Chapter 7: HUMIDIFICATION OPERATIONS

Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Introduction
The operations considered in this chapter are concerned with the interphase transfer of
mass and of energy which result when a gas is brought into contact with a pure liquid
in which it is essentially insoluble. While the term humidification operations is used to
characterize these in a general fashion, the purpose of such operations may include not
only humidification of the gas but dehumidification and cooling of the gas, measurement
of its vapor content, and cooling of the liquid as well.
The matter transferred between phases in such cases is the substance constituting
the liquid phase, which either vaporizes or condenses. As in all mass-transfer problems,
it is necessary for a complete understanding of the operation to be familiar with the
equilibrium characteristics of the systems. However, since the mass transfer in these
cases will invariably be accompanied by a simultaneous transfer of heat energy as well,
some consideration must also be given to the enthalpy characteristics of the systems.

0.1 VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM AND ENTHALPY

FOR A PURE SUBSTANCE
0.1.1 Vapor-Pressure Curve
Every liquid exerts an equilibrium pressure, the vapor pressure, to an extent depending
upon the temperature. When the vapor pressures of a liquid are plotted against the
corresponding temperatures, a curve like TBDC results.
The vapor-pressure curve for each substance is unique, but each exhibits characteris-
tics generally similar to that shown in the figures. The curve separates two areas of the
plot, representing respectively, conditions where the substance exists wholly in the liquid
state and wholly in the vapor state.
Key Points:

ˆ If the conditions imposed upon the substance are in the liquid-state area (such as
at point A), the substance will be entirely liquid

ˆ Under all conditions in the lower area (such as those at point E), the substance is
entirely a vapor

ˆ At all conditions corresponding to points on the curve TBDC, liquid and vapor may
coexist in any proportions indefinitely

ˆ Liquid and vapor represented by points on the vapor-pressure curve are called sat-
urated liquid and saturated vapor, respectively

ˆ Vapor or gas at a temperature above that corresponding to saturation is termed

superheated

Critical Point
The vapor-pressure curve has two abrupt endpoints, at T and C:

ˆ Point T is the triple point, at which all three states of aggregation may coexist

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

ˆ Point C is the critical point, whose coordinates are the critical pressure and
critical temperature
ˆ At the critical point, distinction between the liquid and vapor phases disappears,
and all properties of the liquid (density, viscosity, refractive index, etc.) are identical
with those of the vapor

Boiling Point
The temperature corresponding to each pressure on the curve is termed the boiling
point of the liquid at the pressure in question. The boiling point corresponding to 1 std
atm is known as the normal boiling point.

0.1.2 Phase Change and Heat Transfer

Whenever a process involves bringing a sample of fluid across the vapor-pressure curve
(such as isobaric or isothermal processes), there will be a change of phase. This will be
accompanied by:
ˆ Latent heat evolution (for condensation) or absorption (for vaporization) at
constant temperature
ˆ Sensible heat: Heat added or given up with changing temperatures

0.1.3 Interpolation Between Data

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
Most common methods stem from the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, which relates the
slope of the vapor-pressure curve to the latent heat of vaporization:

dp λ′ λ′ p λ′ p
= = = (1)
dT T (vG − vL ) T RT (vG − vL ) RT 2
where:
ˆ vG and vL = molal specific volumes of saturated vapor and liquid, respectively
ˆ λ′ = molal latent heat in consistent units

Simplified Form
As a simplification, neglecting vL in comparison with vG and expressing the latter by the
ideal-gas law:

dp λ′ dT
d ln p == (2)
p RT 2
If λ′ can be considered reasonably constant over a short range of temperature:

λ′
ln p = + const (3)
RT
Equation (3) suggests that a plot of log p against 1/T will be straight for short tem-
perature ranges, and it also suggests a method of interpolating between points listed in
a table of data.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Illustration 7.1
A table lists the vapor pressure of benzene to be 100 mmHg at 26.1°C and 400 mmHg at
60.6°C. At what temperature is the vapor pressure 200 mmHg?
Solution: At 26.1°C: 1/T = 1/299.1 K−1 ; at 60.6°C: 1/T = 1/333.6 K−1

1/299.1 − 1/T log 100 − log 200

= (4)
1/299.1 − 1/333.6 log 100 − log 400
Solving: T = 315.4 K = 42.4C (correct value: 42.2°C)

0.1.4 Reference-Substance Plots

Equation (2) can be rewritten for a second substance (reference substance) at the same
temperature:

λ′r dT
d ln pr = (5)
RT 2
Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (5):

d ln p λ′
= r′ (6)
d ln pr λr
Upon integration:

λ′
log p = log pr + const (7)
λ′r
Equation (7) suggests that a linear graph will result if log p as ordinate is plotted
against log pr for the reference substance as abscissa. Such a plot is straight over larger
temperature ranges (but not near the critical temperature) than that based on Eq. (3),
and the slope of the curve gives the ratio of the latent heats at the same temperature.

Illustration 7.2
Using water as the reference substance according to Eq. (7):
(a) Plot the vapor pressure of benzene over the range 15 to 180°C. The vapor pressure
of benzene at 15.4°C is 60 mmHg, and that for water at this temperature is 13.1 mmHg.
(b) Determine the vapor pressure of benzene at 100°C. At 100°C, the vapor pressure
of water is 760 mmHg. From the plot, the vapor pressure of benzene is read as 1400
mmHg.
(c) Determine the latent heat of vaporization of benzene at 25°C. The slope of the
curve at 25°C is 0.775. At 25°C, the latent heat of vaporization of water is 2443 kN·m/kg.

