MODULE-Ⅱ

Error Detection and correction.

if any errors has occured
10.1 INtroduction
10.1.1Types o7 errors
Sbits
→ bits may change because of interference
зIn боох correction we need to know tne exoct number
interference can change the shape of sig har. blts that ore soncupted and mare imnartanity, melk
locattion message..
→single bit error moans given dara
mly I bit of
In the
anft is changed from Ito o ar oto)
burst error means & or more bits. in tre data anit
10.1.4 coding
have changed. from I to or from oto /
Redundancy is achieved nrough vavious coding scnemes
sender adds redundant bits wmwrough a erocess
ess thatcrcreater
lengthor buntema a relationship blw redundant bits and astual
sent roto000 bitS.
15bit
corrupted receiver checks the relationship between
0100110101) bits to
two sers o
derect enors.
00001 corurten
@singlr 10101100001
Received we divide coding schemes In two broad categories
Burst ewor
①block coding
convolutton coding
The number of bits effected desends on datarate
and daration of noise 0.2
BLOCK coDing
it Sending data at IkbPs a noise of /100 second ca
effeck io bits
In block coding we divide our message in to blocks,
each of K bits called datawords.
10.1.2 Redundancy
→cenral concept in detecting amdor corcurting errers is weadd Y redundant birs to each block to make
redundancy. lengtm n= ktr- resculting n-bir blocks ave called
extra bits with codewords.
→to desect or corect errors we send sorme
ler and combination datawords
ourdota redundant birs ave added by sender
wikkn k bits we can create of 2
wlm bits can. create combination of 2 codecoords
removed by receiver
n we
their presence alunw's recelver to detect or coraffcoEt since n>k number of possible codewords is larger
correct comrupted birs. than number ot Possible datawards
→ This means g-2 codewords that are hot used.
10.1.3 Detection Versus corection we call these codewords Invalid or illegal
In ervar detection we are only looking to see, ?trick in error detection is existence of mese invalld.
codes
if receiver receives an
an invalid code word, indicates
that data was corrapted during transmission.
 sender encodes datacoard ol as o11 and sends it to
10.2.1 Error Detection
receiver.
How can erors detecred by using block coding? comsider fe
fellowing casy
receiver receives o11 - It is volid codeward, extract af
Dif following two comaitions are met, recelver can
daraward ol from it.
detect a change in the original codewards.
1. The yeceiver has (or can find) list of valid codewords.
codeword is corrupted during transmiission and 11 is
received (ieftmest bit is corucpted) .This is not valtd codecword
2. The ariginal codeward has changed to an.
and discarded
invalid one
receiver
Sender pecoder
A code axrd corrupted daring transimisston and o0o is
Encoder
(Datawad kbirs
·recelved (right atwo bits are corrupred) •This is valid
Datacwoit
EbiKS
exract codeward. receiver incorectly extracts the dataword
Checeerniscand 00. two corupred bits have made the erver
Generahx
undetectable
unreliable codeward n bits An error detecting code derect only tne types of
nbits [codeword/ bransmission
exvors for cwhich it is designhed, otusr types of erors
may remaln undetected
→ Sender creates codewords by using generatts
Scodecword sent to recelvev may cnange duxing
ransmission
Hamming distance.
→received codevord same af Valid codeewards ome wava
fercuse.
It is Vcential concert in coding for erior contrat
is accerted, Ene corresponding
not valid dataward is extracted
→received codeward is texasid it is atscarded. The hamming [Link] two words (of samisize)
→ if fne codecword is corapted during transmission is numbex of difterencel between the caresponalng
bыts
but received ward still matches a valid codecward
the erwor remains. undetected Hamming distance berween. two words x andy as
-dCx,y). Hamming distance berween the recetued..
Examme-assame tnat k=2 and n=J belor Shoets codeword and the sent codeword is numbex of bits
List of codeciords and dataworde that are coructed: during transmission.
Dataword codeworg. it code word is 00000 and recelved is 01101
00 000 3 bits ave in eroy and hamming distance berween
110
01 101 Ewo words ig d(00000,01101)=3
10
110
 Minimum distance for linear [Link]
SIn omerwordy if tme distance between sent and reeeived
codeword is not zerd, andeword covupted during transmisssa, s the minimum hamming distance is bme number of
i's in the nonzevo valld codeword witn the
I hamming
xoR
distance
neeration ()
can be catiy found by
on mio cwords and count the
acciuing smallest humber of Is.
number of I's in result:
Example- In below codewords 000
Ex: Hamming distance d (000, 011) is2. becarn 011
(o00@aty:is 0l1 (two is 101
the number of i's in nonzero vattotend eaind- i
Minimam Hamming oistance for Error Detection
→ In a set of codedwords, the minimum hammlng codexoids axe 2,2, and 2 so minimum havaming
distance between
distance is d =2
distance min
is tme
Smallest Hamming
all Possible Pairs of codewords.
→ler us find the minimam Hamming distance in a code
if re want to derect up Servors-
to Parlty-check code
if our sustem is to detect Up to s erors, the most familier emor-detecting code is farity=
minimam distance between the valid codel must chegk code. This code is linear block code.
be (sti), so that received onde word does hor → In tmis code a k bit dataword is changed to
match witn varid codewerd n-bit codecord. whevel n= k+1.. The extra bit is
→To quarantee the detecttion of up to s errovs called Parity bit, is Selected to make to tal number
in all cares the minimum hamming distance in a of Is in codeword even
block code must be d = s+]
min
Example A code scheme hay a hammiing distanee Dataword code word
dmin= le this code quarantees the detecion of ae to
0000 00000
tnree errors (d = St1 or S=3) 1000 10001
10010
Linear Block codes .-
structure of
A Lineav Bloek code is a code in which the below shous" encoder and decoder
exelusive OR ( addition modaro 2) of. tuo
valid code words createy anotner valid codeword
 Receiver
10.3, CYCLIC CODES.
Sendev parawora
Darawr
(9ao cuclie codes are Speclay linear block codey with one
109/920)
extraproperty.
Synare
Generator ohecker
Dectslon uogif diseued In eycle code if a codeword is ayellcally shifted Crerales
tme resull- is anomer codeword
parilybir unreliabe
90 Yo tf 101100o is codeword and e
we cualrcally les
left-shift
transmisston
code word
me 011000 1 is also a codeword
→calcwation is. done in modewar artnmetse
l0.3e cucile Redundan
Jencoder wes a generater mat copy u bit dataword cy cheac
CRC is used in nekworks such as LANs and WANs
and gereratel a eariny bit ro. [xa = ayta, +Q,+a (midul-) Decader
Receiver
Datawoa
darabir and partny latt create codeward
5-blr Sender Encoder a9,91190
→ The paviny bit m ar is added makes the numberoais.

