11 Radiation

11.1 Dipole Radiation

11.1.1 What is Radiation?
11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation.
11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation.
11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source.
11.2 Point Charges
11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge.
11.2.2 Radiation Reaction.
11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction.

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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Radiation never comes back 11.1.1 What is Radiation?

The source of all electromagnetic fields is some arrangement of electric charge.

But a charge at rest does not generate electromagnetic waves nor does a steady current.
It takes accelerating charges, and changing currents.
Electromagnetic waves in vacuum propagate out "to infinity," carrying energy with them;
the signature of radiation is this irreversible flow of energy away from the source.

Throughout this chapter we shall assume the source is localized near the origin.

Imagine a gigantic spherical shell, out at radius 𝑟;

the total power passing out through this surface is the integral of the Poynting vector:
1
𝑃 𝑟 = 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = 𝐄 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝜇
The power radiated is the limit of this quantity as r goes to infinity:
𝑃 = lim 𝑃 𝑟
→
This is the energy (per unit time) that is transported out to infinity, and never comes back.

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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
and behavior of radiation source 11.1.1 What is Radiation?
1
𝑃 𝑟 = 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = 𝐄 × 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐚
𝜇
𝑃 = lim 𝑃 𝑟
→
The area of the sphere is 4𝜋𝑟 ,
so for radiation to occur the Poynting vector must decrease at large r no faster than 1 ∕ 𝑟 .
Static sources do not radiate
1
From Coulomb's law, electrostatic fields fall off like 1⁄𝑟 or faster, and 𝑆~
𝑆~1 ∕ 𝑟 𝑟
From the Biot-Savart law, magnetostatic fields go like 1⁄𝑟 or faster.
𝑟 1
Jefimenko's equations 1 𝜌 𝐫 ,𝑡 𝜌̇ 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝐉̇ 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑃 𝑟 ~ =
𝐄= r̂ + r̂ − 𝑑𝜏′ 𝑟 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖 r 𝑐r 𝑐 r 𝑃 = lim 𝑃 𝑟 = 0
𝜇 𝐉 𝐫 ,𝑡 𝐉̇ 𝐫 , 𝑡 →
𝐁= + × r̂ 𝑑𝜏′
4𝜋 r 𝑐r
The terms involving 𝜌̇ and 𝐉̇ go like 1⁄𝑟;
These terms are responsible for electromagnetic radiation.
The study of radiation involves picking out the parts of 𝐄 and 𝐁 that go like 1⁄𝑟 at large distances from the source,
constructing from them the 1⁄𝑟 term in S,
integrating over a large spherical surface, and taking the limit as 𝑟 → ∞.
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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Approximations 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation

Two tiny metal spheres separated by a distance d and connected by a fine wire.
The charge on the upper sphere is 𝑞(𝑡), and the charge on the lower sphere is −𝑞(𝑡).

𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑞 cos(𝜔𝑡)

The oscillating electric dipole 𝐩 𝑡 = 𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝒛 𝑝 =𝑞 𝑑

1 𝜌 𝐫 ,𝑡
𝑉(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝑑𝜏′
4𝜋𝜖 r
1 𝑞 cos[𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 ] 𝑞 cos[𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 ]
𝑉 𝐫, 𝑡 = −
4𝜋𝜖 r r

r± = 𝑟 ∓ 𝑟𝑑 cos 𝜃 + 𝑑⁄2

Approximation 1: 𝑑 ≪ 𝑟
Approximation 2: 𝑑 ≪ 𝑐/𝜔 𝑑≪𝜆
Approximation 3: 𝑟 ≫ 𝑐/𝜔 𝑟≫𝜆

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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Potentials for an oscillating dipole 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation

1 𝑞 cos[𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 ] 𝑞 cos[𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 ]
𝑉 𝐫, 𝑡 = −
4𝜋𝜖 r r
𝑑 𝑑
approximation 1: 𝑑 ≪ 𝑟 r± = 𝑟 ∓ 𝑟𝑑 cos 𝜃 + 𝑑⁄2 = 𝑟 1 ∓ cos 𝜃 +
𝑟 2𝑟
𝑑
r± ≅ 𝑟(1 ∓ cos 𝜃)
2𝑟
1 1 𝑑
≅ (1 ± cos 𝜃)
r± 𝑟 2𝑟
𝑟 𝑑 𝜔𝑑
cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r± ⁄𝑐 ≅ cos[𝜔 𝑡 − 1 ∓ cos 𝜃 ] = cos[𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c ± cos 𝜃]
𝑐 2𝑟 2𝑐
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑑
= cos[𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c ] cos cos 𝜃 ∓ sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c sin cos 𝜃
2𝑐 2𝑐
approximation 2: 𝑑 ≪ 𝑐/𝜔

𝜔𝑑
cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r± ⁄𝑐 ≅ cos[𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c ] ∓ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
2𝑐

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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Potentials for an oscillating dipole 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation
1 𝑞 cos[𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 ] 𝑞 cos[𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 ]
𝑉 𝐫, 𝑡 = −
4𝜋𝜖 r r
For 𝑑 ≪ 𝑟 and 𝑑 ≪ 𝜆
1 1 𝑑 𝜔𝑑
≅ (1 ± cos 𝜃) cos 𝜔(𝑡 − r± ⁄𝑐 ≅ cos[𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c ] ∓ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
r± 𝑟 2𝑟 2𝑐

𝑞 cos[𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 ] 𝑞 𝑑 𝜔𝑑
1+ cos 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
r 𝑟 2𝑟 2𝑐
=
𝑞 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r ⁄𝑐 𝑞 𝑑 𝜔𝑑
− + −1 + cos 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
r 𝑟 2𝑟 2𝑐
𝑞 𝑑 𝜔𝑞 𝑑
= cos 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
𝑟 𝑟𝑐
𝑝 1 𝜔 In the static limit (𝜔 → 0)
= cos 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
𝑟 𝑟 𝑐
𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝑝 cos 𝜃 1 𝜔 𝑉 𝑟, 𝜃 →
𝑉(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑐 The potential of a stationary dipole

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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Potentials for an oscillating dipole 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation

𝑝 cos 𝜃 1 𝜔
𝑉(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑐
Approximation 3: 𝑟 ≫ 𝑐/𝜔 radiation zone

𝑝 𝜔 cos 𝜃
𝑉(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑞 cos(𝜔𝑡)

The vector potential is determined by the current flowing in the wire

𝑑𝑞
𝐈 𝑡 = 𝐳 = −𝑞 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐳
𝑑𝑡
𝜇 𝐉 𝐫 ,𝑡 𝜇 ⁄
−𝑞 𝜔 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐 𝐳
𝐀 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏′ = 𝑑𝑧
4𝜋 r 4𝜋 ⁄ r
Approximation 1: 𝑑 ≪ 𝑟
Approximation 2: 𝑑 ≪ 𝑐/𝜔
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔
𝐀 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡 = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝐳
4𝜋𝑟

