UNIT_1

RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION- research in common refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for information on a specific topic. Infact, research is an art of scientific investigation.

DEFINITIONS-

1- According to Clifford and woody,” research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions,collecting,organising,and evaluating data, making deduct ion and reaching conclusion, at last careful
testing the conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis or not”.

OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH-

There are following objectives of research-

1- To gain new ideas with phenomenon or to achieve new insights.

2- To the characteristics of a particular individual or a group.
3- To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated and measure something.
4- To test a hypothesis of a relationship between variables.

TYPES OF RESEARCH-

 Descriptive and analytical research

 Applied and fundamental research
 Quantitative and qualitative research
 Conceptual and empirical research

1-Descriptive and analytical research-

The major purpose of descriptive research is the description of state of affairs. Descriptive research includes surveys and the fact
findings enquiries of different kinds. In this research the researcher can report what is happened or what is happening.

In analytical research , the researcher has to use facts and information already available and analyse these these facts and
information to make evaluation.

2-Applied and fundamental research - the main purpose of applied research is to finding a solution for a problem.

Whereas fundamental research is mainly concern with generalisation and formulation of theories.

3-Quantitative and qualitative research – quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon i.e. phenomenon which is related to the quality or kind.

4-Conceptual and empirical research- conceptual research is that which is related to some idea or theory. It is generally used by
Philosopher to develop new ideas and new concepts.

Empirical research is based on experiences or observation. It is a data base research.

RESEARCH PROCESS- there is following steps in the process of research which are as follows-
 defining research problem

review of literature (concept

and theories) (previous findings)

formulating hypothesis

design research(sample design)

collect the data

analyze the data

interpret and report

Define the research problem - there are two types of research problems-

 Relate to state of nature

 Relate to relationship between variables.

Review the literature – it is the brief summary which is based on concept and theories or previous findings.

Formulate hypothesis- after review the literature the researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis. Working
hypothesis is tentative assumptions made in order to draw out and test its logical consequences.

Design research – the research problem have been formulated in clear cut terms. So the researcher will be require to prepare a
research design i.e. he will have to prepare a conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.

Collection of data- after designing a research the next step is to collect the data and information regarding the problem. The data
may be of two types-

 Primary data
 Secondary data
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey whereas secondary data can be collected from
the different sources.

Analyze the data- after the data have been collected the researcher turns to the task of analysing the data. The analysis of data
requires a number of related operations i.e. converting the raw data through coding into categories, tabulation and drawing
inferences.

Interpret and report- after analysing the data the research should test the hypothesis. If the researcher had no hypothesis then
he explains his findings on the basis of theory. This is known as interpretation.
 Research proposal

Documents that is typically written by the scientist which describe the ideas for the investigation on a certain topic. The research
proposal outlines the process from beginning to end.

Components of research proposal –

statement of research purpose of the study

problem objective of the research

topic /problem area

review of the literature theory area
methodology

design
methodology subject data collection

data analysis

bibliography

time table

Drafting of a research proposal-

The quality of research proposal depends not only on the quality of proposed project but also on the quality of proposal writing.
These are the following components of drafting a research proposal-

components of
research
proposal

review of
title abstract introduction
literature
methods result discussion

design subject instrument procedure

Title- Title is stated in terms of a functional relationship because such title clearly represents the independent variables and
dependent variables.

Abstract- it is a brief summary approximately 300 words. It should include research question, hypothesis, methods of findings
and main findings.

Introduction- the main purpose of introduction is to provide the necessary background for research problem. The introduction
section covers the following elements-
  State the research problem
 Provide the context & set the research question
 Describe the major issues
 Identify the independent and dependent variable
 Theory & hypothesis.

Review of literature –

 Gives credit to those who laid the ground work of research

 Demonstrate the knowledge of research problem
 Develop a new model
 Proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature.

Methods – this section is very important because it provides the work plan and describes the activities. The method section
typically consisting the following section-

 Design
 Subject
 Instrument
 Procedure

Result – this section typically mention the procedure of collecting data and which statistical procedure will be used.

Discussion- in this section researcher explains the merits of research proposal, limitations and weakness of research proposal.

Evaluating a research proposal-

clear and well drafted proposal

scientific significance(quality,
feasibility of plans, goals,
objectives,methods)

sound research methodology

applicability

budget estimation

Criteria of a good research-

A good research satisfies the following criteria-

 The purpose of the research should be clearly define and common concept be used.
 The research procedure used should be describe in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research for further advancement.
  The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the method of
analysis should be appropriate.

In other words we can state the qualities of a good research are as follows-

 A good research is systematic

 A good research is logical
 A good research is empirical
 A good research is replicable.

Application of research in management/business

Research can be conducted either to discover, explain a theory or to solve a specific problem faced by management.
Some of the main areas where research is conducted in the field of management.