个个
aa,00 (necision
Boir
in the codecwond even. Logis Bois
Cewr
AAT
→ if namber of is is even the result is o if the Divisar surd (sstso
namber 1s odd, resuut is I. In bom cases 20
of is (GeneratoN checker
Is in codeword ex -Shared
the total namber of is even.
ind
sender sends codewond which may be corcarted Reema
unrelliable
daring transmisston 39918re vro transnisslon
→ receiver receives a 5-bir word. checicer at receiver Codeword codeword
does same tning as genevator at sender witn.
one excertion the addition is done over all 5 bits SIn encoder dataworid has kbits (4 here)
→The rescut is cared sindrome, is Just I bit. code word has n bits (7s)
→ Sundrome is a nen number of is in recerved cedemorp dataward is augmented by adding n-k (zhere) os to
the right hamd stze side of word
is evern otnercuise it is1
resuit is fed in
Sn = bytbetbit botruo fomoaиo 2) sn bir to generator.
→generator uses a divisor of size n-k+1 (uheve)
→ syndrome is passed to the decision logic analyzer' predefined and agreed an on
→if syndrome is a mereis no detectable error in genexator divides the augmented dataward by
received codeword: the datacortion of recetved codeword
divi sar (modulo-z division)
otient is discarded. remainder (re v, vo) is

D
uu
is accepred as dataward.
arpended dataew ard to oreate codeward.
is I
to
→if syndrome datarortion of received codeword
is discarded.
 decoder receives codeword. The remainder Decoder
メ

moduced by the checker is a sundromeos n-k (J here)

