REPUBLIC OF RWANDA

KIGALI INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY (ULK)

P.O Box 2280
Website://[Link]
E-mail: ulk@[Link]

MODULE OF ADVANCED ENGLISH

Compiled by:

Mrs. Uwera Sauda (0788816215; saibratnur@[Link])

Mr Ndahayo Jacques (0788333978; jacquesndahayo98@[Link])
Dr Mugisho Ndabuli Theophile (mugishondabuli@[Link])

Academic year 2023-2024

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Practice and Confidence will help you master English.
1. Module code ………….. SCHOOL: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2. Module Title:. ADVANCED ENGLISH
[Link]: 1 Semester: 2 Credits:_ 12 __
4. First year of presentation: Administering Faculty:..... SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
5. Pre-requisite or co-requisite modules.
Year 1 semester 1 Communication Skills in English module

6. Allocation of study and teaching hours

Total student hours ____________ Student Staff

hours Hours
Lectures 35 45
Seminars/workshops 15 45
Practical classes/laboratory 10 -
Structured exercises 10 10
Set reading etc. 10 -------------
Self-directed study 10 -------------
Assignments – preparation and writing 15 10
Examination – revision and attendance 15 10
Other:
TOTAL 120 120

6.1 Brief description of aims and contents

This module is made of the following units: Grammatical theories, useful language expressions
and creative writing.
It focuses particularly on:
 How to use English language grammatically
 How to develop one’s speaking fluency in English
 How to read and write well in English

The general objective of this module is to help students sharpen their minds in English so as to be
able to compete locally, regionally and on a global scale using English as a medium of
communication.

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6.2. Learning Outcomes
1. Knowledge and Understanding
Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to demonstrate knowledge
and understanding of:
 Grammatical structures pertaining to English language,
 Reading well anything written in English
 Writing in different contexts as a way that leads to becoming creative writers
 Debating for conviction and providing constructive ideas

2. Cognitive/Intellectual skills/Application of Knowledge

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:
 analyse some grammatical structures
 know what is said and what is not said in English
 develop native-like accent of English
 speak both in formal and informal settings
 read for information, entertainment or any other purpose
 use English language figuratively

3. Communication /Analytic Techniques/Practical Skills

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:
 Prove a good command of English
 Give a hand to any person wishing to learn English
 Hold discussions in English while completing their assignments

4. General transferable skills

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:
 apply or implement communicative skills.
 participate and contribute to initiatives meant for promoting English language.
 help newly-registered students become familiar with English as a medium of instruction.
 advise and inform others about the invaluable importance of English in the world of
communication.

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 5. Indicative Contents:

UNIT I: ADVERB CLAUSES

UNIT II: REVISION OF THE USES OF ENGLISH TENSES

UNIT III: WORD FORMATION

UNIT IV: PHRASAL VERBS

UNIT V: IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS, PROVERBS&SAYINGS

UNIT VI: INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION

UNIT VII: ESSAY WRITING

UNIT VIII: COMMON MISTAKES IN ENGLISH

UNIT IX: APPLICATION LETTER WRITING

UNIT X: A CV WRITING

UNIT XI: MEMO WRITING

UNIT XII: MINUTES WRITING

UNIT XIII: CONVERSATIONS AND GROUP DISCUSSIONS

UNIT XIV: DEBATING

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6. Learning and Teaching Strategy

At the beginning, the teaching strategy is expositive but the main part of the course that follows is
essentially in active method. The lecturer will explain the contents of the course to the students in
order to acquaint them with enough skills and sensitize them to become real cadres of change for
better life at individual, family, community, national and international levels. Then at the end of
every chapter, students will make groups work, they will collectively discuss and answer the
questions prepared and written at the end of each chapter. Every group will present its assignment
and the lecturer will help them understand better. Face to face lectures, including discussions based
on examples that are intended to help students well understand will be encouraged.

7. Assessment Strategy

Learning outcomes will be evaluated gradually after each unit. An examination of duration of 2
hours will be prepared, and everyone is expected to sit for it. Their assignments and presentations
in groups will be marked too.

8. Assessment Pattern

Component Weighting (%) Learning objectives covered

Assignments 30 1, 2, 3
Partial Assessment Test 30 1, 2, 3
Final Assessment: 40 1, 2, 3, 4

9. Strategy for feedback and student support during module

The final test or examinations, presentations on structural exercises and assignments will be
marked. Students’ marks will be registered and made available on the web site of ULK.
Students’ marks will be copied on the transcripts that will be available to students.

