Unit 4 Quantum computing

WHY QUANTUM COMPUTING IS NEEDED?

LIMITATIONS OF CLASSICAL COMPUTING

The limitations of classical computing primarily centre on its inability to efficiently handle
certain types of complex, high-dimensional problems.

 Inability to Exactly Model Nature/Chemistry: Classical computers cannot fully

represent the complexity of even small molecules. For instance, modelling a single
caffeine molecule at a single instant would require approximately 1048 bits—a number
comparable to 1% to 10% of the atoms on Earth. Because "Nature isn’t classical,"
traditional storage cannot provide enough space to hold this much information for exact
representation.
 Exponential Growth of Resource Requirements: For certain problems, as the size of
the problem increases, the resources (time, memory, or storage) required by a classical
computer grow exponentially. This rapid growth makes such problems "impossible"
for classical systems to solve within a reasonable timeframe.
 Algorithmic Limits in Large-Scale Factoring: Classical factoring methods for large
integers are limited by arithmetic and sophisticated mathematical complexity. For
example, factoring a 2048-bit number is a task that would be extremely difficult for
classical computers, whereas advanced quantum algorithms are designed to address
this.
 Lack of Access to Quantum Properties: Classical computers are restricted to the "lone
1s and 0s" of bits. They do not have access to properties like superposition and
entanglement, which provide "many dimensions of working memory" that are
unavailable to classical systems.
 Addressing the Limits of Moore's Law: We can no longer rely on transistors getting
smaller and smaller to increase performance. As we approach the atomic level, classical
physics fails and quantum effects come into picture, necessitating a new architecture
based on quantum mechanics to continue making progress.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM COMPUTERS

The primary differences between classical and quantum computers centre on their fundamental
units of information, their underlying physics, and how they handle complex problems.
Fundamental Differences

 Basic Unit of Information (Bit vs. Qubit):

o Classical computers use bits, which are "lone 1s and 0s".
o Quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist in a
superposition represented by a linear combination of both 0 and 1 states
simultaneously.
 Information States:
o Classical bits are limited to two discrete states.
o Qubits can exist in infinite states within a complex Hilbert space until they are
measured.
 Computational Principles:
o Classical computing relies on deterministic logic circuits made of hundreds
or thousands of gates (like AND, OR, NOT) to perform arithmetic operations.
o Quantum computing utilizes quantum mechanical properties such as
superposition and entanglement to provide many dimensions of working
memory that are unavailable to classical systems.
 The Role of Measurement:
o Classical data can be copied freely from memory into a working register for
use.
o Quantum data cannot be copied due to the No Cloning Theorem.
Additionally, the act of measuring a qubit forces it to "collapse" irreversibly
from its superposition into a single classical state (0 or 1).

Performance and Problem Solving

 Scaling and Complexity:

o Classical computers often face "exponential growth" in resource requirements
(time or memory) as a problem size increases, making certain tasks impossible.
o Quantum computers can potentially turn these exponential-time problems into
manageable polynomial-time problems.
 Algorithmic Efficiency:
o Classical factoring for large integers is limited to sub-exponential time
methods at best; there are no known classical polynomial-time algorithms for
this task.
 o Quantum algorithms, such as Shor’s algorithm, are designed to solve these
same problems with significantly higher efficiency.
 Randomness:
o Classical algorithms are typically deterministic, meaning they always produce
the same answer for the same input without inherent randomness.
o Quantum algorithms are non-deterministic and involve probability and
choices that can result in different internal paths to an answer.

Physical and Structural Differences

 Hardware Architecture:
o Classical hardware is general-purpose and used for virtually all modern digital
tasks.
o Quantum hardware is still nascent and often requires specialized
environments to maintain coherence; as of 2019, hundreds of physical qubits
were needed to create just one stable "logical qubit".
 Data Replication vs. Teleportation:
o While classical systems rely on data replication, quantum systems may
eventually rely on teleportation to move information because qubits cannot be
copied.