λ′r Mr 2443000 × 18.02

λ′ = × slope = × 0.775 = 437 kN·m/kg (8)
M 78.05
(Accepted value: 434 kN·m/kg)

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

0.2 ENTHALPY
0.2.1 Definition and Basic Concepts
The internal energy U of a substance is the total energy residing in the substance owing
to the motion and relative position of the constituent atoms and molecules. Absolute
values of internal energy are not known, but numerical values relative to some arbitrarily
defined standard state can be computed.
The sum of the internal energy and the product of pressure and volume of the sub-
stance is defined as the enthalpy of the substance:

H = U + pV (9)

0.2.2 Heat Transfer in Batch Processes

In a batch process at constant pressure, where work is done only in expansion against
the pressure, the heat absorbed by the system is the gain in enthalpy:

Q = ∆H = ∆(U + pV ) (10)

0.2.3 Steady-State Continuous-Flow Process

In a steady-state continuous-flow process, the net transfer of energy to the system as
heat and work will be the sum of its gains in enthalpy and potential and kinetic energies.
When changes in potential and kinetic energies are insignificant in comparison with the
enthalpy change and there is no mechanical work done, Eq. (10) can be used to compute
the heat added to the system. Such a calculation is termed a heat balance.
In adiabatic operations, where no exchange of heat between the system and its sur-
roundings occurs, the heat balance becomes an equality of enthalpies in the initial and
final condition.

0.2.4 Reference States for Enthalpy

Absolute values of the enthalpy of a substance, like the internal energy, are not known.
However, by arbitrarily setting the enthalpy of a substance at zero when it is in a conve-
nient reference state, relative values of enthalpy at other conditions can be calculated.
For the substance water, the ordinary steam tables list the relative enthalpy at various
conditions referred to the enthalpy of the substance at 0°C, the equilibrium vapor pressure
at this temperature, and in the liquid state.

0.2.5 Enthalpy-Temperature Diagram

The relative enthalpy of a typical substance is most conveniently shown on lines of con-
stant pressure. The curves marked “saturated liquid” and “saturated vapor” cut across
the constant-pressure lines and show the enthalpies for these conditions at temperatures
and pressures corresponding to the equilibrium vapor-pressure relationship.
The vertical distance between the saturated-vapor and saturated-liquid curves repre-
sents the latent heat of vaporization at the corresponding temperature. The latent
heat decreases with increased temperature, becoming zero at the critical point.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

In the vapor state at low pressures, the enthalpy is essentially a function of tempera-
ture; at all pressures where the ideal-gas law can be used, the lines of constant pressure
are superimposed and the enthalpy is independent of pressure. Except near the critical
temperature, the enthalpy of the liquid is also substantially independent of pressure until
exceedingly high pressures are reached.

0.2.6 Heat Capacity

The slope of the constant-pressure lines at any temperature is termed the heat capacity.
By use of an average heat capacity, sensible heats are readily calculated:

H1 − H2 = Cp (t1 − t2 ) (11)
where Cp is the average heat capacity of the vapor at constant pressure over the
indicated temperature range.

Illustration 7.3
Compute the heat evolved when 10 kg of benzene as a superheated vapor at 94 mmHg,
100°C, is cooled and condensed to a liquid at 10°C.
Given:

ˆ Average heat capacity for vapor: Cp = 1.256 kJ/(kg·K)

ˆ Average heat capacity for liquid: Cp = 1.507 kJ/(kg·K)

Solution: When pressure is 94 mmHg, saturation temperature for benzene is 25°C.

Latent heat at this temperature is 434 kJ/kg.

H1 − H2 = Cp (t1 − t2 ) = 1.256(100 − 25) = 94.2 kJ/kg (12)

H2 − H3 = λ = 434 kJ/kg (13)
H3 − H4 = Cp (t2 − t4 ) = 1.507(25 − 10) = 22.6 kJ/kg (14)
H1 − H4 = 94.2 + 434 + 22.6 = 550.8 kJ/kg (15)

Heat evolved for 10 kg benzene: 10 × 550.8 = 5508 kJ

0.3 VAPOR-GAS MIXTURES

In what follows, the term vapor will be applied to substance A in the vaporous state
which is relatively near its condensation temperature at the prevailing pressure. The
term gas will be applied to substance B, which is a relatively highly superheated gas.

0.3.1 Absolute Humidity

While common concentration units (partial pressure, mole fraction, etc.) based on total
quantity are useful, when operations involve changes in vapor content of a vapor-gas
mixture without changes in the gas content, it is more convenient to use a unit based on
the unchanging amount of gas.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

The ratio mass of vapor/mass of gas is the absolute humidity Y ′ . If the quantities
are expressed in moles, the ratio is the molal absolute humidity Y :
yA PA PA
Y = = (molal absolute humidity) (16)
yB P B P − PA
MA PA MA
Y′ =Y = (mass absolute humidity) (17)
MB (P − PA )MB
Under conditions where the ideal-gas law applies, these can be written as:
PA
Y = moles A per moles B (18)
PB
MA
Y′ =Y mass A per mass B (19)
MB
The mass absolute humidity was first introduced by Grosvenor and is sometimes called
the Grosvenor humidity.

