Adama Science and Technology University

Engineering Geology (Geol. 4309) (Cr. Hr. 3)

Chapter 3: Geomorphologic Processes, And
Geologic Hazards

(By Belachew Moges, MSc.) November , 2019

2
Chapter 3: Geomorphologic Processes, And Geologic Hazards
3.1 Geomorphologic processes
3.1.1. Exogenic processes (weathering, erosion, mass
wasting, deposition)
3.1.2. Endogenic processes (igneous activity, oogenesis)
3.2. Surficial deposits
3.2.1. (Fluvial deposits, Wind deposits, Slope deposits, Glacial
deposits)
3.3 Geologic Hazards
3.3.1 Land Slides
3.3.2 Flooding
3.3.3. Earthquake
3.3.4 Volcanic
3.3.5 Expansive soil
3.3.6 Surface collapse and subsidence

3
 3.1 Geomorphologic processes
Basic definition in geomorphology
 Geomorphology: is the study of earth surface
processes and landforms. It is also defines the
processes and conditions that influence landform
development, and the physical, morphological and
structural characteristics of landforms.

 Topography: refers to the elevation and relief of the

Earth’s surface. Topography is measured by the
differences in elevation across the earth’s surface.

 Landforms: are the topographic features on the

Earth’s surface. 4
Cont.,
Elevation: height above sea level

Slope: spatial gradients in elevation; it controls the local stability of hillsides and
sediment transport

Relief: the contrast between minimum and maximum elevation in a region; it controls
the regional erosion rate and sediment yield

Landscape: - the
combined effect of
numerous landforms -
Mountainous Terrain.
Landform: - An
individual feature of
the earth - a slope,
valley or mountain.

5
 3.1 Geomorphologic processes

Geomorphic processes can be classified in to two;

[Link] processes: processes that act and affect

the external of (surface) the earth.

[Link] processes: processes that act and affect

the interior of the earth

6
 3.1.1 Exogenic processes
Exogenic processes :- are process that operate at the surface of the
earth crust due to different agents such as the action of water, wind, ice,
glaciers.
These are involved in denudation or erosion processes, removal of
materials and these cause reduction of elevation and relief.
Uplift:- vertical motions of the crust
Accumulation/denudation:- vertical change in the position of the land
surface with respect to material points in the bedrock.
The net rate of change in elevation of the land surface is the sum of
uplift rate and accumulation/denudation rate.
Denudation elevation =
Uplift + Denudation
Elevation

7
Uplift
Source of energy for exogenic processes:
 Solar energy
 Gravitational energy
 Hydrologic cycle &
 Atmospheric circulation.

(Earth’s external )Exogenic processes include

Weathering,
Erosion,
Mass wasting,
Deposition etc.
8
 Earth’s external processes

 Weathering – the physical breakdown (disintegration) and

chemical alteration (decomposition) of rock at Earth’s
surface.

 Mass wasting – the transfer of rock and soil down slope

under the influence of gravity.

 Erosion – the physical removal of material by mobile agents

such as water, wind, ice, or gravity.

 Deposition - is the accumulation or accretion of weathered

and eroded materials
 Weathering

Two types of Weathering:

(A) Mechanical weathering – breaks down rocks into

smaller pieces.
Types of mechanical weathering:
 Frost wedging
 Unloading
 Thermal expansion
 Biological activity

(B) Chemical weathering - breaks down rock components

and internal structures of minerals.
 A) Physical Weathering
a) Frost wedging:- Water seeps into cracks or joints, freezes, expands, and
eventually splits rock.
 Shattered rocks are common in cold & alpine
environments where repeated freeze-thaw cycles
gradually opens rocks apart.
b) Pressure Release/Unloading/

− Erosion strips away overlying

material

− Decrease in overlying
pressure (load) causes
underlying rock to expand
upward

− Leads to pressure release

cracks in the exposed rock
c) Exfoliation/ (Thermal cycling)/Fluctuation in temperature:
non-uniform heating & cooling ------ resulting in (Expansion and
contraction) change in volume ----- splitting of large plates or
shells

Dome Exfoliation
d)Salt wedging/Salt Crystallization: Growth of salt crystals
in small rock openings

Honeycomb weathering is the result of salt crystal growth on surface o

rock, expanding the size of the hollows.
e) Abrasion by: wind, stream water & glaciers

Wind Abrasion

Stream water Abrasion: Water carry

small particles that can impact bed rock

Glaciers Abrasion: Glacial ice drags rocky

wind Abrasion material that scours the surface it flows over
 B) Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering breaks down rock components and internal structures of
minerals.
 Most important agent is water: responsible
for transport of ions
and molecules involved in chemical processes.