Account and finance-

 Budgetary control system

 Designing new practices and methods for inventory costing
 Treatment of depreciation and its effect on earning
 Effect of profitability

Marketing-

 Forecasting the demand for products

 Analyzing the buying behaviour
 Market testing for new products
 Strategies for new products

[Link]-

 Leadership characteristics and style

 Attitude of employee
 Individual behaviour
 Mechanism use for performance evaluation

Production –

 Way to standardised and control the production

 Finding strategies and methods for trouble shooting
 Finding new products and new methods for the production

Industrial research –

 improve the quality of products

 Developing new ways to ways to use the available resources.
 Decision regarding minimising the cost.
 Standardisation of the process.

Research and scientific method

The two terms research and scientific methods are closely related to each other.

Research can be termed as an enquiry into the nature of, the reason for and the consequences of any particular set of
circumstances. Whether these circumstances are experimentally control or recorded.

Where the scientific method attempts to achieve this idle by experimentation, observation and logical arguments and a
combination of these three in varied proportion. The idle of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
Scientific method is based on certain basic postulates which can be as follows-

 Empirical evidence
 Utilises relevant concepts
 Making only adequate and correct statements
 It results into probabilistic prediction.

Emerging Trends in Business Research

Following Emerging Trends in Business Research are-

(i) Stock Indexes

(ii) Monthly and Annual Retail Trade Reports
(iii) Employment Statistics
(iv) Consumer Confidence
(v) Gross Domestic Product

.Major Characteristics of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is the system used by scientists to explore data, generate and test hypotheses, develop new theories and
confirm or reject earlier results. Although the exact methods used in the different sciences vary (for example, physicists and
psychologists work in very different ways), they share some fundamental attributes that may be called characteristics of the
scientific method.

1. Empirical Observation
2. Replicable Experiments
3. Provisional Results
4. Objective Approach
5. Systematic Observation
UNIT-2

Research design

Meaning of research design

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of the data that aims to the research purpose with
economy in procedure. In fact the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the
blue print for the collection of data, measurement and analysis of data.

As such the design constitutes the outline of what a researcher will do from hypothesis and its operational implication to the final
analysis of data.

Parts of research design- the overall research design is divided into the following four parts-

 Sampling design-deals with the method of selecting items to be observe for the study.
 Observational design-it relates to the conditions under the observations are to be made.
 Statistical design-it concern with the question of how many items are to be observe and how the information and the
data are analyzed.
 Operational design-it deals with the techniques by which the procedure specify in the sampling, observational,
statistical design can be carried out.

Features of research design-

The important features of research design are casa follows-

 It is a plan
 It is a strategy
 It includes time and cost budget

Need of a research design-

Research design is needed because-

  It facilitates the smooth running of various research operations.
 Making research as efficient by maximal information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and money.
 Planning of methods to be adopted for collecting the data and the techniques to be used in analysis.
 Focusing on objective of the research.
 Availability of staff, time and money.

Some important concepts related to the research design

1- Independent and dependent variables-

A concept which can take different qualitative values is called variable. For example-weight, height, income etc.
Qualitative phenomenon i.e. attributes are also quantified on the basis of presence or absence of the concerning Quality.

continuous example- age of the

children is
variable continuous variable
variable
discrete example- the
number of children
variable in a family

If one variable depends upon the other variable it is termed as dependent variable and the variable that is antecedent to
the dependent variable is termed as independent variable.
Example- if we say that the supply depends upon the demand of the product then supply is the dependent variable and
demand is the independent variable.

2- Extraneous variable- Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of study but effect the dependent variable
are termed as extraneous variable.
3- Control- one important characteristics of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of extraneous
variable then the technical term control is used.
4- Confounded relationship- when the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable then the
relationship between dependent and independent variable is said to be confounded relationship.
5- Research hypothesis- when a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by the scientific method or
statistical method then it is termed as research hypothesis.
6- Experimental and non experimental hypothesis testing research - when the purpose of research is to test a research
hypothesis then it is termed as hypothesis testing research. It can be of experimental design or non experimental design.
Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed as experimental hypothesis testing research and a
research in which independent variable is not manipulated is called non experimental hypothesis testing research.
7- Experimental and control group- in a experimental hypothesis testing research when a group is expose to usual
condition it is termed as control group but when the group is exposed to some special condition then it is termed as
experimental group.
8- Treatment- The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are known as treatment.
9- Experiment- The process of examine the truth of a hypothesis relating to some research problem is known as
experiment.
10- Experimental unit- the pre determined blocks where different treatment is used are known as experimental units.

Types of research design

OR
Different research design
Different research design can be conveniently describe if categorised them as follows-

1- Research design in case of exploratory research studies.

2- Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies.
3- Research design in case of hypothesis testing research studies.

types of research
design

Descriptive and Experimental research

Exploratory research Diagnostic research
design design
design

1-Research design in case of exploratory research studies- exploratory research studies are also termed as
formulative research studies .the main purpose of research studies is that of formulating a problem for precise
investigation and developing the working hypothesis for an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such
studies is on the discovery of new ideas and new concepts.
Generally, the following are the methods in this type of research design which are as follows-

projective
technique

depth
observation
techniques for interview
exploratory
research
design

experience
focus group
survey

Projective techniques- this technique is used in those areas of qualitative research where the researcher aims to achieve a greater
understanding of a subject. Under this technique, individuals are asked to express their feeling and opinion on a situation or
behaviour of another individual. This technique is used in the field of clinical psychology, where it is broadly classified into the
following – association, completion, construction and expression.

Projective techniques can be classified into following types-

1- Sentence completion
2- Word association
3- Story completion
4- Quizzes, tests, and examinations
5- Socio- metric analysis
Depth interview- when a small group of respondents is intensively interviewed on individual basis so as to measure their
perception about a particular event, concept, idea or situation, it is called depth interview. For example- a depth interview can be
conducted to explore the review of participants of an organisational event about the nature of operations, activities its usefulness
or change required if any.

Experience survey- when experts or individuals having significant information on the concerned topic are approached for
collecting relevant information, it is called Experience survey. Individuals from within or outside the organization who are
familiar with research problem may be involved in the experience surveys. This is the reason experience surveys are also called
expert opinion surveys. The only purpose is to utilise the experience of these experts in gaining the valuable insight of the
problem.

Focus groups- focus group is a method in which a group of respondents is selected so as to collect the desired information
through a formal interactive session. It is also called group interviewing method. In this, the respondents response to the
questions of a researcher to discuss about the given topic or research problem.

Focus group method is characterised by the use of significant methods and strategies so as to collect and analyse the information
gathered here. This makes the focus group method a reliable source of data collection. This method is used in areas like – new
product concept or new product development, improvement of production line in an organization.

Observation- this method involving the systematic recording and assessment of behavioural forms of a particular individual or
group, object or event so as to collect desired information about a research problem without any personal communication is called
observation. This method is very popular for behavioural science researches.

The different methods are used for observing the respondents or objects are as follows-

 Structured and unstructured observation

 Direct and indirect observation
 Natural and contrived observation
 Disguised observation
 Human –Mechanical observation

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concern with describing the characteristics of a particular individual or of
a group whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else.

In other words, the studies concerning whether certain variables are associated is a diagnostic research studies concern with
specific prediction, narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are descriptive research studies.
The design in such study must be rigid and not flexible and must focus on the following factors-

 Objective of the study

 Designing the method of the data collection
 Selecting the sample
 Collecting the data
 Processing of data
 Describing the findings.

Types of descriptive research studies

 Descriptive research
studies

cross sectional longitudinal

research research

3-Research design in case of hypothesis testing research studies-

Hypothesis testing research studies generally known as experimental studies are those where the researcher test the
hypothesis of casual relationship between variables. Such studies require a procedure that will not only reduce bias but also
increase reliability and also permit drawing inferences about the problem.

Principles of experimental design

Professor R.A. fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental design-

 Principle of randomization
 Principle of replication
 Principle of local control

randomization

principles of
experimental
design

replication local control

1-Principle of randomization- this principle provides protection when we conduct an experiment against the effect of
extraneous factors by randomization. Through the application of this principle we can have reduce biasness and estimate
the experimental error.

2-Principle of replication- according to this principle the experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus, each
treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing this the statistical accuracy of the experiment is
increased.
 3-Principle of local control- this is another important principle of experimental design. Under this the extraneous
factors, the known source of variability is made to vary over while a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such
a way that the variability can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.

Types of experimental design

Experimental design refers to the frame work or the structure of an experiment. Experimental design can be classified
into two categories i.e. –
 Informal experimental design
 Formal experimental design
Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally based on differences of magnitude whereas
formal experimental designs relatively more control and use the statistical procedure for analysis.

Some important experimental designs are as follows-

Experimental design

Informal Formal
experimental experimental
design design

before and completely

after without randomised
control design design (CRD)

randomised
after only with
block design
control design
(RBD)

before and
Latin squre
after with
design (LSD)
control design.

Factorial
design

FORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

1-Completely randomised design (CRD) - this design involve only two principles i.e. the principle of replication and
principle of randomisation. It is the simplest design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The essential characteristics of
this design are that the subject is randomly assigned to the treatment or vice-versa. For analysis of such design, one way analysis
of variance is used. It provides maximum number of degree of freedom to the error.

2- Randomised block design (RBD) - RBD is an improvement over CRD. In RBD the principle of local control can be applied
along with other two principle replication and randomisation. In RBD subject are divided into groups which is known as
BLOCKS, within each group the subjects are relatively homogeneous in respect to the variables.
 In RBD the number of subjects in a given block is equal to the number of treatments and subject in each block would be
randomly assigned to each treatment.