uncorrupted
bits wnicn is fed to decision logic analyzey
codecword l001/110
→if syndrome bits are all os, the u left most Decodey
bits of codeword are accerted ay dotaword, otnercwise 101
4 bits ave dicarded (ewor) 1011) 1001-10
cadaword
101111
1010
Polynamiaps
Fotef wby to understand eyetic cedes 1011
1011
Zero
Encoder T00 o © Syndrome
Dataword 1ooL Dataword acceered
Encoding 1001
A4otient earapted
1010 Loiscard Codeword (1000/11☐
0
Divisor 101) 1001/000 Dividend
1011
)
Leftmostbit 0100 1011 1000110
1011/1
051
use oooodivisor 1000 에
0000
١٥١)
0110 ‫ור‬
1011
Lettmostbit is 0000
1.000
use 0ooo divisar 110 Remainder
onzero
Nor 0111 Syndrorm
codewer1001 110
Data
ataward
discard
10.3.2
Polynomials Muitiplying and dividing terms:
A better way to anderstand clic codet is multielting a term by
to repvesent trem as Polynomiar. we Just add me powers
anomer term is simple.
Ex r K²xx=x
→A Pattern of os and Is can be [Link] for dividing we Just substract
tne power of
polynomial from power of second
a witn coefficients of o and frst Ex x/2
- Power of each term Shows tne Positson os
is ?
bu on siblounios
brf.
coeficient shows value of bit mwisplying a Poynomian by anom
term. Each term of er is don e cerm by.
96 as ag aтата1 first polynomial mus
1000011 t be
muitielied by all terms of second. The
resellt,t of
course, is then simrlified and
pairs of eaual terms are
deleted.
(+x²+x²+x) (x²+x+1) = x"+x +x5+x5+x"+2²+x"+
Degree ot Polynomial: degree of Polynomicy is fme x³+x +x³+ x²+ x³+ x²+x= x²+x+x+x
highest powey in the polynomic.
Exxxtl is 6 olviding ane polynomial by Anotner.
we divide flist term of the divided by me first
and substracting Polynomials' of the diviser to get
Adding a term the first term of
dane by tme auotient.
Adding and Substracting coynaneiats
ave
r
adding sutbstacing ine
or es Swe multiely the term in Quotient by tne divisor
→ In our care coefficients are mly and1 and substract resalt fram the dividend
and adding is in modu10-2. swe releat the process antil dividend degree is.
additsen and substraction are same iets fnan divisor degree.
→ addition and substraction is dane by combintng
terms and deleting Palrs of identical terms:
Fx! x²+2n+3x²+5 and Itex+x²
aad x"+x
3x -5
Ex's adding and x"*x"tx*giNes
(x"and'x are deeeted) 7extl 3225(
t ifi we add I Polynomials and wer get X three times, 3x +6X +3
cue delete a pair of tnem and keep third
-5x-x75
-5x-10x-5
9x+10
Shifting
The dataword 1001 75
→ shisring co left means adding extra as as The divisov f.
rerresented as xit1
rigmostbirs. tall is rerresented a₁ x²+ xtl
➝ Shifting t right means dereting same right To find auqumented datacnord, we have left shiftea
mosttolts mor dakaword & birs (muitielving by x). resut is
→

Shifting to left is accomplished by folynomrial mwtiplylng

In po14nomial representarion, the divisar
each blynomial by xm. em is namber of chifted bits) a
is
→ shifting igh't is accomeilshed by dividing eechterm
to nermally referred to as the generaror
of poly nomiay by xm Posynsmial gox) (ar) simply the generator
ctelic code Analysis
shikting left I hits, 1001l becames. 10011000.
xix+1 becomer x²+x 4x → f(2) is Poloynamial witn binary coefficeents.
patawordi dcx) codeword : cox) Generaror:
shisring right I bits: log1l becomer
ntx+1 la
becomelrx Syndrome: s(x) Emor:ecx)
cx)
cuaic sode Encoder using polynomtals if s(a) is not zero then one or move birs is correpted
aie show the creation of a codeword from a datawrd gif scr) is zero ertmer no bit is corrupted or
decoder failed to dereer ears (i means dluide)
En cyalic code
Datawordxt
1 sCx)1o, one or more bits comurted
Divisor (1t x+x +gx olvidend 2-if ES(x) =0 eitner
Aug mentedd
x+cx
2 ) No bit is corupted
X+"x +ox or
⑥ some bits are corupted, but decoderfarted
to detect them
x"+ x²+ x tet us fimelyst find me relationship among tne.
sent codeword ewor, received codeward and generator
c Remander
codecvord x+ x² x²+ x Received codewerd = c(x) tecx
Datawad: Remaindея:
recelver catt divides the received codeword by
90 to sundrome
ger
→ Received codeword CC)
goxy 9Cx)
9Cx