Summary of differences:

Feature Classical Computer Quantum Computer

Qubit (Superposition of 0 and 1)

Basic Unit Bit (0 or 1)
+3

Logic Boolean Logic Quantum Gates (Superposition, Entanglement)

Duplication Can copy data No Cloning Theorem (cannot copy)

Output Deterministic Probabilistic (collapses on measurement)

Best For Everyday tasks, small problems Chemistry, cryptography, large-scale optimization
QUBIT: THE BASIC UNIT OF QUANTUM COMPUTING

Definition: A qubit, or quantum bit, is the "fundamental information unit of quantum

computing". While a classical bit can only be in one of two discrete states (0 or 1), a qubit is a
two-state quantum mechanical system that can exist in an infinite number of states within a
complex Hilbert space.

Qubit Representations

Qubits are represented through several mathematical and physical frameworks:

 Ket Notation (Dirac Notation): The state of a qubit is typically written as |𝜓>. The
standard basis states are |0> and |1>, which are the quantum analogs of the classical 0
and 1.
 Vector Representation: In a two-dimensional complex vector space, qubits are
represented as column vectors:
0
o |0 > = ( )
1
1
o |1 > = ( )
0
 Linear Combination (Superposition): A general qubit state is represented as
|𝜓 >= a|0 > +b|1 >, where a and b are complex numbers called "probability". The
sum of the squares of their absolute values must equal 1 (|a|2 + |b|2 = 1).

Types of Qubit Bases

 Computational Basis (Z-basis): Consists of the states |0 > and |1 >.

 Hadamard Basis (X-basis): Consists of the states |+> and |->, defined as:
1
o |+⟩ = (|0⟩ + |1⟩)
√2
1
o |−⟩ = (|0⟩ − |1⟩)
√2

 Circular Basis (Y-basis): Consists of the states |𝑖⟩ and | − 𝑖⟩ , involving imaginary
numbers:
1
o |𝑖⟩ = (|0⟩ + 𝑖|1⟩)
√2
1
o | − 𝑖⟩ = (|0⟩ − 𝑖|1⟩)
√2
  Logical vs. Physical Qubits: In the context of hardware, the qubits has been
distinguished as physical qubits (the actual noisy quantum devices) and logical qubits
(error-corrected qubits formed by combining many physical ones).

BLOCH SPHERE (Graphical Representation of Qubits)

A single qubit can be visualized as a point on the surface of a unit sphere in three-dimensional
space, known as the Bloch sphere {see figure 1}. It maps the complex mathematical state of a
qubit onto the two-dimensional surface of a sphere in three-dimensional real space (R3).

Figure 1: Bloch sphere representation of a single qubit

Core Characteristics

 Mathematical Foundation: A qubit's state is described by the vector as

|𝜓 >= a|0 > +b|1 >, . Through a non-linear projection and by ignoring the "global
phase" (which is not physically observable), this state can be represented using two
angles: and
 Coordinate Representation: The state on the sphere is defined by:

𝜃 𝜃
o |𝜓⟩ = {cos |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin }
2 2

where,0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋and 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋
  Visualizing States :
o : Measured from the positive z-axis.
o : Measured from the positive x-axis in the xy-plane {see figure 1}.

Key Points on the Sphere

The sphere provides a visual map for standard quantum bases:

 Z-axis (Computational Basis): The "North Pole" represents the state |0⟩ (𝜃 = 0°),
and the "South Pole" represents |1⟩ (𝜃 = 180°)
 X-axis (Hadamard Basis): The points where the x-axis intersects the equator represent
the |+⟩ and |−⟩ states.
 Y-axis (Circular Basis): The points where the y-axis intersects the equator represent
the |𝑖⟩ and | − 𝑖⟩ states.
 The Equator: Any state located on the equator of the sphere has an equal probability
(0.5) of resulting in |0⟩ or |1⟩ when measured.