3-Latin square design(LSD) - this is an experimental design which is frequently used in agricultural research . the treatment in
Latin square design are allocated among the plots that no treatment occurs more than once in any one row or any column. The two
blocking factors may be represented through rows and columns.

4-Factorial design- factorial design is used in experiment where the effect of more than one factor is to be determined. They are
especially important in several economic and social phenomenons where a large number of factors affect a particular problem.
Factorial design can be of two types-
 Simple factorial design- only two factors
 Complex factorial design- more than two

UNIT-3
SCALING AND MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

MEASUREMENT

Measurement is relatively complex and demanding task specially when it concern qualitative or abstract phenomenon. By
measurement we mean the process of assigning number to the object or observations.
Technically, measurement is the process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range, according to some rule.

MEASUREMENT SCALE
Scales of measurement can be considered in terms of mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of scales is
as follows-

Nominal scale- it is simply a system of assigning number, symbols to the events in order to label them. The usual example of
nominal scale is the assignment of numbers of basket ball players to identify them.

Example- 1- what is your gender?

Male- M
Female- F

Ordinal scale- with ordinal scales it is the order of value i.e. what is important and significant but the difference is not known.
Generally, ordinal scales measures the non – numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness etc .

Example- how do you feel today?

 Very happy
 Happy
 Ok
 Unhappy
 Very unhappy

Interval scale- they are numeric scale in which we know not only the order but also the exact difference between the values.
Interval scale provides more powerful measurement then the ordinal scale.
Example- In which age group you belong to?
 Below 10
 11-20
 21-30
 31-40
 41-50

Ratio scale- Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variable
such as- weight, height, distance, etc.
 SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
Measurement should be presized in an ideal research study. As such the researcher must be aware about the sources of error of
measurement. In the process of measurement there are following sources of error which are as follows-

 Respondent
 Situation
 Measurer
 Instrument.

TEST OF MEASUREMENT

Sound measurement must meet the test of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact, these are the three major considerations
which use in evaluating a measurement tool.

Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures and what we actually wish to measure.
Reliability has to do with accuracy of measurement procedure.
Practicality concerns with the wide range of factors of economy, convenience and interpretability.

TEST OF VALIDITY- validity is the most critical criteria and indicate the degree to which an instrument measures and what it
is supposed to measure.

extent to which a measuring

instrument provide adequate
coverage of the topic under
study.
content validity

ability to predict some outcomes or

estimate the some current conditions.
the concerned criteria must possess
the following qualities-
Test of validity criteria validity
-should be relevant
-free from biasness
-reliability

Measurement tools correlate

construct validity with other propositions.

TEST OF RELIABILITY- the test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is
reliable if it provide consistant result. The two basic aspects of reliability is-
 Stability - it is concerned with securing consistent result with repeated measurement with same instrument.
 Equivalence- it is concerned how much error may introduced by different investigator.
TEST OF PRACTICALITY- The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy,
convenience, and interpretation.

Economy consideration suggests that some trade is needed between ideal research project and which the budget can afford.

Convenience- suggest that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer and easy to handle.

Interpretation- it is important that the interpretation of measurement should be correct.

SCALING

MEANING- scaling describes the procedure of assigning numbers to various degree of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This
can be done in two ways-

 Making a judgement about some characteristics of an individual and then placing him directly on a scale.
 Constructing a questionnaire in such a way that the score of individual response assign him a place on a scale.
Hence,
The term scaling is applied to the procedure for attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective abstract. So
scaling has been defined as a procedure for the assignment of number to a property of objects in an order.

PROCEDURE OF SCALING
The number assigning procedures or the scaling procedures may be broadly classified on one or more of the following bases:

a. subject orientation;
b. response form;
c. degree of subjectivity;
d. scale properties;
e. number of dimensions and
f. scale construction techniques

IMPORETANT SCALING TECHNIQUE

RATING SCALE - the rating scale involve qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or about
a person when we use rating scales (ordinal scale) we judge an object in absolute terms against some specified criteria i.e.
we judge properties of object without reference to other similar objects. These rating may be in such forms as- like –
dislike, above average – average – below average etc.
Rating scale may be either a graphic rating scale or itematized rating scale.
The following is an example of five-point graphic rating scale when we wish to ascertain people’s liking or disliking any
product-

RANKING SCALE- Under ranking scale, we make relative judgements against similar objects. The respondent under
this method directly compare to more objects and make choice among them. There are two approaches of ranking scale-

 Method of pair comparison

 Method of rank order.
Arbitrary Scales

Arbitrary scales are developed on ad hoc basis and are designed largely through the researcher’s own subjective selection of items.
The researcher first collects few statements or items which he believes are unambiguous and appropriate to a given topic. Some of
these are selected for inclusion in the measuring instrument and then people are asked to check in a list the statements with which
they agree.
The chief merit of such scales is that they can be developed very easily, quickly and with relatively less expense. They can also be
designed to be highly specific and adequate. Because of these benefits, such scales are widely used in practice.