Major processes of chemical weathering

Dissolution: Aided by small amounts of acid in the water.
Oxidation: Any reaction when electrons are lost from one element .
Hydrolysis: The reaction of any substance with water.
– Hydrogen ion attacks and replaces other ions.

Alterations caused by chemical weathering

 Decomposition of unstable minerals.
 Formation or retention of stable materials.
 Physical changes, such as the rounding of corners or edges.
 Chemical Processes -----------decomposition of rocks
a) Oxidation: chemical union of oxygen with iron &water to form iron oxide (RUST)

Iron-containing mineral, pyrite (FeS2) forms

a rusty-colored mineral, limonite (FeO)

Iron oxide :
Mineralization Halos
along Rock Joints

Pyrite Oxidation

Pyrite (FeS2) Limonite (FeO)

b)Hydration: chemical union of water (H20 ) with a mineral ---- H20 is absorbed
Ex Anhydrite -------------- readily transforms ------------ Gypsum
(CaSO4) by the absorption of H20 to (CaSO4·2H20)
c) Dissolution: Minerals in a rock are dissolved by water (H20 ) ----- H20 dissolves
Ex Halite, Limestone and Gypsum dissolves by WATER

Stalactites & Stalagmites: Water dissolves Sinkholes: large depressions on the

limestone, transport through surface where limestone bedrock
caves and precipitate the has been dissolved resulting in
limestone out of solution collapse on the overlying surface
e)Hydrolysis: Water (H2O) splits into (H+) and (OH-) and Hydrogen (H+) &
Hydroxyl (OH-) ions in water replace other ions in silicate minerals.
Feldspar Kaolinite
KAlSi3O8 Al9Si905(OH)4

Ex 1 - H+ replaced K+ in Feldspar
--------
to form Kaolinite

Ex 2 - H+ on Plant root

---------- exchange ----

Cations (Nutrients) in soil

f)Carbonation: CO2 chemically combines with some minerals and water to make
------- a weak carbonic acid (H2CO3) -------- which dissolves certain rocks

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

From air/ rain water A weak carbonic acid
bacterial
decomposition
Carbonic acid can dissolve ------------------Limestone and Marble

Acid rain (H2Co3 +H2S04)

----------
removes detail of this statue
(Eyes, Nose, Fingers etc)
 C) Rates of weathering

Factors affecting rates of weathering

(a) Effective surface area for chemical reactions (ion
exchange and oxidation).
(b) Rock characteristics:
– Rocks containing calcite (marble and
limestone) readily dissolve in weakly acidic
solutions.
– Silicate minerals weather in the same order as
their order of crystallization.
Ferro-magnesian minerals decay first, followed by
feldspars.
Quartz is extremely stable, and remains unaltered. This
is why quartz beach and channel sands are such
common residual weathering products.
Increase in surface area
Blocks within joint clusters can often weather out completely, becoming
filled with porous and low cohesion materials, which is easily eroded.
Weathering of common silicate minerals
(c) Climate:
– Temperature and moisture characteristics.
Chemical weathering is most effective in
areas of warm, moist climates.

(d) Differential weathering:

– Rocks do not weather uniformly due to regional
and local factors.
– Results in many unusual and spectacular rock
formations and landforms.
Spheroidal Weathering
 Role of rock joints in
weathering

Spheroidal weathering is common

between joint-bordered blocks;
because water is the principal agent
in fomenting oxidation reactions with
adjacent minerals.

