COMPREHENSIVE SCIENCE STUDY GUIDE
BIOLOGY
A. Evolution
Evolution is the process by which species of organisms change over time through variations and natural selection. It
explains the diversity of life on Earth and is a central concept in biology.
Key Concepts in Evolution
1. Natural Selection: Proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Organisms with traits that enhance
survival and reproduction are more likely to pass on their genes. Beneficial traits become more common over
time.
2. Genetic Variation: Essential for evolution. Caused by mutations, gene flow, genetic recombination, and
genetic drift. Provides raw material for natural selection.
3. Adaptation: Traits that enhance survival and reproduction in a particular environment. Result of natural
selection.
4. Speciation: Formation of new species. Can occur through allopatric speciation (geographical isolation) or
sympatric speciation (reproductive isolation).
5. Common Descent: All living organisms share a common ancestor. Traceable via a phylogenetic tree.
Mechanisms of Evolution
• Mutation: Random changes in DNA sequence; can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.
• Gene Flow: Transfer of genetic material between populations via migration/breeding.
• Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies; significant in small populations (Founder effect,
Bottleneck effect).
• Types of Natural Selection:
- Directional: Favors one extreme phenotype.
- Stabilizing: Favors intermediate phenotypes.
- Disruptive: Favors both extreme phenotypes.
• Sexual Selection: Traits increase mating success but may not improve survival (e.g., peacock feathers).
Evidence for Evolution
• Fossil Record: Chronological record showing gradual changes in species over time.
• Comparative Anatomy: Homologous structures (similar structure, different function) indicate common
ancestry (e.g., vertebrate limb bones).
B. Ecology and Ecosystems
• Food Chains: Linear sequence (e.g., Grass → Rabbit → Snake → Hawk).
• Food Webs: Complex networks of interconnected food chains.
• Trophic Levels: Producers (1st), Primary consumers (2nd), Secondary consumers (3rd), Tertiary consumers
(4th).
• 10% Rule: Only ~10% of energy transfers to the next level; the rest is lost as heat.
• Primary Productivity: GPP (total energy produced) vs. NPP (energy available to consumers after respiration).
Nutrient Cycles
• Water Cycle: Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff.
• Carbon Cycle: Exchange via photosynthesis and respiration.
• Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen Fixation (N₂ to NH₃), Nitrification (NH₃ to NO₂⁻/NO₃⁻), Denitrification (back to
N₂).
• Phosphorus Cycle: Movement through rocks/soil/water; no significant atmospheric component.
Types of Ecosystems
• Terrestrial: Forests (tropical, temperate, boreal), Grasslands (savannas, temperate), Deserts, Tundra.
• Aquatic: Freshwater (rivers, lakes), Marine (oceans, coral reefs), Estuaries (mixed salt/freshwater).
C. Basic Genetics and Heredity
Genetics explains how traits pass from parents to offspring via genetic information.
Key Concepts
• DNA: Molecule carrying genetic info; nucleotides A, T, C, G; double helix.
• Genes: Segments of DNA coding for proteins/RNA; located on chromosomes.
• Chromosomes: DNA + histones; humans have 46 (23 pairs: 22 autosomes, 1 sex pair).
• Central Dogma: DNA → RNA (Transcription) → Protein (Translation).
Mendelian Genetics
• Law of Segregation: Two alleles for each gene segregate; gametes carry only one.
• Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits segregate independently.
• Key Terms: Allele, Genotype (AA, Aa, aa), Phenotype, Homozygous, Heterozygous.
• Punnett Squares: Used to predict traits (e.g., Aa x Aa = 1:2:1 genotype, 3:1 phenotype).
Non-Mendelian & Molecular Genetics
• Incomplete Dominance: Intermediate phenotype (e.g., pink flowers).
• Codominance: Both alleles fully expressed (e.g., AB blood).
• Multiple Alleles: More than two alleles (e.g., ABO blood).
• Inheritance Patterns: Polygenic, Pleiotropy, Epistasis, X-linked (more common in males).
• Mutations: Point mutations, Frameshift mutations.
• Technologies: DNA Sequencing, PCR (amplification), Gel Electrophoresis (separation).
D. Human Anatomy and Physiology
• Digestive System: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder. Breaks down food and
absorbs nutrients.
• Urinary System: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra. Removes waste, regulates water/electrolytes.
• Reproductive System: Produces sex cells and hormones.
• Major Organs: Brain (control/memory), Heart (pump blood), Lungs (gas exchange/pH), Liver (detox/bile),
Kidneys (filter blood/urine), Stomach (protein digestion), Intestines (absorption).
• Tissues: Epithelial (lines cavities), Connective (binds/supports), Muscle (skeletal, cardiac, smooth), Nervous
(neurons/glial cells).
• Anatomical Terms: Anterior/Posterior, Superior/Inferior, Medial/Lateral, Proximal/Distal.
• Planes: Sagittal, Frontal, Transverse.
• Homeostasis: Maintaining internal stability via Negative Feedback (return to set point) and Positive Feedback
(amplify change).
CHEMISTRY
A. Matter and Its Classifications
• States: Solid (fixed shape/volume), Liquid (flow, fixed volume), Gas (fills container), Plasma (ionized gas).
• Classification: Pure Substances (Elements/Compounds) and Mixtures (Homogeneous/Heterogeneous).
• Properties: Physical (color, density) vs. Chemical (reactivity, flammability).
• Changes:
- Physical: No new substance (melting, freezing, sublimation, dissolution).
- Chemical: New substances formed (combustion, oxidation, neutralization). Indicators: color change,
gas, precipitate, heat, odor.
• Separation: Filtration, Distillation (boiling point), Chromatography, Centrifugation (density), Evaporation,
Magnetism.
• Periodic Table: Groups (1-18, vertical, similar properties), Periods (1-7, horizontal), Alkali Metals (Group 1,
highly reactive).
EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
A. Astronomy and Cosmology
• Galaxies: Spiral (Milky Way), Elliptical, Irregular.
• Big Bang Theory: Universe began from a dense, hot state and expanded.
• Expanding Universe: Galaxies move away (Hubble).
• Dark Matter/Energy: Invisible matter/Force driving expansion.
• Telescopes: Optical (Refracting/Reflecting), Radio, Space (Hubble).
B. Weather and Atmosphere
• Atmosphere Layers: Troposphere (weather), Stratosphere (ozone), Mesosphere (meteors), Thermosphere
(auroras), Exosphere (outer edge).
• Weather Elements: Temperature, Humidity, Precipitation, Wind, Cloudiness.
• Phenomena: Air Masses, Fronts (Cold, Warm, Stationary, Occluded), Pressure Systems (High/Low), Cyclones/
Anticyclones.
• Severe Weather: Thunderstorms, Tornadoes, Hurricanes, Blizzards, Heatwaves.
• Climate vs. Weather: Short-term vs. Long-term average (30+ years). Influenced by Latitude and Elevation.