Unit1 : DC Circuits

Contents: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), Concept of active and passive elements,
voltage and current sources, concept of linearity and linear network, unilateral and bilateral
elements, Kirchhoff ‟s laws, Loop and nodal methods of analysis, Superposition theorem,
Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem.

1. Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C) : The interconnection of various electric

elements in a prescribed manner comprises as an electric circuit in order to perform a
desired function. The electric elements include controlled and uncontrolled source of
energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc. Analysis of electric circuits refers to
computations required to determine the unknown quantities such as voltage, current
and power associated with one or more elements in the circuit. To contribute to the
solution of engineering problems one must acquire the basic knowledge of electric
circuit analysis and laws. We shall discuss briefly some of the basic circuit elements
and the laws that will help us to develop the background of subject.
a) Resistor: Resistor is a dissipative element, which converts electrical energy into heat
when the current flows through it in any direction. The law governing the current into
and voltage across a re sistor is:
v = R. i (i)
The relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
But resistor can be regarded as linear only within the specified limits, outside
which the behavior becomes non-linear. The resistance of a resistor is
temperature dependent and rises with temperature.
Mathematically it can be represented as:
Rt = RO(1 + αt) (ii)
Where RO = Resistance at 0℃ and Rt = Resistance at t℃
α = Temperature coefficient and it may be positive and negative both
t = Temperature in ℃
And power dissipated by resistor is e = v. i
2
2 v
e= i R= Watts
R

Resistor is represented by the symbol

Unit of Resistan ce is ohm (®)

b) Capacitor (C): It is a two terminal element that has the capability of energy storage in
electric field. The law governing the v − i relationship of capacitor is:
dv
i= C (iii)
dt
After integrating equation (iii), 1wet get
v = ∫ i. dt + v ( 0) (iv)
C O c
 Where vc( 0) = Capacitor voltage at t = 0, for initially uncharged capacitor
vc(0) = 0
1 t
Hence, v = ∫ i. dt (v)
C O
The above expressions show that the voltage of a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously.

Energy stored in capacitor can be represented by

1 2
W = ∫ e. dt = ∫ v. i. dt = C ∫ v. dv = Cv Joule (ix)
2

Capacitor is represented by the symbol

Unit of Capacitance is Farad (F)
c) Inductor (L): It is a two -terminal storage element in which energy is stored in the
magnetic field. The v − i relation of an inductance is:
di
v=L (vi)
dt

After integrating expression

ression (vi), we get
1 t
i = ∫ v. dt + iL (0) )
L O
(vii)
Where iL(0) = Inductor current at t = 0,, for initially if c urrent through inductor
iL( 0) = 0
1 t
Hence, i = ∫ v. dt (viii)
L O
The above expressions show that the current through an induc tor cannot
annot change
instantaneously.
Energy stored in inductor can be represented by
1 2
W = ∫ e. dt = ∫ v. i. dt = L ∫ i. di = Li Joule (ix)
2
Inductor is represented by the symbol
Unit of Inductance is Henry (H)
2. Concept of active and passive elements:

Electrical Network: Any possible combination of various electric elements

(Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) connected in any
manner what so ever is called an electrical network. We may classify circuit
elements in two categories, passive and active elements.

Electrical Circuit: An electric circuit is a closed energized electric network. It

 means circuit must have closed path with energy sources. From the above
example, we can say that fig 1 and fig 2 are electric networks but only fig 2 is
electric circui t.
It means, electric circuit is always an electric network but electric network may or
may not be an electric circuit.

Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and
then either converts it into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L )
field is called passive element, and the network containing these elements
without energy sources are known as passive network. Examples are resistor,
inductor, capacitor, transformer etc.

Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the c ircuit is called active
element and the network containing these sources together with other circuit
elements are known as active network. Examples of active elements include
voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic devi ces that require
power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can
amplify power of a signal.

3. Energy Sources ( Voltage and Current S ources): There are two types of energy
sources namely Voltage Sources and Current Sources.

Energy Sources

Voltage Source Current Source

Independent Dependent Independent Dependent

Voltage Source Voltage Source Current Source Current Source

Voltage Dependent Current Dependent Voltage Dependent Current Dependent

Voltage Source Voltage Source Current Source Current Source
(VDVS) (CDVS) (VDCS) (CDCS)

Here, we shall study only about independent voltage source and independent current
source.
a) Independent Voltage Source: A hypothetical generator which maintains its
value of voltage independent of the output current. It can be represented as:
 Fig: Ideal DC Voltage Source Fig: Practical DC Voltage Source
If the value of internal resistance will be zero, then the voltage source is called as
ideal voltage source. The V -I characteristics for ideal and practical voltage source
is given below:

Fig: V-I Characteristic of Voltage Source

b) Independent Current Source: A generator which maintains its output current
independent of the voltage across its terminals. It can be represented as:

Fig: Ideal DC Current Source Fig: Practical DC Current Source

if the value of internal resistance will be infinity, then the current source is called
as ideal current source. The V -I characteristics for ideal and practical current
source is given below:

Fig: V-I Characteristic of Current Source

4. Concept of Linearity and Linear Network: For a network to be linear, it should
have to follow the principle of superposition and homogeneity both.
Principle of Superposition: An element or circuit obeys the principle of
superposition if the net effect of the sum of causes equals the sum of their
individual effects.
Mathematically, let cause x and effect y be related as:
ƒ( x) = y (i)
Let the cause be scaled by a factor α. Then the functional relationship obeys
homogeneity, if
ƒ( αx) = αƒ( x) = αy (ii)
Consider two causes x1 and x2, then ƒ( x1) = y1 and ƒ( x2) = y2
Let the combined effect of these two causes be scaled by α1 and α2 respectively.
The principle of superposition then yields if:
ƒ(α1x1 + α2x2) = ƒ( α1x1) + ƒ( α2x2) (iii)
If homogeneity is also satisfied, then
ƒ( α1x1 + α2x2) = α1ƒ( x1) + α2ƒ(x2) = α1y1 + α2 y2 (iv)
A functional relationship is said to be linear if it obeys both superposition and
homogeneity. Any element governed by such a functional relationship is linear. A
circuit composed of such elements would also be l inear.
5. Unilateral and Bilateral Elements:
Bilateral Elements: If by reversing the terminal connections of an element in a
circuit, the circuit response remains same. Such elements are known as bilateral

elements. Examples are Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor etc.