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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Fields for an oscillating dipole 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation
𝑝 𝜔 cos 𝜃
𝑉(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔
𝐀 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡 = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝐳
4𝜋𝑟
𝜕𝐀
𝐄 = −𝜵𝑉 −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
𝜵𝑉 = 𝐫+ 𝛉
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝑝 𝜔 1 𝜔 sin 𝜃
=− cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c − cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c 𝐫 − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c 𝛉
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 𝑟
Approximation 3: 𝑟 ≫ 𝑐/𝜔
𝑝 𝜔 cos 𝜃
≅ cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c 𝐫
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟
𝜕𝐀 𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 𝜇 𝑝 𝜔
=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝐳 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 cos 𝜃 𝐫 − sin 𝜃 𝛉
𝜕𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟

𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐄=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝛉
4𝜋 𝑟
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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
and behavior of radiation source 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation
𝑝 𝜔 cos 𝜃
𝑉(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄c
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔
𝐀 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡 = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝐳 𝐳 = cos 𝜃 𝐫 − sin 𝜃 𝛉
4𝜋𝑟
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐄=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝛉
4𝜋 𝑟
1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴
𝐁=𝜵×𝐀 = 𝑟𝐴 − 𝝓
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 𝜔 sin 𝜃
=− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 + sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
4𝜋𝑟 𝑐 𝑟
Approximation 3: 𝑟 ≫ 𝑐/𝜔
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐁=− cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
𝐄 and 𝐁 represent monochromatic waves of frequency 𝜔 traveling in the radial direction at the speed of light.
𝐄 and 𝐁 are in phase, mutually perpendicular, and transverse; the ratio of their amplitudes is 𝐸 ⁄𝐵 = 𝑐.
𝐄 and 𝐁 are spherical waves, not plane waves, and their amplitude decreases like 1⁄𝑟 as they progress.
But for large 𝑟, they are approximately plane over small region.
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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Average power 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐄=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝛉
4𝜋 𝑟

𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐁=− cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
The energy radiated by an oscillating electric dipole is
1 𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐒= 𝐄×𝐀 = cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝐫
𝜇 𝑐 4𝜋 𝑟
There is no radiation along the axis of the dipole;
The intensity is obtained by averaging (in time) over a complete cycle: the intensity profiles takes the form of a donut,
with its maximum in the equatorial plane
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐒 = 𝐫
32𝜋 𝑐 𝑟
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 1 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
The total power radiated is found by integrating 𝐒 over a sphere of radius 𝑟:
cos 𝜃 4
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 = − cos 𝜃 + =
3 3
𝑃 = 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 =
32𝜋 𝑐 𝑟 12𝜋𝑐
It is independent of the radius of the sphere, as one would expect from conservation of energy.
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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Example 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation

The blueness of the sky during daytime and the redness 𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃
of the sun during sunset or sunrise can be explained by 𝐒 = 𝐫
32𝜋 𝑐 𝑟
Sunlight passing through the atmosphere stimulates atoms to oscillate as tiny dipoles.

It is this reradiated light that you see when you look up in the sky.

The incident solar radiation covers a broad range of frequencies (white light),
but the energy absorbed and reradiated by the atmospheric dipoles is stronger
at the higher frequencies because of the 𝜔 .
It is more intense in the blue, then, than in the red.

Because electromagnetic waves are transverse,

the dipoles oscillate in a plane orthogonal to the sun's rays.
The dipoles oscillating along the line of sight send no radiation to the observer;
light received at this angle is therefore polarized perpendicular to the sun's rays.

Suring sunset or sunrise, sunlight coming in at a tangent to the earth's surface must pass through a much longer paths
in the atmosphere than sunlight coming from overhead.
Accordingly, much of the blue has been removed by scattering and what's left is red.

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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Vector potential 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation

𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 An alternating current in a wire loop of radius b

The oscillating magnetic dipole moment,
𝐦 𝑡 = 𝜋𝑏 𝐼 𝑡 𝐳 = 𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑡 𝐳 𝑚 = 𝜋𝑏 𝐼

The loop is uncharged, so the scalar potential is zero.

The retarded vector potential is
d𝐥′
𝜇 𝐉(𝐫 , 𝑡 ) 𝜇 𝐼 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐
𝐀(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝑑𝜏′ = 𝑑𝐥′
4𝜋 r 4𝜋 r 𝑥
𝐫
For a point 𝐫 directly above the x axis, A must aim in the y direction, 𝜙

since the x components from symmetrically placed points on either side of the x axis will cancel. d𝐀 d𝐥′
𝑦
𝜇 𝐼 𝑏 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐
𝐀(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝐲 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙′ cos 𝜙 serves to pick out the y-component of 𝑑𝐥′
4𝜋 r
𝐫 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝐱 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝐳
r= 𝑟 + 𝑏 − 2𝑟𝑏 cos 𝜓
𝐛 = 𝑏 cos 𝜙′ 𝐱 + 𝑏 sin 𝜙′ 𝐲
r= 𝑟 + 𝑏 − 2𝑟𝑏 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙′
𝐫 ∙ 𝐛 = 𝑟𝑏 cos 𝜓 = 𝑟𝑏 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙′
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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Vector potential 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation
For a point 𝐫 directly above the x axis.
𝜇 𝐼 𝑏 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐
𝐀(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝐲 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙′ r = 𝑟 + 𝑏 − 2𝑟𝑏 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙′
4𝜋 r
𝑏 1 1 𝑏
Approximation 1: 𝑏 ≪ 𝑟 r ≅ 𝑟(1 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 ) ≅ (1 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 )
𝑟 r 𝑟 𝑟
𝜔𝑏
cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐 ≅ cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙
𝑐
𝜔𝑏 𝜔𝑏
= cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 cos sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 sin sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙
𝑐 𝑐
Approximation 2: 𝑏 ≪ 𝑐/𝜔 𝑏≪𝜆
𝜔𝑏
cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐 ≅ cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐
𝑐
cos 𝜔 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐 1 𝑟 𝜔𝑏 𝑏
≅ cos 𝜔 𝑡 − − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐
r 𝑟 𝑐 𝑐 𝑟
𝑏 𝜔𝑏 drop the second-order term.
− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐
𝑟 𝑐
𝜇 𝐼 𝑏 𝑟 𝜔𝑏 𝑏
𝐀(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝐲 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙′
4𝜋𝑟 𝑐 𝑐 𝑟
This term integrates to zero.
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 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Electric field 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation
For a point 𝐫 directly above the x axis.
𝜇 𝐼 𝑏 𝜔𝑏 𝑏
𝐀(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝐲 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙′
4𝜋𝑟 𝑐 𝑟
cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙′ = 𝜋
𝜇 𝐼 𝜋𝑏 𝜔 1
𝐀(𝐫, 𝑡) = − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝐲
4𝜋𝑟 𝑐 𝑟

In general, for any point 𝐫, A points in the 𝝓-direction

The vector potential of an oscillating perfect magnetic dipole
𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 1
𝐀(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓 𝑚 ≡ 𝐼 𝜋𝑏
4𝜋𝑟 𝑐 𝑟