Differential Scales (or Thurstone-type Scales)

The name of L.L. Thurston is associated with differential scales which have been developed using consensus scale approach.
Under such an approach the selection of items is made by a panel of judges who evaluate the items in terms of whether they are
relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in implication. The detailed procedure is as under:

 The researcher gathers a large number of statements, usually twenty or more, that express various points of view toward
a group, institution, idea, or practice (i.e., statements belonging to the topic area).
 These statements are then submitted to a panel of judges, each of whom arranges them in eleven groups or piles ranging
from one extreme to another in position. Each of the judges is requested to place generally in the first pile the statements
which he thinks are most unfavourable to the issue, in the second pile to place those statements which he thinks are next
most unfavourable and he goes on doing so in this manner till in the eleventh pile he puts the statements which he
considers to be the most favourable.
 This sorting by each judge yields a composite position for each of the items. In case of marked disagreement between the
judges in assigning a position to an item, that item is discarded.
 For items that are retained, each is given its median scale value between one and eleven as established by the panel. In
other words, the scale value of any one statement is computed as the ‘median’ position to which it is assigned by the
group of judges.
 A final selection of statements is then made. For this purpose a sample of statements, whose median scores are spread
evenly from one extreme to the other is taken. The statements so selected, constitute the final scale to be administered to
respondents. The position of each statement on the scale is the same as determined by the judges.

Summated Scales (or Likert-type Scales)

Summated scales (or Likert-type scales) are developed by utilizing the item analysis approach wherein a particular item is
evaluated on the basis of how well it discriminates between those persons whose total score is high and those whose score is low.
Those items or statements that best meet this sort of discrimination test are included in the final instrument.
Thus, summated scales consist of a number of statements which express either a favourable or unfavourable attitude towards the
given object to which the respondent is asked to react
. For example, when asked to express opinion whether one considers his job quite pleasant, the respondent may respond in any
one of the following ways:

i. strongly agree,
ii. agree,
iii. undecided,
iv. disagree,
v. Strongly disagree.

We find that these five points constitute the scale. At one extreme of the scale there is strong agreement with the given statement
and at the other, strong disagreement, and between them lie intermediate points. We may illustrate this as under:

Unit-4
 SAMPLING SURVEY

Population and sample- the purpose of statistical enquiry is to obtain information about the population. By population we mean a
group of units defined according to the aim of the study and survey. The population may be of two types-

 Infinite population
 Finite population

Finite population may consist of individuals or items which are finite in numbers i.e. countable in numbers.

Eg- the total number of members in a family.

Whereas, a population is said to be infinite if it include infinitely large number of items and individual i.e. uncountable in
numbers.

Eg- the weight of new born babies is to be studied will be infinite because births in human races are infinite.

A sample is any portion of the population which are randomly selected for [Link]- if we select 10 diabetic patient from 100
patient then 10 patient will be a sample.

Sample - Sample is a small part representing universe and its salient features. It is worth-mentioning that the English word sample
has its origin in Latin word Exemplum.
Definition-
1) “A sample is that part of the universe which we select for the purpose of investigation.” –Simpson and Kafka
2) “A sample is that group of sampling units which is microcosm of the universe.”
- Ya-Lun-Chou
3) “A sample is a relatively small group scientifically chosen so as to represent the population.” – Norma Gilbert

Census and sample survey- all items in any field of enquiry constitute a universe or population. A complete enumeration of all
items in the population is known as census survey. It can be pre assumed that in such enquiry when all items are covered, no
element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.

When field studies are undertaken in practical life, consideration of time and cost lead to a selection of only few items. The
respondent selected should be representative of the total population and the selected respondents are called a sample and the
selection process is called sampling technique. The survey conducted is known as sample survey.

Sample design - a sample design is a definite plan from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample i.e the size of the sample. The sample design is determined before the
data are collected .there is many sample design from which a researcher can choose which should be reliable and appropriate for
his study.

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points-

 Types of universe/ population

 Sampling unit
 Source list/ sampling frame
 Size of the sample
 Parameters of interest
 Budgetary constraint
 Sampling procedure

Methods of Sampling

Sampling is a process of examining a representative number of items (people or things) out of the whole population
or universe. The reason for sampling is to gain an understanding about some feature or attribute of the whole population, based on
the measures of the sample. To find a good sample is often not easy. For example, we sample the fruit at the top of a basket we
may have no idea if there is a bad fruit in the middle or at the bottom of the basket. If we are studying college students’ attitudes
and we interview students on the steps of the School of technology, we may never encounter a business student. A sample
only provides an estimate of a population measure and accuracy of the estimate will depend on:
a) The right sizes for a sample, the larger the sample size the greater is the probability that the sample is representative of the
population.
b) Selecting the right sampling method so that the sample represents the population.
c) The extent of variability in the population.

