
corresponds to equilibrium composition.
∆Go = ⎯RT ln Keq KP for gaseous mixtures.
KC for aqueous solutions.
K = 𝑒 ⎯∆ /

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

∆G° and the Equilibrium Constant (Keq) Keq =

[
[
]
]

∆G° = ⎯RT ln Keq

Keq

∆G° > 0; Keq < 1

Reverse reaction is favored
(reactants are favored)

(very rare)

∆G° < 0; Keq > 1

Forward reaction is favored
(products are favored)

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Sample Problem
The ∆Gº for the reaction shown below is −33.2 kJ at 25 ºC.
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇄ 2 NH3(g)
(a) Calculate ∆G at 25 ºC if the initial partial pressures of the gases are:
PN2 = 2.00 atm
PH2 = 7.00 atm
PNH3 = 0.021 atm

(b) Calculate the equilibrium constant at 25 ºC.

(c) Does the reaction proceed to the right, as written, or to the left to reach
equilibrium?
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

(a) ∆G at 25 ºC = ? ∆G = ∆Gº + RT ln Q ∆Gº = −33.2 kJ

.
Q = = Q = 6.43 x 10⎯7

∆G = −33200 J/mol + (8.314 J/mol-K)(298 K)(ln(6.43 x 10⎯7))

∆G = −68.5 kJ/mol

(b) Keq (or KP) at 25 ºC = ? K = 𝑒 ⎯∆ /

= 𝑒 ⎯(⎯ )/( . )( )
Keq = 6.60 x 105
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

(c) Does the reaction proceed to the right or to the left to reach equilibrium?
For equilibrium to be reached, Q must be equal to Keq.
Compare Q and Keq.

If Q > Keq, Q should decrease so the reaction shifts

Reactants ⟵ Products
to the left to reach equilibrium.

If Q < Keq, Q should increase so the reaction shifts

Reactants ⟶ Products
to the right to reach equilibrium.

Q = 6.43 x 10⎯7 Since Q < Keq, the reaction shifts to the

Keq = 6.60 x 105 right to increase Q to reach equilibrium.

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Sample Problem
Consider the phase transition between H2O(l) and H2O(g)

H O( ) H O( )

Given the following data at 25 oC and 1 atm: ∆Gof of H2O(g) = ⎯228.6 kJ/mol
∆Gof of H2O(l) = ⎯237.2 kJ/mol

Calculate the equilibrium vapor pressure of water vapor at 25 oC.

The experimental equilibrium water vapor pressure at 25 oC is 23.8 mmHg.

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 2/4/2026

University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Q = PH2O(g) H2O(l) is excluded from

H O( ) H O( the expression
)

At equilibrium: Keq = Peq-H2O(g)

∆Go = ⎯RT ln Keq ∆Go = ∆Gof-H2O(g) ⎯ ∆Gof-H2O(l)

∆Go = ⎯228.6 kJ/mol ⎯ (⎯237.2 kJ/mol)
∆Go = 8.6 kJ/mol

Keq = 𝑒 ⎯∆ /

= 𝑒 ⎯( )/( . )( )

Keq = 0.0311 ⟹ Peq-H2O(g) = 0.0311 atm or 23.6 mmHg

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Additional problems
Which of the following has the highest entropy at 289 K? HCN = 27 g/mol

• 2.0 mol HCN

• 0.50 g HCN
• 2.0 kg HCN
• 1.0 mol HCN
• All have the same entropy at 298 K

Answer: 2.0 kg HCN

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Additional problems
Choose the compound with the higher entropy”
I. 1 mol of KBr(s) or 1 mol of KBr(aq)
II. 2 mol of O2(g) or 2 mol of O3(g)
III. 1 mol of SO2(g) or 1 mol of SO3(g)
IV. 1 mol of CO2(s) or 1 mol of CO2(g)

Answer: All compounds to the right

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Additional problems
Indicate which one of the following reactions results in negative ΔSsurr
A. CO2(aq) ⇌ CO2(g)
B. H2O(g) ⇌ H2O(s)
C. 14O2(g)+3NH4NO3(s) +C10H22(l) ⇌ 3N2(g) + 17H2O(g)+10CO2(g)
D. None of these

Answer: A, C

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Additional problems
Potassium chlorate, a common oxidizing agent in fireworks and matchheads,
undergoes a solid-state disproportionation reaction when heated.
KClO3 (s) → KClO4 (s) + KCl (s)
ΔHf° : KClO3 (s) = -397.7 kJ/mol; KClO4 (s) = -432.8 kJ/mol; KCl (s) = -436.7
kJ/mol
S° values: KClO3 (s) = 143.0 J/mol·K; KClO4 (s) = 151.0 J/mol·K; KCl (s) = 82.6
J/mol·K

What is ΔGosys for the reaction at 25oC?

Answer: -133 kJ/mol

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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Additional problems
The enthalpy and entropy of vaporization of ethanol are 38.6 kJ/mol
and 109.8 J/mol·K, respectively. What is the boiling point of ethanol, in °C?

Answer: 78.4 °C
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University of the Philippines Diliman Institute of Chemistry, College of Science

Chemistry 17 | Module 2 –Chemistry

Spontaneous
16 | Module
Changes1

Additional problems
Under standard conditions, one of the steps in the photosynthetic production of glucose does
not occur spontaneously:
FP6 + G3P ⇌ E4P + X5P
where ΔrG° = +6.28 kJ mol-1 at 298.2 K. The “P” indicates the phosphorylated form of the sugar.
Can this reaction take place spontaneously in a chloroplast
where the concentrations are: [F6P] = 53.0x10-5 M, [G3P] = 3.20x10-5 M, [E4P] = 2.00x10-5 M,
and [X5P] = 2.10x10-5 M ?

Answer: Yes. ΔG = -2.88 kJ/mol

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