Approximation 3: 𝑟 ≫ 𝑐/𝜔 𝑟≫𝜆 In the static limit (𝜔 → 0)

𝜇 𝑚 sin 𝜃
𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃 𝐀 𝑟, 𝜃 →
𝐀(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓 4𝜋𝑟
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
The potential of a magnetic dipole
𝜕𝐀 𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐄=− = cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
𝜕𝑡 4𝜋𝑐 𝑟

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 14

 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Magnetic field 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation
𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐀(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) = − sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐄= cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟

𝐁=𝜵×𝐀
1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝜔
𝐁 = sin 𝜃 𝐴 𝒓+ − 𝑟𝐴 𝜽 =− sin 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝒓 + c𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝜽
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 4𝜋𝑐 𝑟 𝑟 𝑐
𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃 drop ~ 1⁄𝑟 .
𝐁=− c𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝜽
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
𝐄 and 𝐁 are in phase, mutually perpendicular, and transverse to the direction of propagation 𝐫, and the ratio of their
amplitudes is 𝐸 ⁄𝐵 = 𝑐 , all of which is as expected for electromagnetic waves.
1 𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
The energy flux for magnetic dipole radiation is 𝐒= 𝐄×𝐁 = cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝐫
𝜇 𝑐 4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
The intensity is 𝐒 = 𝐫 The intensity profile has the shape of a donut
32𝜋 𝑐 𝑟
as in the case of electric dipole.
𝜇 𝑚 𝜔
The total radiated power 𝑃 = 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 =
12𝜋𝑐
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 15
 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Comparison 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation

Electric dipole Magnetic dipole

𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐄=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝛉 𝐄= cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐁=− cos 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓 𝐁=− c𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝜽
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟 4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜃
𝐒 = 𝐫 𝐒 = 𝐫
32𝜋 𝑐 𝑟 32𝜋 𝑐 𝑟
𝜇 𝑝 𝜔 𝜇 𝑚 𝜔
𝑃 = 𝑃 =
12𝜋𝑐 12𝜋𝑐

For configurations with comparable 𝑚 = 𝐼 𝜋𝑏

𝑃 𝑚 𝜔𝑏
dimensions, the power radiated = = 𝑝 =𝑞 𝑑
electrically is enormously greater. 𝑃 𝑝 𝑐 𝑐
𝐼 =q 𝜔
Approximation 2: 𝑏 ≪ 𝑐/𝜔 Let
𝑑 = 𝜋𝑏
One should expect electric dipole radiation to dominate.
Only when the system configuration excludes any electric contribution, will the magnetic dipole radiation reveal itself.
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 16
 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Scalar potential 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source
An arbitrary configuration of charge and current is localized within some finite volume near the origin.
1 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐
The retarded scalar potential is 𝑉(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝑑𝜏′ r= 𝑟 + 𝑟′ − 2𝐫 ∙ 𝐫′
4𝜋𝜖 r
Approximation 1: 𝑟′ ≪ 𝑟 The field point 𝐫 is far away, in comparison 𝐫∙𝐫 1 1 𝐫∙𝐫
r≅𝑟 1− ≅ 1+
to the dimensions of the source. 𝑟 r 𝑟 𝑟
𝑟 𝐫∙𝐫 Expanding 𝜌 as a Taylor series in 𝑡 about 𝑟
𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐 ≅ 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 − + 𝑡 ≡𝑡−
𝑐 𝑐 the retarded time at the origin, 𝑐
𝐫∙𝐫 1 𝐫∙𝐫 1 𝐫∙𝐫 The dot is differentiation
𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐 ≅ 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 + 𝜌̇ 𝐫 , 𝑡 + 𝜌̈ 𝐫 , 𝑡 + 𝜌⃛ 𝐫 , 𝑡 + ⋯ with respect to time.
𝑐 2 𝑐 3! 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐
Approximation 2: 𝑟 ≪ , ⁄
,… → drop
𝜌̈ ⁄𝜌̇ 𝜌⃛⁄𝜌̇
For an oscillating system each of these ratios is 𝑐⁄𝜔, same as the old approximation 2.
1 𝐫∙𝐫 1 𝐫∙𝐫
𝑉(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝜌 𝐫 ,𝑡 + 𝜌̇ 𝐫 , 𝑡 1+ 𝑑𝜏′
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟 𝑟
1 𝐫 𝐫 𝑑
𝑉(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏 + ∙ 𝐫 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏 + ∙ 𝐫 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏 Drop the second-order term
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑐 𝑑𝑡
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 17
 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Scalar potential 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source

1 𝐫 𝐫 𝑑
𝑉(𝐫, 𝑡) = 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏 + ∙ 𝐫 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏 + ∙ 𝐫 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑐 𝑑𝑡
𝑄≡ 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏
1 𝑄 𝐫∙𝐩 𝑡 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝑡
𝑉(𝐫, 𝑡) = + + Since charge is conserved,
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑐
𝑄 is independent of time.

𝐩 𝑡 ≡ 𝐫 𝜌 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏
In the static case, these terms are the monopole and dipole
contributions to the multipole expansion for V

We will show that these terms will not contribute to the radiating fields.

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 18

 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Vector potential 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source
The vector potential is 𝑟
Expanding 𝐉 as a Taylor series in 𝑡 about 𝑡 ≡𝑡−
𝐉 𝐫 , 𝑡 − 𝐫⁄𝑐 𝑐
𝜇 the retarded time at the origin,
𝐀 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏′
4𝜋 r 𝐫∙𝐫 1 1 𝐫∙𝐫
𝐉 𝐫 , 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐 ≅ 𝐉 𝐫 , 𝑡 + 𝐉̇ 𝐫 , 𝑡 ≅ 1+
Drop the second-order term,
𝑐 r 𝑟 𝑟

𝜇 𝐫∙𝐫 𝐫∙𝐫
𝐀 𝐫, 𝑡 ≅ 𝐉 𝐫 , 𝐭 𝟎 𝑑𝜏 + 𝐉 𝐫 , 𝐭𝟎 𝑑𝜏 + 𝐉̇ 𝐫 , 𝐭 𝟎 𝑑𝜏
4𝜋𝑟 𝑟 𝑐

We will show that this term will Ignore.

contribute to the radiating fields. Since for 𝑟′ ≪ 𝑟, and 𝑟 ≪ , these terms
are much smaller than the first term.
𝜇
𝐀 𝐫, 𝑡 ≅ 𝐉 𝐫 ,𝑡 𝑑𝜏′ For an oscillating system, 𝐉̇ = 𝜔𝐉.
4𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝐩(𝑡 )
𝐉 𝐫 , 𝑡 𝑑𝜏′ = See next slide.
𝑑𝑡
𝜇 𝐩̇ 𝑡
𝐀 𝐫, 𝑡 ≅
4𝜋 𝑟
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 19
 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Proof 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source