Bloch Sphere Representation of Qubits

The Bloch Sphere visualization, named after physicist Felix Bloch, is a geometrical
representation of a qubit’s state space. It is a unit sphere, which is a sphere with a radius of 1.
The vertical z-axis is labelled with |0⟩ at the top and |1⟩ at the bottom. The ends of two
perpendicular horizontal axes, the x and the y, are labelled |+⟩ and |-⟩, and |i⟩ and |-i⟩,
respectively.
The z-axis represents the probability of the qubit being measured as a 0 or a 1.
The x-axis represents the real part of the state vector.
The y-axis represents the imaginary part of the state vector.
A qubit is a combination of two states, |0⟩ and |1⟩. While in superposition, each has a complex
number coefficient. With α and  representing the coefficients, the qubit’s state |ψ⟩ is written
as:
|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + |1⟩ ------- (1)
The angles θ (polar angle) and ϕ (azimuthal angle) of the Bloch sphere are calculated from
these complex numbers. The angle θ is the angle between the state vector and the z-axis, while
the angle ϕ is the angle between the state vector counter-clockwise from the positive x-axis. A
third calculation is the length of the vector, which is 1 for pure states and less than 1 for mixed
states.
With these three values, the previous equation for the qubit can be rewritten as:
 -------- (2)
where  [0, ] and   [0, 2)
A Bloch sphere visualizes the relationship between a quantum state and two important angles,
θ and ϕ. In digital mode quantum computing, quantum states are transformed by providing
these angles of rotation.

Qubit Operations and Quantum Gates

When using qubits or bits, we need to manipulate them in order to turn the inputs we have into
the outputs we need.
Quantum gates are the fundamental, reversible building blocks of quantum circuits that
manipulate qubits (quantum bits) using quantum mechanical principles like superposition and
entanglement. Unlike classical logic gates, they are represented by unitary matrices and enable
parallel processing of information.

Key Aspects of Quantum Gates:

Functionality: They act as logic elements in quantum algorithms, allowing qubits to exist in
0 and 1 states simultaneously.
Representation: Quantum gates are unitary matrices, acting as 2n x 2n complex matrices (U)
for n qubits that preserve probability, ensuring UU† = U†U = I (where † is the conjugate
transpose). Because U is unitary, the sum of probabilities of all possible states remains 1 after
a gate operation, crucial for quantum mechanics.
Reversibility: Quantum gates are inherently reversible, meaning the input can be determined
from the output. The inverse of a gate is its conjugate transpose (U†), which is also a unitary
matrix.

Types of Quantum Gates:

Single-qubit gates: Operate on one qubit to flip states (e.g., Pauli-X) or create superposition
(e.g., Hadamard).
Multi-qubit gates: Entangle qubits and allow them to interact (e.g., Controlled-NOT or
CNOT).
Single-qubit gates

 The X,Y & Z-Gates

 The H-Gate
 The Phase Shift Gate

 The X,Y & Z-Gates

The X gate is a π rotation around the x axis of the Bloch sphere. Applying the X gate
to ∣0⟩ results in ∣1⟩, and applying the X gate to ∣1⟩ results in ∣0⟩, so it is an operation similar to
the classical NOT gate, and is also known as bit flip. The matrix representation of the X gate
is below.
0 1
𝑋=( )
1 0
0 1 1 0
𝑋|0 > = ( )( ) = ( )
1 0 0 1

Similarly the Y & Z-gates perform rotations of π around their respective axes. Their matrix
representations are
0 −𝑖
𝑌=( )
𝑖 0
1 0
𝑍=( )
0 −1

 The H-Gate
The Hadamard (H) gate is a  rotation around an axis halfway between the x and z axes on the
|0>+|1>
Bloch sphere. Applying the H gate to ∣0⟩ creates the superposition state .
√2
The matrix representation of the H gate is below.

The truth table of the Hadamard gate is

 The Phase Shift Gate

The phase shift gate (𝑅𝜙 ) change the phase of the state |1⟩. Its general representation is given
as

1 0
𝑅𝜙 = ( )
0 𝑒 𝑖𝜙

The inverse phase shift gate () is represented as

1 0
𝑅𝜙† = ( −𝑖𝜙 )
0 𝑒

Unlike the previous gates, the phase shift gate is not necessarily its own inverse, to reverse the
change we must apply a phase shift in the other direction. Theoretically we can choose any
phase shift. We call the phase shift by ϕ = π/4 the T-gate and we call the phase shift by ϕ = π
the Z-gate.