Types of Sampling Designs/ methods of sampling/ sampling technique

There are different types of sample design based on two factors –

 The representation basis

 The element selection technique

On representation basis sample may be probability sampling or non probability sampling .

The diagrammatic representation of sampling design is as follows-

Sampling
Representation basis

Random sampling or Non random sampling

Probability sampling or Non probabilty
sampling

Simple
Random convenieance
Sampling sampling

Stratified random
sampling
judgement
sampling

Element cluster random

sampling
Selection
Quota sampling
technique
Systematic
random
sampling

Probability Sampling

It is also known as random sampling or chance sampling. Under this sampling design every item of the population has an
equal chance of being selected in the sample. Random sampling ensure the law of statistical regularity which states that if
on an average the sample chosen is a random one the sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the
population. This the reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative
sample. In brief the implications of random sampling are-

 It gives each element in the population and equal probability of getting in the sample.
 All choices are independent of one another.
Some of the random sampling methods are as follows-

1) Random Sample or Simple random Sampling-

In sample random sampling each and every unit of the population have an equal chance of being selected in the sample. A sample
is considered a simple random one, if its members are drawn in such a way that each observation of the universe has an equal
chance of being chosen.
Different methods for random sampling are lottery method, by rotating the drum, random numbers etc.

2) Systematic Random Sampling-

A systematic random sampling is formed by selecting one unit at random and then selecting one unit random and then
selecting additional unit at evenly spaced interval until the sample has been formed.

3) Stratified Random Sampling

Another random sampling technique is called stratified random sampling, in which we divide our population into groups and take
a selected sample size in each of the groups. This technique is used for two reasons:
i) it can lead to reduced sampling error;
ii) it ensures a large enough sample in each stratum (class) for study of the particular strata

4) Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling the population is divided into some known sub groups which are called clusters and then samples are
randomly drawn from each cluster. Cluster sampling is widely used for geographical studies. It is also known as sampling stages.

Non Probability Samples

These samples do not rely on the laws of probability for selection, but depend on the judgment of interviewers or their
supervisors. Some of the important methods of non random sampling are as follows:

1) Convenience sampling-
Convenience sampling is a type of non probability sampling that involves the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand. This type of sampling is most useful in pilot survey.
Judgment Sampling
Judgment sampling is done by an expert who is familiar with the population measures. He selects the units from the
population. The quality of judgment sample depends on the competence of the expert who selects the population units to
be sampled.

2) Quota Sampling-
Quota sampling attempt to ensure that the sample represents the characteristics of the population. The interviewer is free
to select anyone who meets the given specifications. He or she may choose in a non random fashion. We cannot
make good estimate of sampling error because we haven’t used a random sampling procedure. The method is cheap and
reasonably effective and in consequence is widely used.

Sample size and its determination

The sample size for the research is the total elements of the population to be included in the sample for conducting the
research study. The sample size of any research study is represented by ‘n’. The sample size must be an optimum i.e. it
should neither be large nor to be small. Size of the sample should be determined by a researcher keeping in view the
following points-

 Nature of population
 Number of groups
 Nature of study
 Types of sampling
 Standard of accuracy and acceptable of confidence level
 Availability of finance

There are two alternative approaches for determining the sample size-
 Determination of sample size ‘n’ when estimating the population mean.
 Determination of sample size ‘n’ when estimating the population proportion.

SAMPLING ERROR AND NON SAMPLING ERROR

The errors involve in the collection processing and analysis of data may be broadly classified into two categories-

 Sampling error
 Non- sampling error

Sampling error- Sampling error have their origin in sampling and arises due to the fact that only a part of the population i.e.
sample has been used to estimate population parameters and draw inferences about the population as such the sampling errors are
arises due to the following reasons-

 Faulty selection of the sample from the population.

 Wrong substitution
 Faulty classification of sampling unit
 Due to improper choice of statistic.

Non sampling error- it can occur at every stage of the planning. A careful investigation or examination of major phases of a
survey indicate that some of more important non sampling error arises from the following factors-

 Faulty planning
 Response error
 Due to biasness of interviewer
 Compiling error
 Publication error

Snowball sampling- Snowball sampling is where research participants recruit other participants for a test or study. It is used
where potential participants are hard to find. It’s called snowball sampling because (in theory) once you have the ball rolling, it
picks up more “snow” along the way and becomes larger and larger. Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling method. It
doesn’t have the probability involved, with say, simple random sampling (where the odds are the same for any particular
participant being chosen). Rather, the researchers used their own judgment to choose participants.

Snowball sampling consists of two steps:

1. Identify potential subjects in the population. Often, only one or two subjects can be found initially.
2. Ask those subjects to recruit other people (and then ask those people to recruit. Participants should be made aware that they
do not have to provide any other names).

These steps are repeated until the needed sample size is found.