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 10. Indicative Resources/ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

BURDETT, S (1990). World of Language. Burdett& Ginn Inc: USA.

COPPER, S.(1996). Writer’s Solutions. Prentice Hall: New Jersey.

HORR, J. N. (2006). What is a debate? Mahul Ed., New York, USA.

KADEGHE, M. (2005). Communication Skills, theory and practice. Afroplus Industries ltd: Dar
es Salaam.
MURPHY, R.(2000). English Grammar in Use. OUP: London.

PHILLIPS, S. (2002). Business letter for powerful

communication. Goodwill Publishing
House: Delhi.

SHIRLEY, H. J. (1985) . Houghton Mifflin English. Houghton

Mifflin Company: USA.

SASIKUMAR, V and DHAMIJA, P.V. (2004). Spoken English: A Self-Learning Guide to

Conversation [Link] McGraw Hill: New Dehli.

WEBB, B and GRANT, N(2010). English in Use. Pearson Education Limited: Edinburgh.

WREN, P. C. (2000). High School English Grammar Composition. Schand Company: New Delhi.

Online sources

[Link] Anglo-link’s online learning.

[Link] Holmwood’s English Grammmar Training.

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 Contents
Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 7
UNIT ONE: ADVERB CLAUSES ................................................................................................ 9
TYPES OF ADVERB CLAUSES .................................................................................................. 9
Adverb clauses can be of different types. Let us look at the most important of them. ............... 9
1. ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME ................................................................................................ 9
2. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE .............................................................................................. 10
3 ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONCESSION/OPPOSITION .......................................................... 10
4. ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONDITION .................................................................................... 10
5. ADVERB CLAUSE OF MANNER ......................................................................................... 11
6. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PURPOSE ......................................................................................... 11
7. ADVERB CLAUSE OF REASON .......................................................................................... 11
8. ADVERB CLAUSE OF RESULT/ CONSEQUENCE ............................................................ 11
9. ADVERB CLAUSE OF COMPARISON ................................................................................ 12
10. ADVERB CLAUSE OF EXTENT/ DEGREE ....................................................................... 12
UNIT TWO: REVISION OF THE USES OF ENGLISH TENSES............................................. 15
2.1 PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE................................................................................................... 15
2.2 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE ....................................................................................... 16
2.3 PAST SIMPLE TENSE .......................................................................................................... 17
2.4 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE .............................................................................................. 18
2.5 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE ................................................................................................ 18
2.6 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE ..................................................................... 19
2.7 PAST PERFECT TENSE ....................................................................................................... 19
2.8 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE ............................................................................ 20
2.9 SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE .................................................................................................... 20
2.10 BE GOING TO ..................................................................................................................... 21
2.11 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE ...................................................................................... 21
2.12 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE ............................................................................................... 21
2.13 FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE .................................................................... 21
UNIT THREE: WORD FORMATION ........................................................................................ 25
UNIT FOUR: PHRASAL VERBS ............................................................................................... 32
UNIT FIVE: IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS, PROVERBS & SAYINGS ................................... 40
5.1. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS ............................................................................................... 40
5. 2. PROVERBS & SAYINGS ................................................................................................. 44
UNIT SIX: INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION .............................................................. 54
6.1. WRITING SENTENCES....................................................................................................... 55
6.2 WRITING A PARAGRAPH .................................................................................................. 60
6.3 ESSAY WRITING.................................................................................................................. 63
UNIT SEVEN: LETTER WRITING ............................................................................................ 72
7.4 Things to consider when writing a friendly letter: ................................................................ 100
7.2 FORMAL LETTER .............................................................................................................. 107
UNIT EIGHT: CONVERSATIONS AND GROUP DISCUSSIONS ....................................... 112
UNIT NINE: DEBATING .......................................................................................................... 125

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INTRODUCTION

This module is the third stage for students in all faculties. It will enable follow and understand
what is being taught in their respective courses according to their departments, but above all help
them effectively speak English which is the medium of instruction at Kigali Independent
University.
Module three is therefore the continuation of the English Language course and it covers a number
of topics related to the courses which, if well understood, will make the students to understand
more and appreciate the value of the English language.

By the end of this module, the students will have gained a firm foundation, a strong mastery of the
language notions and increased their command of the English Language.