Illustration 7.4
In a mixture of benzene vapor (A) and nitrogen gas (B) at a total pressure of 800 mmHg
and temperature of 60°C, the partial pressure of benzene is 100 mmHg.
Given: PA = 100 mmHg, PB = 800 − 100 = 700 mmHg
(a) Mole fraction:

PA 100
yA = = = 0.125 mole fraction benzene (20)
P 800
Mole fraction nitrogen: yB = 1 − 0.125 = 0.875
(b) Volume fraction of benzene equals the mole fraction: 0.125
(c) Absolute humidity:
0.125
Y = = 0.143 mol benzene/mol nitrogen (21)
0.875
MA 78.05
Y′ =Y = 0.143 × = 0.398 kg benzene/kg nitrogen (22)
MB 28.08

0.3.2 Saturated Vapor-Gas Mixtures

If an insoluble dry gas B is brought into contact with sufficient liquid A, the liquid will
evaporate into the gas until ultimately, at equilibrium, the partial pressure of A in the
vapor-gas mixture reaches its saturation value, the vapor pressure pa at the prevailing
temperature.
So long as the gas can be considered insoluble in the liquid, the partial pressure of
vapor in the saturated mixture is independent of the nature of the gas and total pressure
(except at very high pressures) and is dependent only upon the temperature and identity
of the liquid.
However, the saturated molal absolute humidity:
Pa
Ys = (23)
P − Pa

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

will depend upon the total pressure, and the saturated absolute humidity:
MA
Ys′ = Ys (24)
MB
will depend upon the identity of the gas as well.
Both saturated humidities become infinite at the boiling point of the liquid at the
prevailing total pressure.

Illustration 7.5
A gas (B)-benzene (A) mixture is saturated at 1 std atm, 50°C. Calculate the absolute
humidity if B is (a) nitrogen and (b) carbon dioxide.
Solution: From vapor pressure data, pa = 275 mmHg = 0.362 std atm
(a) With nitrogen:
0.362
Y = = 0.567 kmol C6 H6 /kmol N2 (25)
1 − 0.362
Y MA 0.567 × 78.05
Y′ = = = 1.579 kg C6 H6 /kg N2 (26)
MB 28.02
(b) With carbon dioxide:
0.362
Y = = 0.567 kmol C6 H6 /kmol CO2 (27)
1 − 0.362
0.567 × 78.05
Y′ = = 1.006 kg C6 H6 /kg CO2 (28)
44.01

0.3.3 Unsaturated Vapor-Gas Mixtures

If the partial pressure of the vapor in a vapor-gas mixture is for any reason less than
the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid at the same temperature, the mixture is
unsaturated.

Dry-Bulb Temperature
This is the temperature of a vapor-gas mixture as ordinarily determined by immersion of
a thermometer in the mixture.

Relative Saturation (Relative Humidity)

Relative saturation, also called relative humidity, expressed as a percentage is defined as:
PA
Relative humidity = 100 (29)
Pa
where Pa is the vapor pressure at the dry-bulb temperature of the mixture.

Percentage Saturation
Percentage saturation, or percentage absolute humidity, is defined as:
Y Y′
Percentage saturation = 100 = 100 ′ (30)
Ys Ys
where the saturated values are computed at the dry-bulb temperature of the mixture.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Dew Point
The dew point is the temperature at which a vapor-gas mixture becomes saturated
when cooled at constant total pressure out of contact with a liquid.
If an unsaturated mixture is cooled at constant pressure out of contact with liquid,
the path of the cooling process follows a path of constant humidity, the mixture becoming
more nearly saturated as the temperature is lowered, and fully saturated at the dew-point
temperature.
All mixtures of absolute humidity Y ′ have the same dew point. If the temperature
is reduced only an infinitesimal amount below the dew-point temperature, vapor will
condense as liquid dew. This is used as a method of humidity determination: a shiny
metal surface is cooled in the presence of the gas mixture, and the appearance of a fog
which clouds the mirrorlike surface indicates that the dew point has been reached.

0.3.4 Humid Volume

The humid volume VH of a vapor-gas mixture is the volume of unit mass of dry gas
and its accompanying vapor at the prevailing temperature and pressure.
For a mixture of absolute humidity Y ′ at temperature tG and total pressure Pt , the
ideal-gas law gives the humid volume as:

Y ′ 22.41(tG + 273) 1.013 × 105

 
1
VH = + × (31)
MB MA 273 Pt
Y ′ tG + 273
 
1
VH = 8315 + (m3 /kg) (32)
MB MA Pt
where VH is in m3 /kg, tG in degrees Celsius, and Pt in N/m2 .
The humid volume of a saturated mixture is computed with Y ′ = Ys′ , and that for a
dry gas with Y ′ = 0.

0.3.5 Humid Heat

The humid heat Cs is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas
and its accompanying vapor one degree at constant pressure:

Cs = CB + Y ′ CA (33)
Provided neither vaporization nor condensation occurs, the heat in kJ required to
raise the temperature of a mass of WB dry gas and its accompanying vapor by ∆t will
be:

Q = WB Cs ∆t (34)

0.3.6 Enthalpy of Vapor-Gas Mixture

The (relative) enthalpy of a vapor-gas mixture is the sum of the (relative) enthalpies of
the gas and of the vapor content.
Imagine unit mass of a gas containing a mass Y ′ of vapor at dry-bulb temperature tG .
If the mixture is unsaturated, the vapor is in a superheated state and we can calculate
the enthalpy relative to the reference states gas and saturated liquid at t0 .

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

The enthalpy of the gas alone is CB (tG − t0 ). For the vapor, if tDP is the dew point
of the mixture and λDP the latent heat of vaporization of the vapor at that temperature,
the enthalpy per unit mass of vapor will be:

CA (tG − tDP ) + λDP + CA,L (tDP − t0 ) (35)

Then the enthalpy for the mixture, per unit mass of dry gas, is:

H ′ = CB (tG − t0 ) + Y ′ [CA (tG − tDP ) + λDP + CA,L (tDP − t0 )] (36)

For low pressures ordinarily encountered in humidification work, a simplification can
be made. The enthalpy of the mixture, per unit mass of dry gas, is then:

H ′ = CB (tG − t0 ) + Y ′ [CA (tG − t0 ) + λ0 ] = Cs (tG − t0 ) + Y ′ λ0 (37)

where λ0 is the latent heat of vaporization at the reference temperature.
Note that the enthalpy H ′ for a mixture can be increased by increasing the temper-
ature at constant humidity, by increasing the humidity at constant temperature, or by
increasing both.