MULTI-QUBIT GATE
1. CNOT (Controlled-NOT) gate: The two input qubits are called the "control" and "target"
qubits. The control qubit remains unchanged, but its state dictates what happens to the target
qubit. If the control qubit is in the state ∣1⟩, then an X gate is applied to that target; if the
state of the control qubit is ∣0⟩, then no change is made. In the notation below, assume the
qubit A (rightmost qubit) is the control, and qubit B (the leftmost qubit) is the target. Below,
the notation used is CNOT∣BA⟩.

2. SWAP gate: This gate swaps the states of two qubits.

 Quantum Entanglement and Bell States
Despite all its apparent strangeness, quantum mechanics provides a remarkably accurate
description of nature at microscopic scales. Its predictive power and experimental success have
firmly established it as the foundation of modern physics. Beyond its theoretical importance,
quantum mechanics has directly enabled a vast range of transformative technologies that shape
contemporary society, such as lasers, atomic clocks, and the entire field of electronics,
including computers, the internet, mobile communications, GPS, and many more. These
technologies are referred to as the first generation of quantum technology because they are
based on the basic principles of quantum mechanics.

These achievements naturally raise a deeper question: if the basic principles of quantum
mechanics have already produced such revolutionary tools, what additional possibilities might
emerge from its more subtle and uniquely quantum features? This question has motivated the
development of what is now called quantum information science, where distinctly quantum
phenomena are treated not merely as curiosities but as operational resources.

Among these phenomena, quantum entanglement occupies a central role. Unlike classical
correlations, entanglement reflects intrinsically quantum relationships between physical
systems, revealing aspects of reality that have no classical counterpart. It is this feature that
underlies many of the conceptual and technological advances associated with modern quantum
technologies.
It is often said that entanglement is a resource in quantum computation and information. One
of the most unusual and fascinating aspects of quantum mechanics is that particles or systems
can become entangled. For the simplest case of two quantum systems, denoted as A and B, if
these systems are entangled, it means that the values of certain properties of system A are
correlated with the values that those properties will take for system B. These properties can
remain correlated even when the two systems are spatially separated, leading to what is often
called spooky action at a distance.

Fig. 1: Entangled particles [1]

In fact, to understand this idea more clearly, one may discuss spin quantum systems to illustrate
and explain quantum entanglement. The phenomenon of entanglement can also be illustrated
with a famous thought experiment known as Schrödinger's cat. In this experiment, a cat is
confined in a box. A photon is incident on a 50–50 beam splitter, which means the photon can
take either path. Path A or path B with equal probability. If the photon takes path A, it triggers
a pistol and kills the cat, making it dead. On the other hand, if path A is empty, that means the
photon has taken path B. In that case, the pistol cannot be triggered, and the cat remains alive.

Fig.2 Diagram to demonstrate Quantum Entanglement

This situation can be described mathematically by a superposition state. If you do not open the
box, the cat is both alive and dead at the same time. This is the main idea expressed by the
equation. In physical terms, the cat has two possible states: alive and dead. The same is true for
the photon in path A; there can either be zero photons or one photon. The important point is
that the state of the cat and the state of the photon are not independent of each other; they are
connected.
The cat is alive, and the photon does not go through path A, or the cat is dead, and the photon
goes through path A. This means that the cat and the photon are entangled. An observer who
cannot see inside the box has no idea about the state of the cat or the state of the photon. The
observer also does not know whether the photon will go through the path. After five minutes
or even after a hundred years, because at any given time there is only a probability that the
photon has passed through path A. It may go through path A, or it may not. Therefore, the
observer can only describe the total state of the system, which includes both the cat and the
photon, as an entangled state. Here, the cat and the photon are two subsystems. Together, the
cat and the photon form one total system. These subsystems are inseparably linked to each
other.
This is because we can use entanglement to accomplish communication and
information processing tasks that would otherwise not be possible. The first of these, known as
quantum teleportation, is a procedure that allows one party, usually called Alice, to send a
quantum state to her friend Bob without transmitting the state in the usual physical sense. By
using entanglement, Alice and Bob can create a quantum communication channel that links
them in a special way, often explained through the EPR paradox. This allows Alice to transfer
her quantum state to Bob in a way that seems almost magical. However, faster-than-light
communication is not possible through teleportation because Alice and Bob must still share a
classical communication link for the process to work.
One of the most unusual and fascinating aspects of quantum mechanics is that particles
or systems can become entangled. For the simplest case of two quantum systems, denoted as
A and B, if these systems are entangled, it means that the values of certain properties of system
A are correlated with the values that those properties will take for system B. These correlations
can exist even when the two systems are spatially separated, which leads to what is often called
“spooky action at a distance.”
The roots of this idea go back to the year 1935, when Albert Einstein and his two
colleagues, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, now commonly known together as EPR,
published a famous paper titled “Can the quantum-mechanical description of reality be
considered complete?” In this paper, which was written by Einstein as a critic of quantum
mechanics, they tried to show that quantum theory is incomplete and leads to unreasonable
predictions. A central belief of EPR and other realists was that physical systems have definite
properties with fixed values, whether we observe them or not. In other words, they believed
in an objective reality. According to this view, a property of a system has a clearly defined
value even before any measurement is made.
To explain EPR kind of experiment from the beginning, the so called hidden local
variable theory was proposed. This went on for many years without any conclusion. However,
in 1964, John Bell proposed an inequality that shows that the classical view in the form of a
theory of hidden local variables satisfies certain conditions that are violated by quantum
physics so hidden variable theory has to be abandoned.
Bell States:
When two systems are entangled, the state of each composite system can only be described
with reference to the other state. If two states are not entangled, we say that they are a product
state or separable. One simple test that can be applied to states is the following. This state is
separable if and only if ad = bc