However, using this module in class without practicing what is taught and learnt will not help
anyone because Practice makes perfect; so goes the saying.

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 UNIT ONE: ADVERB CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. It forms part of a sentence. If
a clause makes complete sense in itself, it is called the main clause or the principle clause of that
sentence. If it is dependent on another clause to complete its meaning, it is called the subordinate
clause.

Example: We woke up when the bird chirped

Main clause Subordinate clause

Remember that the word or words that join a subordinate clause with the principal clause are
called subordinating conjunction.
There are three types of subordinate clauses: Noun clauses, adjective clauses and adverb clauses.
Let us learn in details about adverb clauses.

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that does the work of an adverb in a sentence.

Example:

I left before he came.

Adverb clause

TYPES OF ADVERB CLAUSES

Adverb clauses can be of different types. Let us look at the most important of them.

1. 1. ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME

An adverb clause of time indicates the time of an event and is introduced by a conjunction such as
after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, the minute, the moment, till, until, when, whenever,
while, whilst, no sooner…than, etc.

Examples:
 Virginia left after the meal was over.
 Conso arrived as I was leaving.
 Once I recognized him, I spoke to him.
 I recognized him the minute I saw him.
 We won’t know until he comes back from London.
 The thief ran away when he saw the police.
 Wait here until/till I come back.
 Strike while the iron is hot.

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 1. 2. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE

An adverb clause of place indicates the location of an event and is introduced by a conjunction
such as where, wherever or everywhere, etc.

Examples:

 They left it where they found it.

 Wherever I went I saw signs of poverty.
 You may go wherever you like.
 Everywhere she goes she causes trouble.

1. 3. ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONCESSION/OPPOSITION

An adverb clause of concession contains a fact that contrasts in some way with the main clause
and is introduced by a conjunction such as although, even though, even if, though, whereas,
while, whilst, however, whatever, etc.

Examples:

 I have to admire his speech although I disagree with what he said.

 He does his best at school work even though he is not very good at it.
 Whilst I myself do not like him I can understand why he is popular.
 However hard you work, you won’t succeed.
 Though I study hard, I do not succeed.
 We do not study, yet we succeed well.
 Whatever rich you may be, you must rely on others.
 GANZA is writing to his father while the other students are following the teacher.

1. 4. ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONDITION

An adverb clause of condition deals with possible situations and is introduced by the conjunctions
if, only if, unless, as long as, provided (that), providing (that), on condition that, etc.

Examples:

 If you had kept quiet they would not have known about the event.
 We cannot go unless we get permission.
 Unless you study hard, you will fail.
 They can leave only if they have finished their work.
 Provided he is feeling better he can leave hospital.

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Note that inversion can be used in such clauses instead of a conjunction, as in:
 Have you been present you would have been most amused.
 Had he any sense he would leave now.

1. 5. ADVERB CLAUSE OF MANNER

An adverb clause of manner describes the way that someone behaves or the way in which
something is done, and is introduced by a conjunction such as, as, as if, as though, like, in the
way that, etc.

Examples:

 Why does he behave as he does?

 He slurred his speech as though he were drunk.
 He looked at her as if he hated her.
 Don’t talk to children as if you would talk to adults.

1. 6. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PURPOSE

An adverb clause of purpose indicates the intention someone has when doing something and is
introduced by a conjunction such as so that, in order that, so as to, lest, etc.

Examples:

 They started to run so as not to get there late.

 The firm reduced the number of staff in order that they might avoid bankruptcy.
 I bought a pen so that I could use it.

1. 7. ADVERB CLAUSE OF REASON

An adverb clause of reason explains why something happens or is done and is introduced by a
conjunction such as because, since, as, that, etc.

Examples:

 We did not go because the car broke down.

 As it was raining we had the party indoors.
 Since he has broken the school rules he should be punished.
 As there was no water, we drank tea.
 Since there is no water, please drink tea.
1. 8. ADVERB CLAUSE OF RESULT/ CONSEQUENCE

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An adverb clause of result indicates the result or consequence of an event or situation and is
introduced by the conjunctions so, that, so that, so…that, such…that, etc.

Examples:

 I was so pleased that you have passed.

 He fell awkwardly so that he broke his leg.
 She stumbled over her words so that the audience had difficulty understanding her.
 The rain was so heavy that it damaged plants.
 He was such a bad man that he killed all people he met.