0.3.7 Psychrometric Charts

By substitution of Ys′ and the appropriate humid heat in Eq. (37), the enthalpy of satu-
rated mixtures Hs′ can be computed and plotted against temperature on the psychrometric
chart.

The System Air-Water

While psychrometric charts for any vapor-gas mixture can be prepared when circum-
stances warrant, the system air-water occurs so frequently that unusually complete charts
for this mixture are available.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Table 1: Psychrometric relations for the system air (B)-water (A) at 1 std atm pressure
Property SI units English units
MA (H2 O) 18.02 kg/kmol 18.02 lb/lb mol
MB (air) 28.97 kg/kmol 28.97 lb/lb mol
0.622PH2 O 0.622PH2 O
Y′
1.0133 × 105 − PH2 O 14.696 − PH2 O
(Absolute Humid-
ity) kg H2 O/kg air lb H2 O/lb air
VH (0.00283 + 0.00456Y ′ )(tG + 273) (0.0252 + 0.0405Y ′ )(tG + 460)
(Humid Volume)
m3 mixture/kg air ft3 mixture/lb air
Cs 1005 + 1884Y ′ 0.24 + 0.45Y ′
(Humid Heat)
J/(kg air·°C) Btu/(lb air·°F)
λ0 At 0°C/32°F: 2,502,300 J/kg = 1075.8 Btu/lb
(Latent Heat)
H′ (1005 + 1884Y ′ )tG + 2, 502, 300Y ′ (0.24 + 0.45Y ′ )tG + 1075.8Y ′
(Enthalpy)
J/kg air Btu/lb air

Ref: gaseous air + liquid H2 O Ref: gaseous air + liquid H2 O

at 0°C at 32°F
cp 950 J/(kg·K) 0.227 Btu/(lb·°F)
(Specific Heat of
Water Vapor)

Table 2: Saturation Enthalpy Hs′ for air-water system at 1 std atm

SI units English units
t (°C) Hs′ (J/kg) t (°F) Hs′ (Btu/lb)
0 9,479 32 4.074
10 29,360 40 7.545
20 57,570 60 18.780
30 100,030 80 36.020
40 166,790 100 64.090
50 275,580 120 112.00
60 461,500 140 198.40

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Variable Definitions

Table 3: Definition of variables in psychrometric relations

Symbol Definition
PH2 O Partial pressure of water vapor (N/m2 in SI; psia in English units)
tG Dry-bulb temperature (°C or °F)
Y′ Absolute humidity; mass ratio of water vapor to dry air
VH Humid volume; volume of mixture per unit mass of dry air
Cs Humid heat; sensible heat capacity of moist air per unit mass of dry air
H′ Specific enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of dry air
Hs′ Specific enthalpy of saturated moist air
λ0 Latent heat of vaporization of water at reference temperature
MA , MB Molecular weights of water vapor and air, respectively

Table 4: Saturation Enthalpy Hs′ for air-water system at 1 std atm

SI units English units
t (°C) Hs′ (J/kg) t (°F) Hs′ (Btu/lb)
0 9,479 32 4.074
10 29,360 40 7.545
20 57,570 60 18.780
30 100,030 80 36.020
40 166,790 100 64.090
50 275,580 120 112.00
60 461,500 140 198.40

Illustration 7.6
An air-water vapor sample has a dry-bulb temperature 55°C and an absolute humidity
0.030 kg water/kg dry air at 1 std atm pressure. Tabulate its characteristics.
Solution: The point of coordinates tG = 55C, Y ′ = 0.030 is located on the psychro-
metric chart.
(a) By vertical interpolation between adjacent curves of constant percent humidity,
the sample has a percentage humidity = 26.1%.
(b) Molal absolute humidity:

MB 28.97
Y =Y′ = 0.030 × = 0.0482 kmol water/kmol dry air (38)
MA 18.02
(c) Partial pressure of water vapor:

Y Pt 0.0482 × 1.0133 × 105

PA = = = 4660 N/m2 (39)
1+Y 1.0482
(d) Vapor pressure of water at 55°C is 118 mmHg = 15, 730 N/m2 .

PA 4660
Relative humidity = × 100 = × 100 = 29.6% (40)
Pa 15, 730

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

(e) Dew point: From the point proceed at constant humidity to the saturation curve,
at which the dew point temperature is 31.5°C.
(f ) Humid volume: At 55°C, specific volume of dry air is 0.93 m3 /kg; humid volume
of saturated air is 1.10 m3 /kg dry air. Interpolating for 26.1% humidity:

VH = 0.261(1.10 − 0.93) + 0.93 = 0.974 m3 /kg dry air (41)

(g) Humid heat:

Cs = CB + Y ′ CA = 1005 + 0.030 × 1884 = 1061.5 J/kg dry air·K (42)

(h) Enthalpy: At 55°C, enthalpy of dry air is 56,000 J/kg dry air; enthalpy for
saturated air is 352,000 J/kg dry air. Interpolating for 26.1% humidity:

H ′ = 56, 000 + (352, 000 − 56, 000)(0.261) = 133, 300 J/kg dry air (43)

Alternatively, using Eq. (37):

H ′ = Cs (tG − t0 ) + Y ′ λ0 (44)
= [1005 + 1884(0.030)] × 55 + 2, 502, 300 × 0.030 (45)
= 133.4 kJ/kg dry air (46)

Illustration 7.7
If 100 m3 of the moist air of Illustration 7.6 is heated to 110°C, how much heat is required?
Solution: After heating, the mixture will be at a dry-bulb temperature of 110°C with
the same humidity. Mass of dry air: WB = 100/0.974 = 102.7 kg
Using Eq. (34):

Q = WB Cs ∆t = 102.7 × 1061.5 × (110 − 55) = 6.00 × 106 J (47)

0.4 ADIABATIC-SATURATION CURVES

0.4.1 Fundamental Concept
Consider an operation where a gas is contacted with liquid, for example in a spray, and as
a result of diffusion and heat transfer between gas and liquid, the gas leaves at conditions
of humidity and temperature different from those at entrance. The operation is adiabatic
inasmuch as no heat is gained or lost to the surroundings.