𝑑𝐩 𝑑 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
= 𝐫𝜌𝑑𝜏 = 𝐫 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝐫 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝜏 The continuity equation = −𝛁 ∙ 𝐉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The x-component
𝑑𝑝
= − 𝑥 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝛁 ∙ 𝑥𝐉 𝑑𝜏 + 𝐽 𝑑𝜏 = − 𝑥𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 + 𝐽 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐽 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡

𝛁 ∙ 𝑓𝐀 = 𝑓 𝛁 ∙ 𝐀 + 𝐀 ∙ (𝛁𝑓) The divergence theorem 𝑥𝐉 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = 0

𝛁 ∙ 𝑥𝐉 = 𝑥 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 + 𝐉 ∙ (𝛁𝑥)
𝛁 ∙ 𝐀𝑑𝜏 = 𝐀 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 Since 𝐉 is entirely inside 𝒱,
𝛁 ∙ 𝑥𝐉 = 𝑥 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 + 𝐉 ∙ 𝐱 𝐉 is zero on the surface 𝒮.
𝛁 ∙ 𝑥𝐉 = 𝑥 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 + 𝐽
The y and z components
𝑑𝑝
= − 𝑦 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐽 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝
= − 𝑧 𝛁 ∙ 𝐉 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐽 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐩
= 𝐉𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 20
 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Electric field 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source
1 𝑄 𝐫∙𝐩 𝑡 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝑡 𝜇 𝐩̇ 𝑡
𝑉 𝐫, 𝑡 ≅ + + 𝐀 𝐫, 𝑡 ≅
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 4𝜋 𝑟
Approximation 3: discard 1 ∕ 𝑟 terms in 𝐄 and 𝐁. 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 1 1 1 2
𝜵 =𝜵 = 𝜵 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ + 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝜵 𝜵 =−
𝜕𝐀 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝐄 = −𝜵𝑉 − 𝜵 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ = 𝜵 𝑥𝑝̇ + 𝑦𝑝̇ + 𝑧𝑝̇
𝜕𝑡
3 = + 𝑝̇ + 𝑥𝜕 𝑝̇ + 𝑦𝜕 𝑝̇ + 𝑧𝜕 𝑝̇ 𝐱
1 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝑡 1 𝐫 ∙ 𝒑̈ 𝑡 + 𝑝̇ + 𝑥𝜕 𝑝̇ + 𝑦𝜕 𝑝̇ + 𝑧𝜕 𝑝̇ 𝐲
𝜵𝑉 ≅ 𝜵 ≅ 𝜵𝑡
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟𝑐 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟𝑐 + 𝑝̇ + 𝑥𝜕 𝑝̇ + 𝑦𝜕 𝑝̇ + 𝑧𝜕 𝑝̇ 𝒛
𝑡 ≡ 𝑡 − 𝑟 ⁄𝑐 = 𝐩̇ + 𝑥𝜵𝑝̇ + 𝑦𝜵𝑝̇ + 𝑧𝜵𝑝̇
𝜵 𝑡 = − 𝜵𝑟⁄𝑐 = − 𝐫⁄𝑐 𝜕𝑝̇
𝜵𝑝̇ 𝑡 = 𝜵𝑡 = 𝑝̈ 𝜵𝑡
1 𝐫 ∙ 𝒑̈ 𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜵𝑉 ≅ − 𝐫 𝜵𝑝̇ 𝑡 = 𝑝̈ 𝜵𝑡
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟
𝜵𝑝̇ 𝑡 = 𝑝̈ 𝜵𝑡
𝜕𝐀 𝜇 𝐩̈ 𝑡
≅ = 𝐩̇ + 𝑥𝑝̈ 𝜵𝑡 + 𝑦𝑝̈ 𝜵𝑡 + 𝑧𝑝̈ 𝜵𝑡
𝜕𝑡 4𝜋 𝑟 = 𝐩̇ + (𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ )𝛻𝑡
1 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ 𝜇 𝐩̈ 𝜇
𝐄= 𝐫− = 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ 𝐫 − 𝐩̈ 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝐩̇ (𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ ) 2 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝐩̇ (𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ ) 2 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 𝜵 = + 𝜵𝑡 − = + 𝜵𝑡 −
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Here 𝐩 is evaluated at time 𝑡 . Discard ~ 1⁄𝑟
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 21
 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Magnetic Field 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source
1 𝑄 𝐫∙𝐩 𝑡 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̇ 𝑡 𝜇 𝐩̇ 𝑡 𝐀× 𝐁×𝐂 = 𝐁 𝐀∙𝐂 −𝐂 𝐀∙𝐁
𝑉 𝐫, 𝑡 ≅ + + 𝐀 𝐫, 𝑡 ≅
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑐 4𝜋 𝑟 𝐀→𝐫
𝐁→𝐫
𝜇 𝜇 𝐂 → 𝐩̈
𝐄≅ 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ 𝐫 − 𝐩̈ = 𝐫 × 𝐫 × 𝐩̈
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟
𝐫 × 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ = 𝐫 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ − 𝐩̈ 𝐫 ∙ 𝐫
𝜇 𝐩̇ 𝜇 1 1
𝐁=𝜵×𝐀 ≅ 𝜵× = 𝜵 × 𝐩̇ − 𝐩̇ × (𝜵 ) 𝐫 × 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ = 𝐫 𝐫 ∙ 𝐩̈ − 𝐩̈
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
𝜇 1 𝒓
= 𝜵 × 𝐩̇ + 𝐩̇ × 𝛁 × 𝑓𝐂 = 𝑓 𝛁 × 𝐂 − 𝐂 × 𝛁𝑓
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
Discard ~ 1⁄𝑟
𝜇
≅ 𝜵 × 𝐩̇ 𝑡
4𝜋𝑟
𝜕𝑝̇𝒚 𝑡 𝜕𝑝̇𝒚 𝑡𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑝̇𝒚 𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
= = = 𝑝̈ 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜇 𝜇
= 𝜵𝑡 × 𝐩̈ 𝑡 =− 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ 𝑡 𝑡 ≡ 𝑡 − 𝑟 ⁄𝑐
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟𝑐
𝜇 𝜵 𝑡 = − 𝜵𝑟⁄𝑐 = − 𝐫⁄𝑐
𝐁≅− 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ 𝑡
4𝜋𝑟𝑐
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 22
 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Fields in spherical coordinates 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source
𝜇 𝜇
𝐄≅ 𝐫 × 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ 𝐁≅− 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ 𝑡
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟𝑐
Use spherical polar coordinates, with the z axis in the direction of 𝐩̈ 𝑡
𝜇 𝑝̈ 𝑡 sin 𝜃
𝐄(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡) ≅ 𝜽
4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇 𝑝̈ 𝑡 sin 𝜃
𝐁(𝑟, 𝜃, t) ≅ 𝝓
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟
The Poynting vector is
1 𝜇 sin 𝜃 𝐩̈ = 𝑝̈ 𝒛 = 𝑝̈ (cos 𝜃 𝐫 − sin 𝜃 𝜽)
𝐒= 𝐄×𝐁 ≅ 𝑝̈ 𝑡 𝐫 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ = 𝑝̈ (cos 𝜃 𝐫 × 𝐫 − sin 𝜃 𝐫 × 𝜽) = −𝑝̈ sin 𝜃 𝝓
𝜇 16𝜋 𝑐 𝑟
The total radiated power is 𝐫 × 𝐫 × 𝐩̈ = −𝑝̈ sin 𝜃 𝐫 × 𝝓 = 𝑝̈ sin 𝜃 𝜽