Joint-controlled
weathering
Water flows through rock masses along their
respective joint systems.
Rapid weathering occurs between closely
spaced joints, due to increased surface area
 Engineering classification of weathering
• It has a profound effect on the physical and mechanical
properties of rocks.
• Generally, strength of rocks decreases with increasing of
degree of weathering.
• Degree of weathering ranges in engineering application
classified in to 6 class.
 Grade-I.....Fresh rock
 Grade-II…Slightly weathered
 Grade-III…Moderately weathered
 Grade-IV…Highly weathered
 Grade-V….Completely weathered
 Grade-VI…Soil 29
Classification of the various stages of the weathering process, together
with grade numbers to differentiate, and an indication of their
Engineering properties (descriptive classification (qualitatively) of
weathering developed by many authors.)
Gra Degree of Field Recognition Engineering Properties
de Decomposit
ion
No recognizable rock texture; Unsuitable for important foundations; unsuitable
VI Soil surface layer contains hums and on slopes when cover is destroyed.
plant roots.
Rock is completely decomposed by Can be excavated by hand ripping without use of
V Completely weathering in place but texture still explosives. Unsuitable for foundations of
weathered recognizable. Can not be recovered concrete dams or large structures. May be
as core by ordinary rotary drilling suitable for foundations of earth dams and for
methods. fill. Unsuitable in high cuttings at steep angles.
Requires erosion protection.
Rock so weakened by weathering Similar to Grade V. Unlikely to be suitable for
IV Highly that fairly large pieces could be foundations concrete dams. Erratic presence of
weathered broken and crumbled in the hands. boulders makes it unreliable foundation stratum
Some times recovered as core by for large structures.
careful rotary drilling. Stained by
limonite. Less than 50% to 90%
rock.

30
 Classification of the various stages of the weathering process, together with grade
numbers to differentiate, and an indication of their Engineering properties
(descriptive classification (qualitatively) of weathering developed by many
authors.)
Gr Degree of Field Recognition Engineering Properties
ade
Decompo
sition
Considerably weathered Excavated with difficulty without uses of
III Moderately throughout. Possessing some explosives. Mostly crushes under bulldozer
weathered strength large pieces (e.g. N* drill tracks. Suitable for foundations of small
core) cannot broken by hand. Often concrete structures and rock fill dams. May be
limonite-stained. 50% to 90% rock. suitable for semi pervious fill. Stability in
cuttings depends on structural features,
especially joint attitudes.
Distinctly weathered through much Requires explosives for excavation. Suitable for
II Slightly of the rock fabric with slight concrete dam foundations. Highly permeable
weathered limonite staining. Some through open joints. Often more permeable than
decomposes feldspar in granites. the zones above or below. Questionable as
Strength approaching that of fresh concrete aggregate.
rock. More than 90% rock.
Fresh rock may have some Staining indicates water percolation along
I Fresh rock limonite-stained joints immediately joints, individual pieces may be loosened by
beneath weathered rock. blasting or stress relief and support may be
required in tunnels and shafts.
31
 3.1.2 Endogenic processes
 Are internal process within the earth that result in uplift and
reconstruction of the landscape, and usually lead to an increase in
elevation and relief.

Three major activities are involved:

a) Igneous activity - movement of molten rock or magma,

b) Orogensis/orogeny - mountain building, and

c) Epeirogenesis - is the uplift of usually large area without significant

folding or fracture.

All the above activities are related to tectonics, deformation, movement

and faulting of the earths surface.
32
 Source of energy for Endogenic processes:

Geothermal energy (E.g. Geothermal gradient of the earth),

Radioactive energy (E.g. U238 and Th232) have the longer half-lives, so

they are presently the principal sources of radiogenic heat, and

Residual heat of the earth.

33
 3.2 Surficial deposits
Surficial deposits:- are different types of deposited formed by
the surficial process.
surficial deposits are classified as follow according to the
transporting agency and method of deposition.

34
 3.3 Geological Hazardous

11/20/2019 35
 Geologic hazards is substantial danger to humans life and their works
/infrastructures.
 The hazards may exist as a consequence of natural events, but often
they are the result of human activities.
 Knowing about geological hazard is critical issue because

 Engineering works and earth processes interact.

 Engineering works that lack the knowledge of geologic input are

likely to cost more than necessary, function below their expected
optimum, or fail in short period of time.
 The cause of instability of a site is due to human & natural
processes.

11/20/2019 36
 The most dangerous geologic hazards
are;
Mass movement/landslide
 Earthquakes,
Volcanic eruptions
Flooding and tsunamis
Surface subsidence
Expansive soil

Geologists study to understand Earth processes to alert, warn, and

possibly predict dangerous geological events to reduce life and
property losses.
11/20/2019 37