Week: 1st
Date: Monday 16th – Friday 19th September, 2025
Subject: Computer Studies
Class: S. S. S. 2
Period: 1st
Duration: 40mins
Topic: Computer Hardware
Sub-Topic:Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Note Starts here
The fourth generation of computers started with the invention of the Microprocessor.
The Microprocessor contains thousands of ICs. CPU is known to be the brain of a
computer.
Definition of the CPU
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), also known as the microchip or the microprocessor,
is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. This is the brain or heart of the computer. The main objective of
the CPU is to perform mathematical calculations on binary numbers. Most modern
CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit
(IC) chip. Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip
containing two or more CPUs called "cores."
The schematic illustration of CPU
The Instruction-Execution Cycle
The CPU performs four steps in executing an instruction:
1. Fetch: The CPU retrieves the next instruction from the main memory (RAM).
2. Decode: The instruction is decoded to determine the operation to be performed
and the data or memory addresses involved.
3. Execute: The CPU performs the operation specified by the instruction. This
could involve:
Performing arithmetic or logical operations.
Transferring data between the CPU and memory.
Changing the program's flow (e.g., branching).
Reading effective addresses from memory if the instruction uses indirect
addressing.
4. Store (Optional): In some models, the result of the execution is stored in a
specific location in memory or a CPU register.
The first two instructions make up what is called the instruction time. The last
two instruction is called the execution time. The combination is called a
machine cycle.
The components of a CPU
i. Arithmetic Logic Unit
ii. Memory or Storage Unit
iii. Control Unit
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
This part of the CPU executes all arithmetic and logical operations. It is also defined as
the part of the CPU that carries out arithmetic and logic operations on operands in a
computer instruction.
The unit consists of two sub-sections namely;
(i) Arithmetic Section: This perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
(ii) Logic Section: This performs logical operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data.
Functions of the ALU
1. The arithmetic and logic unit executes arithmetic and logic operations.
2. Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
3. Logical operations compares numbers and characters, test for conditions like
greater than, less than, or equal to.
4. The ALU performs logical functions such as AND, OR and NOT
Control Unit
The control unit is that part of the CPU that uses electrical signals to direct the entire
computer system to carry out, or execute, stored program instructions. Like an
orchestra leader, the control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it
directs other parts of the system to do so. The control unit must communicate with
both the arithmetic/logic unit and memory.
Functions of the Control Unit
It activates the appropriate circuits necessary for inputs and output devices.
It causes the entire computer system to operate in an automatic manner.
It directs the system to execute instructions.
It helps in communication between the memory and the arithmetic logical unit.
It aids in the loading of data and instructions residing in the secondary memory
to the main memory as required.
Assignment: Teacher gives the below as homework:
i. Sketch the diagram of a CPU
ii. State the steps involved in the installation of an application/software
Week: 2nd
Date: Monday 22nd – Friday 26th September, 2025
Subject: Computer Studies
Class: S. S. S. 2
Period: 1st
Duration: 40mins
Topic: Computer Hardware
Sub-Topic:Memory Unit (MU)
Presentation:
MEMORY UNIT
The memory unit is part of the computer that holds data and instructions for
processing. It may also be defined as the storage space in the computer where data
to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
Although closely associated with the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the memory unit
is separated from it to allow for different types of storage, each optimized for speed,
cost, and capacity, and to enable efficient data flow via buses.
Types of Computer Memory
Memory is generally categorized into two main types based on their purpose and how
the CPU interacts with them:
1. Primary memory / Main memory / Internal memory (for active, immediate use by
the CPU)
2. Secondary memory / Auxiliary memory / External memory (for long-term data
storage)
3. Cache memory
PRIMARY MEMORY
The Primary Memory is the memory that can be directly accessed by the CPU. The
CPU constantly interacts with it, reads instructions stored there, and executes them as
required. It is essential for the computer's immediate operation.
Characteristics of primary memory:
Volatile: Loses all stored data when power is turned off.
Directly Accessible: The CPU can read from and write to it directly.
Fast Access Speed: Much faster than secondary storage; access times measured in
nanoseconds.
Limited Capacity: Has a much smaller storage capacity compared to secondary
memory.
Higher Cost: More expensive per gigabyte than secondary storage.