1. 9. ADVERB CLAUSE OF COMPARISON

An adverb clause of comparison is introduced by than or as, etc.

Examples:

 He is not so stupid as he looks.

 He speaks much better than he writes.
 Sylvia is older than he looks.
 I am not so clever as you think.

1. 10. ADVERB CLAUSE OF EXTENT/ DEGREE

An adverb clause of extent or degree indicates the degree to which an action is done. It is
introduced by the subordinate conjunctions as or the…..the.

Examples:
They tried as much as they could.
The more you have, the more you want

PRACTICE

I. Complete the sentences below with the appropriate subordinators.

(a) We will have to wait ….. the rain stops.
(b) They ran ……. a wild dog were after them.
(c) The police knocked on the door, …. the thief did not answer.
(d) …. you know where he lives, why don’t you show me his house?
(e) Father gave me some money …… I could buy a book.
(f) …….. intelligent you may be, you must study your lessons.
(g) ……..hard she works, she won’t pass the exam.
( h) ……. some people say that industry should be developed, others insist on the importance
of agriculture.
(i) He was interested in learning English only ….. it would be useful.

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 (j) They earned ….. low wages in town …. they preferred to return to
their village.

(k) ………they are honest, starving people may be tempted to steal.

(l) ………..good your reasons are, you shouldn’t have beaten that kid.
(m) The beggar acted……..he were blind.
(n) We stayed indoors………it cleared up.
(o) You will not succeed………….you work hard.

II. Combine the following pairs of statements with the appropriate subordinators.
(a) He was very sick. He could not take the exam.
(b) I was studying my history lesson. At the same time my friend was making a noise outside.
(c) It was very disturbing. I asked them to stop.
(d) They heard me. They did not stop making a noise.
(e) I could say something. They laughed at me.
(f) They saw the headmaster coming with me. They stopped making a noise immediately.

III. Rewrite the sentences below using the words given between brackets. Do not change the
meaning.

1) You won’t meet the company boss if John doesn’t help you. (Unless)
2) They had to work harder because the company was to reward the best workers. ( As)
3) Oliver Khan was a fantastic goalkeeper. He could stop any striker.(Such…that)
4) The bus in question is very small. It cannot transport 5tonnes.(Because)
5) You are very intelligent. You should also prepare for your exam. (Whatever)

Reading Text: Fight for orphans’ rights

Lucy was an orphan. She did have a father and a mother. They had died two years back. Lucy lived
with her aunt in Ngoma. Lucy was a beautiful and a hardworking girl. She was obedient and polite
too. She did everything she was told to do. She did it as well as she could.
Sadly, Lucy’s aunt was very cruel to the small girl. She beat Lucy and shouted at her. “Lucy, sweep
the floor! Lucy, fetch water! Lucy, wash the dishes!” As Lucy worked, her aunt’s children played
outside. They skipped and jumped happily. Lucy did not go to school. Her aunt said that she had
to stay at home and do all the house work. “May I go to school, auntie?” she begged. “Go to
school?” her aunt screamed. “That is a foolish thing to say! Who will do the work in the house?”
Lucy said nothing. She started crying. Her aunt picked a leather belt and beat her hard. Lucy
screamed in pain. Her aunt continued to beat her. “Please don’t beat me!” Lucy begged her aunt.
She continued beating and shouting at her.

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Finally, the neighbours who had heard Lucy crying everyday came. With them was a government
officer. “I have been told that you are always beating this girl,” the chief said. “You make her do
all the work in the house. She doesn’t even go to school. It is your responsibility to take care of
her. You should be kind to her.” The officer took away Lucy’s aunt in a vehicle. Lucy was taken
to a good school. It was also a home with many children like her. They played together and learnt
many things. They ate and slept in the school.
At last, Lucy was a happy girl. She always got very high marks in school work. All the teachers
were happy with her.

I. Comprehension questions/10marks
1. Where did Lucy live?
2. According to you, why do you think Lucy is mistreated?
3. Write down three jobs that Lucy did in the house.
4. What did Lucy’s aunt beat Lucy with?
5. If you were Lucy’s aunt, how would you help her?