Mass Balance
A mass balance for substance A (the vapor) gives:

L′ − L′1 = Gs (Y ′ − Y1′ ) (48)

Or differentially:

dL′ = Gs dY ′ (49)

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Enthalpy Balance
An enthalpy balance is:

L′ HL + Gs H ′ = L′1 HL1 + Gs H1′ (50)

This can be expanded by the definition of H ′ from Eq. (37):

CB (tG1 −t0 )+Y1′ CA (t1 −t0 )+Y1′ λ0 +(Ys′ −Y1′ )CA,L (tas −t0 ) = CB (tG2 −t0 )+Ys′ CA (tas −t0 )+Ys′ λ0
(51)

0.4.2 Adiabatic-Saturation Temperature

In the special case where the leaving gas-vapor mixture is saturated (at conditions tas ,
Ys′ , Hs′ ) and the liquid enters at tas , the gas is humidified by evaporation of liquid and
cooled.
After simplification, this becomes:

Cs (tG1 − tas ) = (Ys′ − Y1′ )λas (52)

Or:

(Ys′ − Y1′ )λas

tG1 − tas = (53)
Cs1
This is the equation of a curve on the psychrometric chart, the “adiabatic-saturation
curve” which passes through the points (Ys′ , tas ) on the 100 percent saturation curve and
(Y1′ , tG1 ).
For any vapor-gas mixture, there is an adiabatic-saturation temperature tas such that
if contacted with liquid at tas , the gas will become humidified and cooled. If sufficient
contact time is available, the gas will become saturated at (Ys′ , tas ), but otherwise will
leave unsaturated at (Y2′ , tG2 ), a point on the adiabatic-saturation curve for the initial
mixture.
The psychrometric chart (Fig. 7.5) for air-water contains a family of adiabatic-
saturation curves. Each point on the curve represents a mixture whose adiabatic-saturation
temperature is at the intersection of the curve with the 100 percent humidity curve.

Illustration 7.8
Air at 83°C with Y ′ = 0.030 kg water/kg dry air at 1 std atm is contacted with water
at the adiabatic-saturation temperature and is thereby humidified and cooled to 90%
saturation.
What are the final temperature and humidity of the air?
Solution: The point representing the original air is located on the psychrometric
chart. The adiabatic-saturation curve through this point reaches the 100% saturation
curve at 40°C, the adiabatic-saturation temperature. This is the water temperature.
On this curve, 90% saturation occurs at 41.5°C with Y ′ = 0.0485 kg water/kg air, the
outlet-air conditions.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

0.5 WET-BULB TEMPERATURE

0.5.1 Definition
The wet-bulb temperature is the steady-state temperature reached by a small amount
of liquid evaporating into a large amount of unsaturated vapor-gas mixture.
Under properly controlled conditions, it can be used to measure the humidity of the
mixture. For this purpose, a thermometer whose bulb has been covered with a wick kept
wet with the liquid is immersed in a rapidly moving stream of the gas mixture. The
temperature indicated by this thermometer will ultimately reach a value lower than the
dry-bulb temperature of the gas if the latter is unsaturated.

0.5.2 Mechanism
Consider a drop of liquid immersed in a rapidly moving stream of unsaturated vapor-gas
mixture. If the liquid is initially at a temperature higher than the gas dew point, the
vapor pressure of the liquid will be higher at the drop surface than the partial pressure
of vapor in the gas, and the liquid will evaporate and diffuse into the gas.
The latent heat required for the evaporation will at first be supplied at the expense
of the sensible heat of the liquid drop, which will then cool down. As soon as the liquid
temperature is reduced below the dry-bulb temperature of the gas, heat will flow from
the gas to the liquid at an increasing rate as the temperature difference becomes larger.
Eventually, the rate of heat transfer from the gas to the liquid will equal the rate
of heat requirement for the evaporation, and the temperature of the liquid will remain
constant at some low value, the wet-bulb temperature.

0.5.3 Mathematical Analysis

For a drop of liquid at steady-state wet-bulb conditions using the film theory, both heat
and mass transfer occur simultaneously.
Since qi = 0 (no heat passes through the gas-liquid interface) and NB = 0:

qG = hG (tG − tw ) = hG (tG − tw ) ≈ NA λw (54)

Further:
PA,G − PA,w
NA = kG (55)
P − PA (avg)
Substituting into the heat balance and rearranging:

hG (Ys′ − Y ′ )
tG − tw = (56)
hG /ky cs
This simplifies to:

λw (Ys′ − Y ′ )
tG − tw = (57)
hG /ky
Or in the commonly used form:

(Ys′ − Y ′ )
tG − t w = (58)
hG /ky Cs

14
Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

The quantity hG /ky is the psychrometric ratio.

0.5.4 Psychrometric Ratio

For flow of gases past cylinders (such as wet-bulb thermometers) and past single spheres,
the results for 18 vapor-gas systems are well correlated by:
hG
= (Sc)0.567 = Le0.567 (59)
ky Cs
for rates of flow which are turbulent and independent of Reynolds number.
For dilute mixtures where Cs = CB and with Prandtl number for air taken as 0.707:
hG
= 1223Sc0.567 (SI units) (60)
ky

Air-Water System
For the system air-water vapor, experimental measurements lead to the value:

hG /ky = 950 N·m/(kg·K) (61)

which is recommended for this system.