Semiconductor-based: Made of silicon chips with no moving parts.
Acts as Working Memory: Holds the operating system, active applications, and
data being processed.
Temporary Storage: Only holds data and instructions while the computer is running.
Types of Primary Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory)
Random Access Memory, also called Read/Write memory, is the temporary memory
of a computer. It is said to be volatile since its contents are accessible only as long as
the computer is on. The contents of RAM are cleared once the computer is turned off
or if there is a power cut. RAM is where currently running programs and data are
stored for quick access by the CPU.
Types of RAM are Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and Static RAM (SRAM)
ROM (Read Only Memory)
Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read, and its
contents are not lost even when the computer is switched off or if there is a power
cut. It is non-volatile. It typically contains the manufacturer’s instructions and critical
boot-up information (like the BIOS/UEFI) that the computer needs to start.
Types of ROM
1. Masked Read-Only Memory (MROM)
2. Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)
3. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)
Step 4: Teacher leads in stating the differences between RAM and ROM
RAM ROM
It is volatile (It loses data when power is It is non-volatile (retains data even when
turned off) power is off)
ROM is fixed; data typically cannot be
Data in RAM can be changed or deleted
modified by the user.
RAM is used for storing applications and ROM stores instructions required for
data during runtime. booting the computer.
RAM is a read-and-write memory. ROM is a read-only memory.
RAM chips are generally larger in ROM chips are generally smaller in
physical size for comparable capacity. physical size for comparable capacity.
SECONDARY MEMORY
This type of memory is non-volatile, meaning it retains data even when power is turned
off. It is slower than primary memory but offers much larger storage capacities at a lower
cost. These are used for storing data permanently. The CPU does not directly access
these memories; instead, their contents are first transferred to the main memory (RAM),
and then the CPU can access it.
Characteristics of secondary memory:
1. Non-Volatile
2. Not Directly Accessible
3. Slower Access Speed
4. High Capacity
5. Lower Cost
6. Permanent Storage
Types of Secondary Memory
Magnetic: Data and information are stored and retrieved using magnetism on a
magnetic coating.
Examples: Hard Disk Drives (HDDs), Magnetic tape (for backup)
Optical: Optical storage devices employ light (laser beams) to store and retrieve data.
Examples: CD-ROM, DVD, Blu-ray Disc (BD)
CD is a potale device of 737MB space / 80mins of uncompressed
DVD – looks like CD but has larger capacity of 4.7GB of data
Electronic (Solid State): This holds data using semiconductor flash memory, with no
moving parts.
Examples: Solid State Drives (SSDs), USB Flash Drives (Pen Drives), Memory Cards
CACHE MEMORY
This is a very high-speed, small-sized semiconductor memory that resides on the CPU
chip (Level 1 cache); Very close to the CPU (Level 2 and Level 3 cache)
Its sole purpose is to act as a high-speed buffer between the very fast CPU and the much
slower main memory (RAM). It stores copies of the most frequently used instructions and
data from main memory. By keeping this critical information close to the CPU, it
drastically reduces the time the processor has to wait for data, a delay known as latency.
Advantages Disadvantages
Extremely Fast Very High Cost
Reduces CPU Latency
Very Limited Capacity
Increases Overall System Performance
Volatile
Stores Frequently Used Data
Complexity
Shared in Multi-Core Processors
Differences between Primary and Secondary memory
Primary Memory (e.g., RAM)
Volatile: Loses data when power is off.
Temporary: Holds data only while the computer is running.
Fast: Very high speed (nanosecond access time).
Direct Access: CPU can access data directly.
Purpose: Acts as the computer's working memory for active tasks.
Capacity: Smaller (e.g., 8GB, 16GB).
Cost: More expensive per GB.
Location: Located on the motherboard, close to the CPU.
Secondary Memory (e.g., SSD, HDD)
Non-Volatile: Permanently stores data, even without power.
Permanent: Used for long-term storage of files and programs.
Slow: Slower speed (millisecond access time).
Indirect Access: CPU must copy data to primary memory first.
Purpose: Used for storage of data not currently in use.
Capacity: Larger (e.g., 256GB, 1TB, 4TB).
Cost: Cheaper per GB.
Location: Internal drives or external devices (like USBs).
Assignment: Teacher gives the below as homework:
1. Draw a Computer System