𝜇 𝑝̈ 𝜇 𝑝̈ cos 𝜃 4
𝑃= 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 ≅ 2𝜋 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 1 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − cos 𝜃 + =
3 3
16𝜋 𝑐 6𝜋𝑐

Notice that 𝐄 and 𝐁 are mutually perpendicular, transverse to the direction of propagation 𝐫, and in the ratio 𝐸 ⁄𝐵 = 𝑐,
as always for radiation fields,

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 23

 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Example 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source

For an oscillating electric dipole 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑝̈ 𝑡 = −𝜔 𝑝 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝜇 𝑝̈ 𝑡 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝜔 𝑝 sin 𝜃
𝐄 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑡 ≅ 𝜽 =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝜽
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟
The same as before.
𝜇 𝑝̈ 𝑡 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝜔 𝑝 sin 𝜃
𝐁(𝑟, 𝜃, t) ≅ 𝝓 =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔 𝑡 − 𝑟⁄𝑐 𝝓
4𝜋𝑐 𝑟 4𝜋𝑐 𝑟

For a single point charge 𝑞, the dipole moment is

𝐩 𝑡 = 𝑞𝐝(𝑡) where 𝐝 is the position of q with respect to the origin.
𝐩̈ 𝑡 = 𝑞𝐚(𝑡) where 𝐚 is the acceleration of the charge.

The power radiated for a single point charge is

𝜇 𝑝̈ 𝜇 𝑞 𝑎
𝑃= = This is Larmor formula We'll derive it again by different means.
6𝜋𝑐 6𝜋𝑐

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 24

 11.1 Dipole Radiation
Multipole expansion 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source
In a multipole expansion of the retarded potentials,
the term with the lowest order in 𝑟′ that is capable of producing electromagnetic radiation is an electric dipole term.
Because charge is conserved, an electric monopole does not radiate
1 𝑄(𝑡 )
If charge were not conserved, the first term in 𝑉 would read 𝑉 =
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟
1 𝑄̇(𝑡 )
and we would get a monopole field proportional to 1⁄𝑟: 𝐄 = 𝐫
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑟
A charged sphere whose radius oscillates in and out does not radiate.
The field outside, according to Gauss's law, is exactly (𝑄 ∕ 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 )𝐫, regardless of the fluctuations in size.
In the acoustical analog monopoles do radiate.

If the electric dipole moment vanish, the term of second order in 𝑟′ must be considered.
This term can be separated into two parts,
one is related to the magnetic dipole moment of the source, and
the other to its electric quadrupole moment.
If the magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole contributions vanish, the 𝑟 term must be considered.
This yields
magnetic quadrupole and electric octopole radiation.
... and so it goes.
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 25
 11.2 Point Charges
Radiation field 11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge
The fields of a point charge q in arbitrary motion The 1st term is the velocity field
𝑞 r
𝐄 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝑐 −𝑣 𝐮+r× 𝐮×𝐚 The 2nd term is the acceleration (or radiation) field
4𝜋𝜖 r ∙ 𝐮
1 𝐮 ≡ 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯
𝐁 𝐫, 𝑡 = r̂ × 𝐄 𝐫, 𝑡
c
The Poynting vector is
1 1 1
𝐒 = (𝐄 × 𝐁) = 𝐄 × r̂ × 𝐄 = 𝐸 r̂ − (r̂ ∙ 𝐄)𝐄 𝐀× 𝐁×𝐂 =𝐁 𝐀∙𝐂 −𝐂 𝐀∙𝐁
𝜇 𝜇 𝑐 𝜇 𝑐
Some of this energy flux is just field energy carried along by
the particle as it moves. To calculate the total power radiated by the particle at time 𝑡 , we draw a huge
The radiated energy is the stuff that detaches itself from the sphere of radius r, centered at the position of the particle (at time 𝑡 ), wait the
charge and propagates off to infinity. appropriate interval r
𝑡−𝑡 =
𝑐
for the radiation to reach the sphere,
𝑞 r and at that moment integrate the Poynting vector
𝐄 = r× 𝐮×𝐚 over the surface.
4𝜋𝜖 r∙𝐮
𝑡 is the retarded time for all points
𝐄 is perpendicular to r, on the sphere at time 𝑡.
so the second term in 𝐒 vanishes.
1 The area of the sphere is proportional to r ,
𝐒 = 𝐸 r̂ so any term in 𝐒 that goes like 1⁄r will yield a finite answer,
𝜇 𝑐 but terms like 1⁄r or 1⁄r will contribute nothing in the limit r → ∞.
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 26
 11.2 Point Charges
Instantaneous zero velocity 11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge
𝑞 r
𝐄 = r× 𝐮×𝐚 𝐮 ≡ 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯
4𝜋𝜖 r∙𝐮
1
𝐒 = 𝐸 r̂
𝜇 𝑐
If the charge is instantaneously at rest at time 𝑡 , then 𝐯 = 0 and 𝐮 ≡ 𝑐r̂ ,
𝑞 r
𝐄 = r × 𝑐r̂ × 𝐚
4𝜋𝜖 r ∙ 𝑐r̂ 𝐀× 𝐁×𝐂 =𝐁 𝐀∙𝐂 −𝐂 𝐀∙𝐁 No power is radiated in the forward or
𝑞 𝜇 𝑞
𝐄 = r̂ × r̂ × 𝐚 = r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ − 𝐚 backward direction.
4𝜋𝜖 𝑐 r 4𝜋r It is emitted in a donut about the direction
1 𝜇 𝑞 of instantaneous acceleration.
𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝐒 = r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ − 𝐚 r̂ = r̂
𝜇 𝑐 4𝜋r 16𝜋 𝑐 r
r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ − 𝐚 ∙ r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ − 𝐚
The total power radiated is 𝜃 is the angle between r and 𝐚. = r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ ∙ r̂ − 2 r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ ∙ 𝐚 + 𝑎
𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = − r̂ ∙ 𝐚 + 𝑎
𝑃= 𝐒 ∙ 𝑑𝐚 = r sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = −𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑎
16𝜋 𝑐 r
= 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜇 𝑞 𝑎
𝑃= The Larmor formula Derived for 𝑣 = 0 but hold to good approximation for 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐.
6𝜋𝑐
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 27
 11.2 Point Charges
Nonzero velocity 11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge
Δ𝑊= Energy emitted by the source within one period.
c = speed of the wave. 𝐯 = speed of the source.
𝑐Δ𝑡
𝑐 Δ𝑡 d𝑊 The rate at which energy passes
Δ𝑊 d𝑡 through the sphere at radius r
stationary
𝑐Δ𝑡 𝑡
𝐯 r
Δ𝑡 𝐯
Δ𝑊 𝑡
𝑞 d𝑊 The rate at which
moving 𝑣Δ𝑡 d𝑡 energy left the charge
Δ𝑊
Rate at which the loudspeaker emits energy
Δ𝑡
Δ𝑊
Rate at which the microphone detects energy
Δ𝑡
Δ𝑊 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑊 d𝑊 𝜕𝑡 d𝑊
= =
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 d𝑡 𝜕𝑡 d𝑡
Δ𝑡 v 𝜕𝑡 r̂ ∙ 𝐯
𝑐Δ𝑡 = 𝑣Δ𝑡 + 𝑐Δ𝑡 → =1− We will show = 1−
Δ𝑡 c 𝜕𝑡 𝑐
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 28
 11.2 Point Charges
Nonzero velocity 11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge
𝜕𝑡 r̂ ∙ 𝐯
Show = 1−
𝜕𝑡 𝑐
𝑡 = 𝑡 − r⁄𝑐
𝑡 = 𝑡 + r⁄𝑐
𝜕𝑡 1 𝜕r
=1+ r=𝐫−𝐰 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝜕𝑡
𝜕r 𝜕 r∙r 1 𝜕(r ∙ r) 1 𝜕r 𝜕r 𝜕 𝐫−𝐰 𝑡 𝜕𝐰 𝑡
= = = 2r ∙ = r̂ ∙ = r̂ ∙ = −r̂ ∙ = −r̂ ∙ 𝐯
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 r ∙ r 𝜕𝑡 2r 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑡 r̂ ∙ 𝐯
=1−
𝜕𝑡 𝑐