0.5.5 Lewis Relation

For the system air-water vapor, hG /ky is approximately equal to Cs1 , or approximately:

hG /(ky Cs ) ≈ 1 (62)
This is the so-called Lewis relation (after W. K. Lewis).
The Lewis relation leads to near equality of the wet-bulb and adiabatic-saturation
temperatures for the air-water system. It can be shown through consideration of related
equations that the Lewis relation will be followed only if the thermal and molecular
diffusivities are identical, or if Sc = Pr, or Le = 1.
Note: Le is essentially unity for air-water vapor but not for most other systems.

Illustration 7.9
For an air-water-vapor mixture of dry-bulb temperature 65°C, a wet-bulb temperature
35°C was determined under conditions such that the radiation coefficient can be consid-
ered negligible. The total pressure is 1 std atm. Compute the humidity of the air.
Solution: At tw = 35C: λw = 2, 419, 300 J/kg and Ys′ = 0.0365 kg H2 O/kg dry air
Using Eq. (57):

2, 419, 300(0.0365 − Y ′ )
65 − 35 = (63)
950
Y ′ = 0.0247 kg H2 O/kg air (64)

Alternatively, using the adiabatic-saturation curve from the psychrometric chart as

an approximation: The curve for tw = 35C is followed to a dry-bulb temperature of 65°C,
where Y ′ is read as 0.0238 kg H2 O/kg air.

15
Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Illustration 7.10
Estimate the wet-bulb and adiabatic-saturation temperatures for a toluene-air mixture
of 60°C dry-bulb temperature, Y ′ = 0.050 kg vapor/kg air, 1 std atm.
Solution: At 60°C: ρ = 1.060 kg/m3 , µ = 1.95 × 10−5 kg/(m·s)

µ 1.95 × 10−5
Sc = = = 2.00 (65)
ρDAB 1.060 × 0.92 × 10−5
Using Eq. (60):
hG /ky = 1223(2.00)0.567 = 1812 J/(kg·K) (66)
Wet-bulb temperature: Using Eq. (58), solution by trial and error yields:

tw = 31.8C (67)

Adiabatic-saturation temperature: Using Eq. (53):

tas = 25.7C (68)

0.6 GAS-LIQUID CONTACT OPERATIONS

Direct contact of a gas with a pure liquid may have any of several purposes:

0.6.1 Adiabatic Operations

Cooling a Liquid
The cooling occurs by transfer of sensible heat and also by evaporation. The principal
application is cooling of water by contact with atmospheric air (water cooling).

Cooling a Hot Gas

Direct contact provides a nonfouling heat exchanger which is very effective, providing the
presence of some vapor of the liquid is not objectionable.

Humidifying a Gas
This can be used for controlling the moisture content of air for drying, for example.

Dehumidifying a Gas
Contact of a warm vapor-gas mixture with a cold liquid results in condensation of the
vapor. Applications include air conditioning and recovery of solvent vapors from gases
used in drying.

0.6.2 Nonadiabatic Operations

Evaporative Cooling
A liquid or gas inside a pipe is cooled by water flowing in a film about the outside, the
latter in turn being cooled by direct contact with air.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Dehumidifying a Gas
A gas-vapor mixture is brought into contact with refrigerated pipes, and the vapor con-
denses upon the pipes.

0.6.3 General Relationships

Refer to a countercurrent packed tower of unit cross-sectional area with a mass balance
for substance A over the lower part of the tower:

L′ − L′1 = Gs (Y1′ − Y ′ ) (69)

Differentially:

dL′ = Gs dY ′ (70)
Similarly, an enthalpy balance is:

L′ HL + Gs H ′ = L′1 HL1 + Gs H1′ (71)

0.6.4 Rate Relationships

For a differential height section dZ of the tower:
The interfacial surface of the section is dS. If the specific interfacial surface per packed
volume is a, then dS = adZ.

Mass Transfer Rate

 
′ 1 − PA,G /P
−Gs dY = MA FC ln aM dZ (72)
1 − PA,i /P

Sensible Heat Transfer

Gas:
NA MA CA
qG adZ = (ti − t)adZ = hG a(ti − tG )dZ (73)
1 − e−NA MA CA /hG
Liquid:
qL adZ = hL a(ti − tL )dZ (74)
where hG is the convective heat-transfer coefficient corrected for mass transfer (see
Chapter 3).

Enthalpy Balances
Envelope I (around gas):

Gs Cs dtG = hG a(ti − tG )dZ (75)

Envelope II (around liquid):

L′ CA,L dtL = (Gs CA,L dY ′ − hL a(ti − tL )dZ)(ti − tL ) (76)

17
Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

If Eq. (70) is substituted:

L′ CA,L dtL = (Gs CA,L dY ′ − hL a(ti − tL )dZ)(ti − tL ) (77)

Envelope III (around entire section): For adiabatic operation (rate in = rate
out):
L′ CA,L dtL = Gs {Cs dtG + [CA (tG − t0 ) − CA,L (tL − t0 ) + λ0 ] dY ′ } (78)

0.7 WATER COOLING WITH AIR

0.7.1 Overview
Water cooling with air is without question the most important of the humidification
operations. Water, warmed by passage through heat exchangers, condensers, and the
like, is cooled by contact with atmospheric air for reuse.
The latent heat of water is so large that only a small amount of evaporation produces
large cooling effects. Since the rate of mass transfer is usually small, the temperature level
is generally fairly low, and the Lewis relation applies reasonably well for the air-water
system.