Unilateral Elements: If by reversing the terminal connections of an element in a
circuit, the circuit response gets change. Such elements are called as unilateral
elements. Examples are Voltage Source, Current Source, Diode etc.

6. Kirchhoff‟s laws: There are two types of Kirchhoff’s Law.

1. Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
2. Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
1. Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): Kirchhoff’s current
law states that, in a given electric circuit, algebraic sum of all the currents
meeting at a junction is always zero. In another way we can say that, the total
current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current flowing away
from that junction. Th is law works on the principle of conservation of charge.
Sign Convention: If we take direction of current towards the junction as positive
(+) sign then direction of current away from the junction will be taken as negative
(-)sign or vice-versa.

According to Kirchhoff’s Current Law in the above circuit diagram:

I1 − I2 + I3 − I4 + I5 − I6 = 0

Σ Ii = 0
i=1

2. Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): Kirchhoff’s

voltage law states that, “ In any electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops across the circuit elements of any closed path (or loop or mesh) is equal to
the algebraic sum of the EMFs in the path”.
In other words, “ The algebraic sum of all the branch voltages around an y closed
path or closed loop is always zero”. This law works on the principle of
conservation of energy. Limitation of this law is that it can only be applied to
planner network .
Sign Convention: If we take voltage rise with positive (+) sign then voltage drop
will be taken with negative ( -) sign or vice-versa. When current direction will be
from negative terminal to positive terminal, voltage will rise and vice -versa. In all
 the passive elements current entering terminal is taken as positive and current
leaving terminal is taken as negative.

According to KVL in the above circuit diagram:

V1 − IR1 − IR2 − V2 − IR3 − IR4 + V3 − IR5 + V4 = 0
7. Loop and Nodal Methods of Analysis: For study of Loop and Nodal Methods of
Analysis, knowledge of basic fundamentals are essential.
Some Basic Definitions:
1. Node: A node of a network is an equipotential surface at which two or more
circuit elements are joined.
2. Junction: A junction is that point in an electric circuit where three or more
elements are joined.
So, we can say that junction is always a node but node may or may not be a
junction.
3. Loop: A loop is any closed path of the electric network.
4. Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of loop, and it cannot be further
subdivided into other loops.
So, we can say that mesh is always a loop but loop may or may not be a mesh.
5. Lumped Network: A network in which physically separate resistors,
capacitors and inductors can be represented.
6. Distributed Network: One in which resistors, capacitors, and inductors
cannot be physically separated and individually isolated as separate elements.
For example, Transmission Line.
Loop or Mesh Analysis Method: Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis
method. Mesh analysis is used to find the currents and voltages in a particular
circuit.
Suppose in a particular electrical circuit , total number of branches are b, total
number of nodes are n and total number of junctions are j, then total number of
meshes ‘m’ can be calculated by using the following expression:

N = b − ( n − 1) (i)
Also, N = b − ( j − 1) (ii)
Note: One thing make sure, when we consider nodes in the given electric circuit
then branches will be counted according to the number of nodes, and equation
(i) is used to calculate the total number of meshes. When we consider junction in
that electrical circui t then branches will be counted according to junctions, and
equation (ii) is used to calculate the total number of meshes. Using both the
methods same number of meshes will be found for a particular circuit.
The independent mesh equations can be obtained b y applying KVL to each
independent mesh.

Mesh current is that current which flows around the perimeter of a mesh. Mesh
currents may or may not have a direct identification with branch currents.
Mesh currents on the other hand, are fictitious quantity which are introduced
because they allow us to solve problems in terms of a minimum number of
unknowns.

Procedure of Mesh Analysis Method:

Step 1: Draw the circuit in which mesh currents or branch currents have to find.
Calculate number of independent mesh equations by using the formula given
below:
N = b − ( n − 1) (i)
Also, N = b − ( j − 1) (ii)
Step 2: Assume independent mesh currents for each mesh. You can choose any
direction of the mesh current, but once you have chosen the direction of current,
it should remain same throughout the question.
Step 3: Apply KVL for each mesh and write the expressions in terms of unknown
mesh currents.
Step 4: Now, solve the equations by any method, either by simul taneous
equation method or Cramer’s Rule and find the unknown values.
Example 1: Find the cur rent through 'ab -branch' ( Iab) and voltage ( Vcg) across
the current s ource using Mesh-current method in the given circuit diagram.
Nodal Methods of Analysis: Circuit analysis by this methods are solved by using
the KCL at the junction of a particular given circuit.
Suppose, total number of junctions are j in a particular electrical circuit, then
total number of node equations N can be calculated by us ing the following
formula:
Total number of Node Equations N = (j − 1) (i)
Procedure of Nodal Methods of Analysis:
Step1: Draw the electrical circuit in which node voltage or branch currents has
to find using this method and calculate the total number of Node equations using
the formula: N = ( j − 1) (i)
Step 2: Assume independent node voltages for each junction except reference,
because at reference junction voltage will always be zero.

Step 3: Apply KCL for each junction except reference.

Step 4: Finally solve the equations using different methods.
Example 2: Find the value of the current I flowing through the battery using
‘Node voltage’ method in the given circuit.