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UNIT TWO: REVISION OF THE USES OF ENGLISH TENSES

2.1 PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

The present simple tense is mainly used:
To express a habitual action, as in:
 I drink tea every morning, before going to work.
 Peter gets up every day at five o’clock.
 My watch keeps good time.
 I always listen to news on the BBC.
To express general truths/facts ( situations that do not change); as in:
 The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
 Water boils at 1000c.
 The earth revolves around the sun.
 Jill never eats breakfast.

To express a fact that exists at the time of speaking as in:

Sugar costs $ 2 a kilo.
To talk about events actually going on (as in running commentary), as:
John takes the ball, passes it to Peter, Claude intercepts, turns left, shoots and scores.
To talk about past event in a vivid or dramatic manner ( historical present), as
in:
The Tortoise takes an axe, parts it in the path leading to the forest, hides in the bush and
waits for the seven girls to pass by.
To talk about a planned action in the near future, as in:
 The match starts at 3:00 p.m.
 I leave for Kigali tomorrow early morning.

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2.2 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
This is used:
For an action going on at the moment of speaking as:
 Peter is teaching (now).
 The weather is getting colder.
 We are learning English.
For an action in progress but not necessarily at the moment of speaking, as:
 I am writing a book. (but I am not writing at this moment).
 John is building a house in Kigali city.
 Town is writing a dissertation.
For an action (especially fixed personal arrangements) that has already been
arranged to take place in the near future, as:
 H.E Paul Kagame is visiting Gisenyi town tomorrow.
 Uncle Bernand is leaving for Kenya next week.
 Marry and Peter are wedding on Friday.
With always, continually, constantly, regularly,……to express a repeated action that is
irritating to the speaker, as:
 UMWALI is always crying.
 My grandmother is always complaining.
 These kids are constantly quarrelling.

Note :
A number of verbs are not normally used in the progressive form (i.e. pres. Const. tense…)
1. Verbs of perception: see, hear, smell, recognize, taste, notice,…
2. Verbs expressing feelings or states of mind: want, desire, refuse, wish, forgive, care, hate,
like, love, admire, feel, hope, prefer,…
3. Verbs of thinking: think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, trust, remember, forget, know,
under stand, imagine, mean, mind, …
4. Verbs denoting possession : have, own, owe, belong, possess,…
5. Verbs such as : contain, consist, keep, cost, seem, …

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 Note, however, that some of the verbs listed above can be used in the progressive form, but
with a change of meaning.
So, you can say, for example:
1. I am having lunch ( I am eating lunch).
Here, the verb ‘have’ does not mean ‘possess own’, as in : I have a car.
2. I am thinking about it ( My mind is working at that moment).
Here, the verb ‘think’ does not mean ‘It is my opinion’ as in:
I think John is right.

3. He is seeing to his bicycle ( He is attending to his bicycle).

Here, the verb ‘see’ does not mean ‘notice’ with yes’, as in: I can see the teacher.
4. They are looking at the teacher.( They are directing their eyes towards the teacher).
Here, the verb, ‘look’ does not mean the expression of face / eyes, as in:
 Alice looks sad.
 He looks like a policeman.

2.3 PAST SIMPLE TENSE

This is used:
To indicate an action completed at a particular time in the past. It often occurs with
adverbs or adverb phrases of past time (e.g. yesterday, last week, last month, a week
ago, …) , as :
 Ann left for Kenya yesterday.
 I received his letter a week ago.
 Ann left for Kenya yesterday.
 Why did she drop out of school?
 Did you meet him on your way to school this morning?
 I learnt English in Uganda.

To indicate an action in the past (which occurred during a period of time) which is
now ended, as:
 I taught English at Rwankeri Secondary school for one year.
 Peter worked for this company for 10 years.

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2.4 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
This is used:
For actions is progress at a certain time in the past, as in:
Speaker 1: What were you doing at 4 p.m. yesterday?
Speaker 2: I was walking home/I was watching television/ I was reading a very
interesting
novel.
For an action in progress when another past action began, as in:
- We were having lunch when the telephone rang.
- The thief was looking in the cupboard when the door suddenly opened.
- While I was crossing the road I noticed a crowd in the distance.
- The engine failed when we were approaching the airport.
For two actions in progress at the same time in the past, as in:
- While I was preparing for my exam, John was playing cards.
- Tom was just watching television when we were driving back home.