Area sampling - Area sampling is a method of sampling used when no complete frame of reference is available. The total area
under investigation is divided into small sub-areas which are sampled at random or according to a restricted process (stratification
of sampling). Each of the chosen sub-areas is then fully inspected and enumerated, and may form the basis for further sampling if
desired.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

There are following characteristics of good sample design which are as follows-

 Free from bias

 True representative
 Accurate
 Good size
 Approachable
 Comprehensive
 Feasible
 Economical
 Goal oriented

UNIT-5
Processing of data--editing, coding, classification and tabulation

After collecting data, the method of converting raw data into meaningful statement; includes data processing, data analysis, and
data interpretation and presentation.

Editing data
Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity. Example: Data collected through questionnaire and schedules
may have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some questions may be left unanswered. Sometimes information
may be given in a form which needs reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting daily/monthly income in
annual income and so on. The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors are modified.

Coding of data

Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning numbers to the various categories of a variable to be used in data
analysis. Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a computer card. Coding is done on the basis of the instructions
given in the codebook. The code book gives a numerical code for each variable.

Data classification/distribution:

distribution of data as a form of classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a particular variable. There are four
types of distributions:

1. Frequency distribution
2. Percentage distribution
3. Cumulative distribution
4. Statistical distributions

Tabulation of data:

After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is accurate and categorized in a suitable form, the data are put
together in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other forms of statistical analysis.

Pie Charts

Pie charts, or circle graphs, are used extensively in statistics. These graphs appear often in newspapers and magazines. A pie
chart shows the relationship of the parts to the whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections (slices). Pie charts can be
constructed by using a hundreds disk or by using a circle. The hundreds disk is built on the concept that the whole of anything is
100%, while the circle is built on the concept that 360∘ is the whole of anything. Both methods of creating a pie chart are
acceptable, and both will produce the same result. The sections have different colors to enable an observer to clearly see the
differences in the sizes of the sections. The following example will first be done by using a hundreds disk and then by using a
circle.
Example
The Red Cross Blood Donor Clinic had a very successful morning collecting blood donations. Within 3 hours, people had made
donations, and the following is a table showing the blood types of the donations:

Blood Type A B O AB

Number of donors 7 5 9 4

Construct a pie chart to represent the data.

Solution:

Step 1: Determine the total number of donors: 7+5+9+4=25.

Step 2: Express each donor number as a percent of the whole by using the formula Percent=fn⋅100%, where f is the frequency
and n is the total number.
725⋅100%=28%525⋅100%=20%925⋅100%=36%425⋅100%=16%

Step 3: Use a hundreds disk and simply count the correct number for each blood type (1 line = 1 percent).

Step 4: Graph each section. Write the name and correct percentage inside the section. Color each section a different color.

Stem-and-Leaf Plots

In statistics, data is represented in tables, charts, and graphs. One disadvantage of representing data in these ways is that the actual
data values are often not retained. One way to ensure that the data values are kept intact is to graph the values in a stem-and-leaf
plot. A stem-and-leaf plot is a method of organizing the data that includes sorting the data and graphing it at the same time. This
type of graph uses a stem as the leading part of a data value and a leaf as the remaining part of the value. The result is a graph that
displays the sorted data in groups, or classes. A stem-and-leaf plot is used most when the number of data values is large.

Bar Graphs

The different types of graphs that have seen so far are plots to use with quantitative variables. A qualitative variable can be plotted
using a bar graph. A bar graph is a plot made of bars whose heights (vertical bars) or lengths (horizontal bars) represent the
frequencies of each category.

Example
Construct a bar graph to represent the depth of the Great Lakes:
Lake Superior – 1,333 ft.
Lake Michigan – 923 ft.
Lake Huron – 750 ft.
Lake Ontario – 802 ft.
Lake Erie – 210 ft.

Solution:
 Histogram

An extension of the bar graph is the histogram. A histogram is a type of vertical bar graph in which the bars represent grouped
continuous data. While there are similarities between a bar graph and a histogram, such as each bar being the same width, a
histogram has no spaces between the bars.

EXAMPLE

Construct a frequency distribution table with a bin size of 10 for the following data, which represents the ages of 30 lottery
winners:

38 41 29 33 40 74 66 45 60 55 25 52 54 61 46 51 59 57 66 62 32 47 65 50 39 22 35 72 77 49

Solution:

Step 1: Determine the range of the data by subtracting the smallest value from the largest value.
Range: 77−22=55

Step 2: Divide the range by the bin size to ensure that you have at least 5 groups of data. A histogram should have from 5 to 10
bins to make it meaningful: 5510=5.5≈6. Since you cannot have 0.5 of a bin, the result indicates that you will have at least 6 bins.

Step 3: Construct the table.

Bin Frequency

[20−30) 3

[30−40) 5

[40−50) 6

[50−60) 8

[60−70) 5

[70−80) 3

Step 4: Determine the sum of the frequency column to ensure that all the data has been grouped.
3+5+6+8+5+3=30
When data is grouped in a frequency distribution table, the actual data values are lost. The table indicates how many values are in
each group, but it doesn't show the actual values.
 One-way ANOVA

The one-way ANOVA is an extension of the independent two-sample t-test.

the independent samples t-test would have been enough although application of ANOVA would have also produced the same
result.