The members of the Bell basis, sometimes called the Bell states or the
EPR states,

Are the Bell states given above entangled?

1
For |β00>, we have a = d = , b=c=0, so ad= 1/2 ≠bc. So, |β00> is not a product state and
√2
1
must be entangled. For |β01>, a=d=0, b=c= , we conclude that |β01> is also entangled.
√2

Below we present the circuit diagram to prepare quantum entanglement using gates,
 Fig.3 Quantum Entanglment circuit

Creating Entanglement Using Hadamard and CNOT Gate

Entanglement is a uniquely quantum mechanical phenomenon in which the state of one qubit
becomes inseparably correlated with the state of another. A standard way to generate
entanglement between two qubits is by combining a Hadamard (H) gate with a controlled-
NOT (CNOT) gate.
We begin with two qubits initialized in the computational basis: |i⟩ = |0⟩, |j⟩ = |0⟩
The initial two-qubit state of the system is |00⟩. This is a separable state (no entanglement). A
Hadamard gate is applied to the first qubit. The Hadamard creates a superposition:
H|0⟩ = (1/√2) (|0⟩ + |1⟩). The two-qubit state becomes (1/√2) (|0⟩ + |1⟩) ⊗ |0⟩. Expanding:
(1/√2) (|00⟩ + |10⟩)
At this stage, superposition exists, but the state is still not entangled. Next, a CNOT gate is
applied with the first qubit as control and the second as target.
CNOT action:
- If control = 0 → no change
- If control = 1 → flip target qubit
Applying CNOT to each term: |00⟩ → |00⟩, |10⟩ → |11⟩. Final state: (1/√2)(|00⟩ + |11⟩)

The final state is one of the Bell states, representing maximal entanglement. It cannot be
written as a product of single-qubit states. Measuring the first qubit immediately determines
the state of the second qubit.
Example: If the first qubit is measured as 0, the second is 0. If the first qubit is measured as 1,
the second is 1.

References:

[1] NPTEL IIT Guwahati. n.d. “Quantum Entanglement: Fundamentals, Measures, and
Applications.” YouTube video. [Link]

[2] McMahon, David. 2008. Quantum Computing Explained. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons.
Sample Questions:

1. For two quantum systems, A and B, what does it mean for the systems to be
entangled?
2. Using the Schrödinger’s cat thought experiment, explain how the photon and the cat
become entangled.
3. What is meant by a separable (product) state? Using the condition ad=bc, explain how
one can determine whether a two-qubit state is entangled.
4. Starting from the initial state ∣00⟩, describe step-by-step how applying a Hadamard
gate followed by a CNOT gate generates an entangled Bell state.
5. Perform the same steps mentioned in 4. for the states ∣01⟩, ∣10⟩, ∣11⟩.