𝐮 ≡ 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯
𝜕𝑡 r̂ ∙ 𝐯 r ∙ 𝐯 r𝑐 − r ∙ 𝐯 r ∙ r̂ 𝑐 − r ∙ 𝐯 r ∙ r̂ 𝑐 − 𝐯 r∙𝐮
=1− =1− = = = =
𝜕𝑡 𝑐 r𝑐 r𝑐 r𝑐 r𝑐 r𝑐

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 29

 11.2 Point Charges
Nonzero velocity 11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge
If 𝐯 ≠ 0, the rate at which energy passes through the sphere, d𝑊 The rate at which energy passes
is not the same as the rate at which energy left the particle. d𝑡 through the sphere at radius r
𝑑𝑊 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑊 r ∙ 𝐮 𝑑𝑊
= = 𝐮 ≡ 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 r𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑡
r
The power radiated by the particle into a patch 𝐯
of area r sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = r 𝑑Ω on the sphere is 𝑡
𝑞 d𝑊 The rate at which
r∙𝐮 1 d𝑡 energy left the charge
𝑑𝑃 = 𝐒 ∙ r̂ r 𝑑Ω 𝐒 = 𝐸 r̂
r𝑐 𝜇 𝑐
r∙𝐮 1 𝑞 r
𝑑𝑃 = 𝐸 r 𝑑Ω 𝐄 = r× 𝐮×𝐚
r𝑐 𝜇 𝑐 4𝜋𝜖 r∙𝐮
𝑞 r∙𝐮 r 𝑞 r̂ × 𝐮 × 𝐚
𝑑𝑃 = r × 𝐮 × 𝐚 r 𝑑Ω = 𝑑Ω
16𝜋 𝜖 𝜇 𝑐 r r∙𝐮 16𝜋 𝜖 r̂ ∙ 𝐮
The total power
𝜇 𝑞 𝛾 𝐯×𝐚
radiated is 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑎 − The Liénard's generalization of the Larmor formula
6𝜋𝑐 𝑐
Not trivial! 𝛾 ≡ 1⁄ 1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐
The factor 𝛾 means that the radiated power increases enormously as the particle velocity approaches the speed of light.
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 30
 11.2 Point Charges
Example 11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge
Suppose 𝐯 and 𝐚 are instantaneously collinear (at time 𝑡 ), as, for example, in straight-line motion.
Find the angular distribution of the radiation.
𝑑𝑃 𝑞 r̂ × 𝐮 × 𝐚 𝐮 ≡ 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯
= 𝐮 × 𝐚 = 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯 × 𝐚 = 𝑐 r̂ × 𝐚
𝑑Ω 16𝜋 𝜖 r̂ ∙ 𝐮

𝑑𝑃 𝑞 𝑐 r̂ × r̂ × 𝐚 r̂ ∙ 𝐮 = r̂ ∙ 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯 = 𝑐 − r̂ ∙ 𝐯
=
𝑑Ω 16𝜋 𝜖 𝑐 − r̂ ∙ 𝐯 r̂ × r̂ × 𝐚 = r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ − 𝐚

𝑑𝑃 𝑞 𝑐 𝑎 − r̂ ∙ 𝐚 𝟐 r̂ × r̂ × 𝐚 𝟐
= r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ − 𝐚 ∙ r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ − 𝐚
= r̂ × r̂ × 𝐚 𝟐 = r̂ ∙ 𝐚 𝟐 r̂ ∙ r̂ − 2 r̂ ∙ 𝐚 r̂ ∙ 𝐚 + 𝑎 = 𝑎 − r̂ ∙ 𝐚 𝟐
𝑑Ω 16𝜋 𝜖 𝑐 − r̂ ∙ 𝐯
𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝑞 𝑐 𝑎 sin 𝜃
If we let the axis point along = 𝛽 ≡ 𝑣∕𝑐
𝑑Ω 16𝜋 𝑐 1 − 𝛽 cos 𝜃
For very large 𝑣(𝛽 ≈ 1) the donut of radiation is stretched
out and pushed forward by the factor 1 − 𝛽 cos 𝜃

The angular distribution of the radiation is the same whether the particle is accelerating
or decelerating; it depends on 𝑎 , and is concentrated in the forward direction with respect to the velocity.
When a high speed electron hits a metal target it rapidly decelerates, giving off what is called bremsstrahlung, or
"braking radiation”.
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 31
 11.2 Point Charges
Example 11.2.1 Power Radiated by a Point Charge
Suppose 𝐯 and 𝐚 are instantaneously collinear (at time 𝑡 ), as, for example, in straight-line motion.
Find the and the total power emitted.

𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 sin 𝜃
=
𝑑Ω 16𝜋 𝑐 1 − 𝛽 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑃= 𝑑Ω = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝑑Ω 16𝜋 𝑐 1 − 𝛽 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑃 𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 1−𝑥 𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 4
𝑃= 𝑑Ω = 𝑑𝑥 = 1−𝛽 x ≡ cos 𝜃
𝑑Ω 8𝜋𝑐 1 − 𝛽𝑥 8𝜋𝑐 3
𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 𝛾
𝑃= 𝛾 ≡ 1 ⁄ 1 − 𝑣 ⁄𝑐
6𝜋𝑐
𝜇 𝑞 𝛾 𝐯×𝐚
This result is consistent with the Liénard formula 𝑃= 𝑎 −
6𝜋𝑐 𝑐

𝐯∥𝐚 →𝐯×𝐚=0

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 32

 11.2 Point Charges
Exchange energy 11.2.2 Radiation Reaction
An accelerating charge radiates.
This radiation carries off energy, which must come at the expense of the particle's kinetic energy.
Under the influence of a given force, therefore, a charged particle accelerates less than a neutral one of the same mass.
The radiation exerts a force 𝐅 back on the charge.
We'll derive the radiation reaction force 𝐅 from conservation of energy.
𝜇 𝑞 𝑎
For a nonrelativistic particle (𝑣 ≪ 𝑐) the total power radiated is given by the Larmor formula 𝑃=
6𝜋𝑐
Conservation of energy suggest that this is the rate at which the particle loses energy, under the influence
of the radiation reaction force 𝐅 :
𝜇 𝑞 𝑎 This equation is wrong because we ignore the
𝐅 ∙𝐯 =− energy exchange with the velocity fields.
6𝜋𝑐
As the particle accelerates and decelerates energy is exchanged between
it and the velocity fields, at the same time as energy is irretrievably radiated away by the acceleration fields.
If we want to know the recoil force exerted by the fields on the charge, we need to consider the total power lost
at any instant, not just the portion that eventually escapes in the form of radiation.
The term "radiation reaction" is a misnomer. It should be called the field reaction.
We'l1 see that 𝐅 is determined by the time derivative of the acceleration.
It can be nonzero even when the acceleration itself is instantaneously zero, so that the particle is not radiating.
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 33
 11.2 Point Charges
Abraham-Lorentz formula 11.2.2 Radiation Reaction
The energy lost by the particle in any given time interval, then, must equal the energy
carried away by the radiation plus whatever extra energy has been pumped into the velocity fields.

If we consider only intervals over which the system returns to its initial state,
then the energy in the velocity fields is the same at both ends, and the only net loss is in the form of radiation.
𝜇 𝑞
𝐅 ∙ 𝐯𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 Assume the state of the system is identical at 𝑡 and 𝑡 .
6𝜋𝑐

𝑑𝐯 𝑑𝐯 𝑑𝐯 𝑑 𝐯 𝑑 𝐯
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = ∙ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐯 ∙ − ∙ 𝐯 𝑑𝑡 = − ∙ 𝐯 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜇 𝑞
(𝐅 − 𝐚̇ ) ∙ 𝐯𝑑𝑡 = 0 𝜇 𝑞
6𝜋𝑐 𝜏≡
6𝜋𝑚𝑐 For electron 𝜏 = 6 × 10 𝑠.
𝜇 𝑞
𝐅 = 𝐚̇ The Abraham-Lorentz formula for the radiation reaction force
6𝜋𝑐
It tells you nothing whatever about the component of 𝐅 perpendicular to 𝐯.
It is the time average of the parallel component over very special time intervals.
It represents the simplest form the radiation reaction force could take, consistent with conservation of energy.
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 34
 11.2 Point Charges
Example 11.2.2 Radiation Reaction

Calculate the radiation damping of a charged particle attached to a spring of natural frequency 𝜔 , driven at frequency 𝜔.

The equation of motion is

𝑚𝑥̈ = 𝐹 +𝐹 +𝐹
𝑚𝑥̈ = −𝑚𝜔 𝑥 + 𝑚𝜏𝑥⃛ + 𝐹
With the system oscillating at frequency ,
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
𝑥⃛ = −𝜔 𝑥̇
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑚𝜔 𝑥 + 𝑚𝛾𝑥̇ = 𝐹 𝛾 is the damping factor

𝛾=𝜔 𝜏

Before we assumed for simplicity that the damping was proportional to the velocity 𝐹 = −𝛾𝑚𝑣.

We now know that radiation damping is proportional to 𝑣̈ . Note for sinusoidal oscillations any even number of
derivatives of 𝑣 is proportional to 𝑣.

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 35

 11.2 Point Charges
Self-force 11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction

The Abraham-Lorentz formula for the radiation reaction was derived using conservation of energy.

The force must be a recoil effect of the particle's own fields acting back on the charge.
The fields of a point charge blow up right at the particle, so it's hard to calculate the force they exert.

We avoid this problem by considering an extended charge distribution, for which the field is finite
everywhere; at the end, we'll take the limit as the size of the charge goes to zero.

The electromagnetic force of one part 𝐴 on another part 𝐵 is not equal and
opposite to the force of 𝐵 on 𝐴.

If the distribution is divided up into infinitesimal chunks, and the imbalances

are added up for all such pairs, the result is a net force of the charge on itself.

It is this self-force, resulting from the breakdown of Newton's third law within
the structure of the particle, that accounts for the radiation reaction.

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 36

 11.2 Point Charges
Simple model 11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction
To explain the mechanism of imbalance of internal electromagnetic forces,
we use a "dumbbell" in which the total charge 𝑞 is divided into two halves
separated by a fixed distance 𝑑.
In the point limit 𝑑 → 0 any model must yield the Abraham-Lorentz formula.
The conservation of energy alone dictates that answer.
Assume the dumbbell moves in the 𝑥 direction,
and is instantaneously at rest at the retarded time.
The electric field at (1) due to (2) is
(𝑞⁄2) r
𝐄 = 𝑐 𝐮 + (r ∙ 𝐚)𝐮 − (r ∙ 𝐮)𝐚
4𝜋𝜖 r ∙ 𝐮
𝑞 r
𝐮 ≡ 𝑐r̂ − 𝐯 = 𝑐r̂ r ∙ 𝐮 = cr r= 𝑙 +𝑑 𝐄 𝐫, 𝑡 = 𝑐 −𝑣 𝐮+r× 𝐮×𝐚
4𝜋𝜖 r∙𝐮
r = 𝑙𝐱 + 𝑑𝐲 r ∙ 𝐚 = 𝑙𝑎
We're only interested in the x component of 𝐄 , since the 𝑦 components will cancel when we add the forces on the two ends.
For the same reason, we don't need to worry about the magnetic forces.
𝑞 r 𝑐𝑙
𝐸 = 𝑐 +𝑙𝑎 𝑢 − (cr)𝑎 𝑢 =
8𝜋𝜖 cr r
𝑞 r 𝑐𝑙 𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑙𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑
= 𝑐 +𝑙𝑎 − (cr)𝑎 = 𝑐 +𝑙𝑎 𝑐𝑙 − (cr )𝑎 =
8𝜋𝜖 cr r 8𝜋𝜖 cr 8𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑙 + 𝑑 ⁄
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 37
 11.2 Point Charges
Simple model 11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction
𝑞 𝑙𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑
𝐸 = By symmetry, 𝐸 =𝐸
8𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑙 +𝑑 ⁄
So the net force on the dumbbell is
𝑞 𝑞 𝑙𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑
𝐅 = (𝐄 + 𝐄 ) = 𝐱 Expand in powers of d.
2 8𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑙 + 𝑑 ⁄
We need to expand 𝑙 in terms of 𝑑.
𝑙 =𝑥 𝑡 −𝑥 𝑡
1 1
𝑥 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥̇ 𝑡 𝑡−𝑡 + 𝑥̈ 𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑡 + 𝑥⃛ 𝑡 𝑡−𝑡 +⋯
2 3!
𝑇 ≡𝑡−𝑡 𝑥̇ 𝑡 = 0 by asumption The dumbbell instantaneously at
rest at the retarded time.
1 1 1 1
𝑙 = + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑎̇ 𝑇 + ⋯ 𝑙 = 𝑎 𝑇 + 𝑎𝑎̇ 𝑇 + 𝑇 +⋯
2 6 4 12