0.7.2 Simplified Energy Balance

If the sensible-heat terms are ignored in comparison with the latent heat, the enthalpy
balance becomes:

L′ CA,L ∆tL = Gs Cs ∆tG + Gs λ0 ∆Y ′ ≈ Gs ∆H ′ (79)

Integrating, on the further assumption that L′ is essentially constant (little evapora-
tion):

L′ CA,L (tL2 − tL1 ) = Gs (H1′ − H2′ ) (80)

0.7.3 Operating Diagram

The enthalpy balance can be represented graphically by plotting the gas enthalpy H ′
against tL . The operating line (ON on the diagram) represents the equation and passes
through the points representing the terminal conditions for the two fluids.
The line is straight and has slope L′ CA,L /Gs . The equilibrium curve is plotted for
conditions of the gas at the gas-liquid interface (the enthalpy of saturated gas at each
temperature).

0.7.4 Mass-Transfer Rate

For small mass-transfer rates (usually the case):

Gs dY ′ = ky a(Ys′ − Y ′ )dZ (81)

And the sensible heat transfer:

Gs Cs dtG = hG a(ti − tG )dZ (82)

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

0.7.5 Combined Relations

When the sensible heat of the transferred vapor is ignored:

L′ CA,L dtL = hL a(ti − tL )dZ (83)

Combining the mass and energy transfer equations:

Gs dH ′ = ky a(Hi′ − H ′ )dZ (84)

For the special case where hG a/(Cs ky a) = r = 1:

Gs dH ′ = ky a(Hs′ − H ′ )dZ (85)

which is remarkable in that the mass-transfer coefficient is used with an enthalpy
driving force.

0.7.6 Integration and Design

Combining the equations and integrating (assuming ky a is constant):
H2′
dH ′
Z
Gs
Z= (86)
ky a H1′ Hs′ − H ′
The integral can be evaluated graphically and the packed height Z computed.

Transfer Units
The enthalpy integral can be interpreted as:
H2′
dH ′
Z
NtG = (87)
H1′ Hs′ − H ′
where NtG is the number of gas-enthalpy transfer units.
Therefore:

Z = HtG NtG (88)

where the height of a gas-enthalpy transfer unit is:
Gs
HtG = (89)
ky a
HtG is frequently preferred over ky a as a measure of packing performance since it is
less dependent upon rates of flow and has the simple dimension of length.

0.7.7 Design Considerations

Operating Line and Equilibrium Curve
An operating line on the enthalpy coordinates which anywhere touches the equilibrium
curve results in a zero driving force and consequently an infinite interfacial surface (infinite
height Z) to accomplish a given temperature change in the liquid. This condition would
represent the limiting ratio of L′ /Gs permissible.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Wet-Bulb Temperature Approach

The difference between the exit-liquid temperature and the entering-air wet-bulb tem-
perature, (tL1 − tw1 ), called the wet-bulb temperature approach, is a measure of the
driving force available for diffusion at the lower end of the equipment.
In the design of cooling towers, this is ordinarily specified to be from 2.5 to 5°C,
with tw1 set at the “5 percent wet-bulb temperature” (the wet-bulb temperature which
is exceeded only 5% of the time on average during the summer months).

Makeup Water Requirements

Makeup fresh water in recirculating water systems must be added to replace losses from:

ˆ Entrainment (drift or windage): Estimated as 0.1 to 0.3% of recirculation rate

for induced-draft towers

ˆ Evaporation losses: Calculated from mass balance

ˆ Blowdown: Deliberate water discard to control dissolved salt concentration

If makeup water introduces dissolved salts which will otherwise accumulate, a small
amount of water is deliberately discarded (blowdown) to keep the salt concentration at
a predetermined level.

Illustration 7.11
A plant requires 15 kg/s of cooling water to flow through its distillation-equipment con-
densers, thereby removing 270 kJ/s from the condensers. The water will leave the con-
densers at 45°C. It is planned to cool the water for reuse by contact with air in an
induced-draft cooling tower.
Design Conditions:

ˆ Entering air: 30°C dry-bulb, 24°C wet-bulb

ˆ Water to be cooled to: 29°C (within 5°C of inlet-air wet-bulb)

ˆ Air/water-vapor ratio: 1.5 times minimum

ˆ Ky a: 0.90 kg/(m3 ·s) (for liquid rate ≥ 2.7 kg/(m2 ·s) and gas rate ≥ 2.0 kg/(m2 ·s))

ˆ Makeup water: 500 ppm dissolved solids at 10°C

ˆ Maximum dissolved solids in circulation: 2000 ppm

Compute:

ˆ Dimensions of packed section

ˆ Makeup-water requirement

20
Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Solution Summary:
1. Find Minimum Gas Rate For the minimum value of Gs , the operating line is
tangent to the equilibrium curve.
L′ CA,L 15×4187
Slope: Gs,min = 209500−72000 /(45 − 29)
Gs,min = 7.31 kg dry air/s
For gas rate 1.5 times minimum: Gs = 1.5 × 7.31 = 10.97 kg dry air/s
2. Determine Tower Cross-Section For liquid rate ≥ 2.7 kg/(m2 ·s): Cross section
= 15/2.7 = 5.56 m2 For gas rate ≥ 2.0 kg/(m2 ·s): Cross section = 10.97/2.0 = 5.50 m2
Use 5.50 m2 cross section.
3. Packed Height The packed height is determined from the integral of Eq. (86),
evaluating the enthalpy driving force graphically.
4. Makeup Water Balance Overall water balance:

Makeup = Evaporation + Windage + Blowdown

For salt balance (constant concentration):

Makeup × 500 ppm = Blowdown × 2000 ppm

Makeup × 500
Blowdown =
2000

Illustration 7.12
Using the same tower as in Illustration 7.11 but with different operating conditions.