A One-Way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is a statistical technique by which we can test if three or more means are
equal. It tests if the value of a single variable differs significantly among three or more levels of a factor.

Advantages

One of the principle advantages of this technique is that the number of observations need not be the same in each group.

Additionally, layout of the design and statistical analysis is simple.

Assumptions

For the validity of the results, some assumptions have been checked to hold before the technique is applied. These are:
 Each level of the factor is applied to a sample. The population from which the sample was obtained must be normally
distributed.
 The samples must be independent.

 The variances of the population must be equal.

Procedure of one-way ANOVA

1. Set the null hypothesis- Ho: there is no difference among the sample means
2. Calculate the sum of observations of each samples i.e.∑x 1, ∑x2,…and find the square of observation and obtain their total
for each sample,i.e. .∑x12 , ∑x22,………
3. Calculate the correction factor- c.f. = T2/N. where T is total sum of all observation and N= number of all observations.
4. Calculate total sum of square (SST)= (∑x12 +∑x22+………) - C.F
5. Calculate sum of square between samples (SSB) = (∑x1 )2 /n1 + (∑x2)2/n2……… - C.F
6. Sum of square within sample (SSW) = SST – SSB
7. Now prepare the ANOVA table-

Source of variation Sum of Degree of Mean sum of F-test

square freedom square
Between sample SSB k-1 MSB F= MSB/MSW
Within sample SSW N-k MSW MSB>MSW
total SST N_-1 F = MSW/MSB, MSW>MSB
 8. Compare the calculated value of F test with the table value of F test at given degree of freedom with given level of
significance. If calculated value of F is greater than the table value of F test then hypothesis will be rejected other wise
accepted.

TWO WAY ANOVA

A Two-Way ANOVA is useful when we desire to compare the effect of multiple levels of two factors and we have multiple
observations at each level.

One-Way ANOVA compares three or more levels of one factor. But some experiments involve two factors each with multiple
levels in which case it is appropriate to use Two-Way ANOVA.

Procedure of Two-way ANOVA

1. Set the null hypothesis- Ho: At least two of the population means are unequal.
2. Calculate the sum of observations of each row and each column and their grand total T.
3. Calculate the correction factor- c.f. = T2/N. where T is total sum of all observation and N= number of all observations.
4. Calculate total sum of square (SST)= (∑x12 +∑x22+………) - C.F
5. Calculate sum of square between columns (SSC) = (∑x 1 )2 /n1 + (∑x2)2/n2……… - C. F, (n1, n2, --- are no. of observations in
a column)
6. Sum of square between rows (SSR)= (∑x1 )2 /n1 + (∑x2)2/n2……… - C. F (n1, n2, --- are no. of observations in a row)
7. Sum of square due to error SSE = SST- (SSC+SSR)
8. Now prepare the ANOVA table-

Source of variation Sum of Degree of Mean F-test

square freedom sum of
square
Between column SSC c-1 MSC F1= MSC/MSE,MSC>MSE
Between rows SSR r-1 MSR
Due to error SSE (c-1)X(r-1) MSE F 2 = MSR/MSE, MSR>MSE

Total SST cr-1

[Link] the calculated value of F test with the table value of F test at given degree of freedom with given level of
significance. If calculated value of F is greater than the table value of F test then hypothesis will be rejected otherwise
accepted.

Assumption

The assumptions in both versions remain the same - normality, independence and equality of variance.

Advantages

 An important advantage of this design is it is more efficient than its one-way counterpart. There are two assignable sources of
variation - age and gender in our example - and this helps to reduce error variation thereby making this design more efficient.

 Unlike One-Way ANOVA, it enables us to test the effect of two factors at the same time.
 One can also test for independence of the factors provided there are more than one observation in each cell. The only restriction
is that the number of observations in each cell has to be equal (there is no such restriction in case of one-way ANOVA).

INTERPRETATION OF THE GIVEN DATA

Interpretation of given data refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and experimental
study. The task of interpretation has major aspects-

 The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another.
 The establishment of some explanatory concepts.

Interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data and [Link] interpretation is the device through
which the factor that seems to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood
and it also provide a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further research.

REPORT WRITING-

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has
been presented and written.

STEPS

 Logical analysis of the subject matter.

 Preparation of the final outline.
 Preparation of the rough draft
 Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
 Preparation of the final bibliography
 Writing the final draft.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

preliminary pages
main text end report

table of content introduction quetionnaire

preface statement of findings and bibliography
acknowledgement recommendation annexure
results
implication of results
summary

TYPES OF REPORT:

types of report

technical report popular report

practical aspects
methods detailed emphasis of
assumption attractive layout and policies
employed presentation simplicity
implication