𝑙 1 𝑙 1 𝑙 1 1 1 1
𝑑= r −𝑙 = 𝑐𝑇 −𝑙 = 𝑐𝑇 1 − = 𝑐𝑇 1 − − +⋯ = 𝑐𝑇 − 𝑙 − 𝑙 +⋯
𝑐𝑇 2 𝑐𝑇 8 𝑐𝑇 2 𝑐𝑇 8 𝑐𝑇
𝑎
= 𝑐𝑇 − 𝑇 + ( )𝑇 + ⋯
8𝑐
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 38
 11.2 Point Charges
Simple model 11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction
𝑞 𝑙𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 We need to expand 𝑙 in terms of 𝑑.
𝐅 = 𝐱
8𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑙 + 𝑑 ⁄
1 1 𝑎
𝑙 = + 𝑎𝑇 + 𝑎̇ 𝑇 + ⋯ 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑇 − 𝑇 + ( )𝑇 + ⋯
2 6 8𝑐
We need to "solve" it for 𝑇 as a function of 𝑑.

Ignoring all higher powers of 𝑇,

𝑑
𝑑 ≅ 𝑐𝑇 →𝑇≅ Use this as an approximation for the cubic term,
𝑐
𝑎 𝑑 𝑑 𝑎 𝑑
𝑑 ≅ 𝑐𝑇 − →𝑇≅ + And so on
8𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 8𝑐 𝑐
1 𝑎
𝑇= 𝑑+ 𝑑 + 𝑑 +⋯
𝑐 8𝑐
We construct the power series for 𝑙 in terms of 𝑑
1 1 𝑎 1 1 𝑎
𝑙 = + 𝑎( 𝑑 + 𝑑 + ⋯ ) + 𝑎̇ ( 𝑑 + 𝑑 + ⋯) +⋯
2 𝑐 8𝑐 6 𝑐 8𝑐
1𝑎 1 𝑎̇
𝑙=+ 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 +⋯
2𝑐 6𝑐
16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 39
 11.2 Point Charges
Simple model 11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction
𝑞 𝑙𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 1𝑎 1 𝑎̇
𝐅 = 𝐱 𝑙= 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 +⋯
8𝜋𝜖 𝑐 𝑙 +𝑑 ⁄ 2𝑐 6𝑐
1 1 𝑎̇ 1 1 𝑎̇
𝑙𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 + ⋯ − 𝑎𝑑 = − 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 +⋯
2 6𝑐 2 6𝑐
1 1 1
⁄
= ∕
= 1+ 𝑑 +⋯
𝑙 +𝑑 𝑑 1+ 𝑑 +⋯ 𝑑
𝑞 1 𝑎 1 𝑎̇
𝐅 = − + + 𝑑+⋯ 𝐱
8𝜋𝜖 𝑐 2𝑑 6𝑐
𝑞 𝑎 𝑎̇
𝐅 = − + + 𝑑+⋯ 𝐱 Here 𝑎 and 𝑎̇ are evaluated at the retarded time 𝑡 .
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑐 𝑑 12𝑐
To rewrite the result in terms of the present time 𝑡
𝑞 𝑎 𝑡 𝑎̇ 𝑡 𝑎̇ 𝑎 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 + 𝑎̇ 𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑡 + ⋯
𝐅 = − + + + 𝑑+⋯ 𝐱
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑐 𝑑 4𝑐 12𝑐
= 𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑎̇ 𝑡 𝑇 + ⋯
𝑑
𝑞 𝑎 𝑡 𝑎̇ 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑎̇ 𝑡 + ⋯
𝐅 = − + + 𝑑+⋯ 𝐱 𝑐
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑐 𝑑 3𝑐

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 40

 11.2 Point Charges
Simple model 11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction
𝑞 𝑎 𝑡 𝑎̇ 𝑡
𝐅 = − + + 𝑑+⋯ 𝐱
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑐 𝑑 3𝑐
Newton’s second law 𝐅 = 2𝑚 𝑎 𝑚 is the mass of either end of the dumbbell.
𝑞 𝑎 𝑡 𝑎̇ 𝑡
2𝑚 𝑎(𝑡) = − + + 𝑑+⋯
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑐 𝑑 3𝑐

1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑎̇ 𝑡
2𝑚 + 𝑎 𝑡 = + 𝑑+⋯
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑑𝑐 4𝜋𝜖 3𝑐

The first term adds to the dumbbell's mass.

1 𝑞
In effect, the total inertia of the charged dumbbell is 𝑚 = 2𝑚 +
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑑𝑐
According to special relativity 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 .
The electrical repulsion of the charges contributes the mass of the dumbbell.
1 (𝑞/2)
The potential energy of this configuration (in the static case) is
4𝜋𝜖 𝑑

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 41

 11.2 Point Charges
Simple model 11.2.3 The Physical Basis of the Radiation Reaction

𝑞 𝑎 𝑡 𝑎̇ 𝑡
𝐅 = − + + 𝑑+⋯ 𝐱
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑐 𝑑 3𝑐
1 𝑞 𝑞 𝑎̇ 𝑡
2𝑚 + 𝑎 𝑡 = + 𝑑+⋯
4𝜋𝜖 4𝑑𝑐 4𝜋𝜖 3𝑐

The second term is the radiation reaction.

It alone, apart from the mass correction, survives in the "point dumbbell" limit 𝑑 → 0.
𝑞 𝑎̇ 𝑡
𝐹 =
4𝜋𝜖 3𝑐
It differs from the Abraham-Lorentz formula by a factor of 2.
This is only the self-force associated with the interaction between 1 and 2.
𝜇 𝑞 𝑎̇ 𝑡
There remains the force of each end on itself. 𝐹 =
When the latter is included the result is the same as the Abraham-Lorentz formula 6𝜋𝑐

The radiation reaction is due to the force of the charge on itself.

In other words,
The net force exerted by the fields generated by different parts of the charge distribution acting on one another.

16 Apr 2017 Aljalal-phys306-162-ch11: Radiation 42