0.7.8 Equipment for Humidification Operations

Water-Cooling Towers
Air and water are low-cost substances, and where large volumes must be handled, equip-
ment of low initial cost and low operating cost is essential.

Construction Materials
ˆ Framework and packing: Redwood (very durable in continuous water contact),
Douglas fir

ˆ Wood preservation: Coal-tar creosote, pentachlorophenols, acid copper chromate

ˆ Siding: Redwood, asbestos cement, glass-reinforced polyester plastic

ˆ Fill packing: Modified hurdle (horizontal slats staggered with alternate tiers at
right angles), plastic (polypropylene)

The void space is very large, usually greater than 90%, so that the gas-pressure drop
will be as low as possible.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

Tower Types and Arrangements

Natural-Circulation Towers:

ˆ Atmospheric towers: Depend on prevailing winds for air movement

ˆ Natural-draft towers: Ensure more positive air movement by displacement of

warm air inside the tower by cooler outside air; require fairly tall chimneys

Both types must be relatively tall to operate at small wet-bulb-temperature approach.

Used in southwestern USA, Middle East (low humidity), parts of Europe (low air tem-
peratures), and increasingly everywhere as energy becomes more costly.

Mechanical-Draft Towers:

ˆ Forced-draft: Air blown in by fan at bottom; subject to recirculation of hot,

humid discharged air

ˆ Induced-draft: Fan at top; avoids recirculation and permits more uniform air
distribution (most commonly used)

Operating Conditions
ˆ Liquid rates: L′ = 0.7 to 3.5 kg/(m2 ·s) (500 to 2500 lb/(ft2 ·h))

ˆ Air rates: Gs = 1.6 to 2.8 kg/(m2 ·s) (1200 to 2100 lb/(ft2 ·h))

ˆ Pressure drop: Usually less than 250 N/m2 (25 mmH2 O)

If fogging is excessive, finned-type heat exchangers can be used to evaporate fog by

heat from the hot water to be cooled.

Spray Chambers
Essentially horizontal spray towers, frequently used for adiabatic humidification-cooling
operations with recirculating liquid.

ˆ Gas rates up to roughly 0.8 to 1.2 kg/(m2 ·s) (600 to 900 lb/(ft2 ·h))

ˆ Entrainment eliminators necessary

ˆ Heat-transfer surfaces at inlet and outlet for preheating and afterheating

Dehumidification can be practiced by cooling the water before spraying or by using

refrigerating coils directly in the spray chamber.

Spray Ponds
Sometimes used for water cooling where close approach to air wet-bulb temperature is
not required.

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Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

0.7.9 Calculation Method for General Conditions

When Lewis number is not equal to unity or when aM ̸= aH , the general differential
equations must be integrated numerically.
The calculation proceeds step-by-step through the tower with energy and mass bal-
ances at each level. At each increment, the interface temperature ti must be found by
iteration from the enthalpy balance.

0.7.10 Special Operations

Vapor Recovery
Direct contact of a vapor-laden gas with cold liquid of the same composition as the vapor
can be useful for vapor recovery. With gas-vapor mixtures other than air-water, the
molecular diffusivity is likely to be less than thermal diffusivity, so Le may exceed 1.0.
Heat transfer is then faster than mass transfer, the path of the gas on a psychrometric
chart tends to enter the supersaturation region, and fog may result. The difficulty is
alleviated if the entering vapor-gas mixture is sufficiently superheated.

0.8 NOTATION
0.8.1 Symbols
a Specific interfacial surface per packed volume, L−2 L−3

aM Specific interfacial surface for mass transfer, L−2 L−3

aH Specific interfacial surface for heat transfer, L−2 L−3

CB Heat capacity of gas at constant pressure, FL/(MT)

Cs Humid heat, heat capacity of vapor-gas mixture per unit mass of dry gas, FL/(MT)

CA,L Heat capacity of liquid, FL/(MT)

DAB Molecular diffusivity of vapor A in mixture with gas B, L2 /T

ED Eddy diffusivity of mass, L2 /T

EH Eddy diffusivity of heat, L2 /T

FC Molar flux of gas (non-transferring basis), mole/(L2 T)

Gs Superficial mass velocity of dry gas, M/(L2 T)

hG Convective heat-transfer coefficient (corrected for mass transfer), FL/(LTO)

hL Liquid-side heat-transfer coefficient, FL/(LTO)

H ′ Enthalpy of vapor-gas mixture per unit mass of dry gas, FL/M

Hs′ Enthalpy of saturated vapor-gas mixture per unit mass of dry gas, FL/M

ky Mass-transfer coefficient, mole/(L2 T)

23
Chapter 7 Humidification Operations

ky a Volume-based mass-transfer coefficient, T−1

L′ Mass flow rate of liquid per unit cross-sectional area, M/(L2 T)

λ Latent heat of vaporization, FL/M

MA Molecular weight of vapor, M/mole

MB Molecular weight of gas, M/mole

P Total pressure, FL−2

PA Partial pressure of vapor A, FL−2

PB Partial pressure of gas B, FL−2

t Temperature, T (or °C)

tG Dry-bulb temperature of vapor-gas mixture, T

tL Temperature of liquid, T

ti Temperature at gas-liquid interface, T

tw Wet-bulb temperature, T

U Overall heat-transfer coefficient, FL/(L2 TO)

Y ′ Absolute humidity, mass of vapor per mass of gas, M/M

Ys′ Saturation absolute humidity, M/M

Z Height of packed section, L

0.8.2 Subscripts
1, 2 Initial and final conditions

A Vapor

B Gas

av Average value

G Gas phase

L Liquid phase

s Saturated condition

w Wet-bulb condition

i Interface

24