2.5 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

This is used:
For actions with no definite past time reference, as:
 I’ve been to Hong Kong.
 Have you ever been to Japan?
 Have you ever read « Gulliver’s Travels’?
For actions in the immediate past with just, as:
 I’ve just spoken to Mr. Smith.
 Peter has just left.
With never, ever, already, yet, so far,…., as:
 Have you ever been to America?
 I have already finished my homework.
 They haven’t finished yet.

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 To denote a state or situation that began at some time in the past and continues up
to the present moment (often used with since-and for-phrases), as:
 I have known Peter for 4 years.
 He has been ill for a long time.
 I have not seen him since last year.

2.6 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

This is used:
To indicate an action that began in the past and is still in progress.
e.g. The baby has been sleeping for 2 hours (and is still sleeping).
I have been working for this company since 2006.
Steve has been waiting for you for hours.
They have been building this bridge for several months.

To indicate an action that was in progress in the past and has just finished.
e.g. 1 A: Why are your hands so dirty?
B: I’ve been working in the garden.
2 A: Why are you out of breath?
B: Eeeh, I’ve been jogging.
3 A: But your clothes are all wet!
B: I’ve been watering the garden.

2.7 PAST PERFECT TENSE

This tense is mainly used to indicate an action in the past which happened before another
action in the past, as:
 When we arrived at the station, the bus had just left.
 I had completed my work when Aloys came to see me.
 Before he arrived, I had written the letter.

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 2.8 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
This tense is mainly used to say how long something had been happening before something
else happened, as in:
- When you paid me a visit in 2002, I had been studying at the NUR for 2 years.
- We had been watching the football match for 20 minutes when it began to rain.
Note also another use through these example sentences:
- Paul was out of breath. He had been running.
- The sun was shining, but the ground was very wet. It had been raining.

2.9 SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

This is mainly used:
With if-clauses to indicate an action that is likely to happen, as:
If I have time, I will pay you a visit.
If it doesn’t rain tonight, we’ll play tennis.
When we decide to do something at the moment of speaking, as in:
Ali: My radio has broken down. Can you repair it for me?
Bin: Okay, but I can’t do it now. I’ll repair it tomorrow.
Note:
If we have already decided to do something, we use present continuous tense or going
to.
Ali’s mother: Can you repair my son’s radio? It has broken down.
Bin: Yes, I know. He told me. I’m going to repair tomorrow.

To talk about things that we cannot control. It expresses the future as a fact, as in:
I shall be 35 in November.
Summer will start next month.
Ali will be 24 next birthday
To talk about what we think will happen in the future (predicting future
happening), as in:
I think Rayon-sport will win the match
I expect/hope/suppose Peter will join us.
He will probably assist us.

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2.10 BE GOING TO
Be going to form is used:
(a) For an action in the future that has already been planned by the speaker, as in:
I’m going to call Dan after lunch.
(b) For something that is certain to happen in the future, as in:
I know he is going to invite me.

2.11 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE

This tense is mainly used:
To indicate an action that will be in progress at a certain time in the future, as in:
 This time tomorrow, I’ll be having a good time at Serena Hotel Beach.
 I suppose it will be raining when we reach Kigali.
 “What will you be doing this time next week?” “We’ll be debating.”
 To talk about things which are already planned or decided, as in:
 I’ll be going to the city center in the afternoon. Can I get you anything? (With this meaning
will be going is similar to am going.)
 “Will you be using your bicycle this evening?” “No, you can take it.”

2.12 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

This is mainly used to say that something will already have happened before a certain time
in the future, as:
 He will have left before you reach the office.
 We’re late. I expect the film will already have started by the time we get to the cinema.
 For sure, I will have finished my exercise by then (i.e. when you come to pick me)

2.13 FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

This is mainly used to talk about an action that will be in progress over a period of time
that will end in the future, as:
 Next month, you’ll have been studying at ULK for 4 months.
 I’ll have been teaching here for 8 years in March.

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 PRACTICE EXERCISES
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form as required by the context:
1. Listen to those people. What language………………………(they/speak)?
2. Mary………………..(probably/help) us.
3. I needed money. So we………….(sell) our car.
4. How many languages…………………….(your father/speak)?
5. How long……………………(you/be) a university student?
6. We missed the bus yesterday! When we arrived at the station, it………(just/leave).
7. The sky is dark and cloudy. It………………………(rain).
8. She…………………(write) that novel before she became ill.
9. You look tired! …………………(you/work) hard?
10. Peter lives nearby, but he seldom…………….(visit) us.
11. Where………………………..(you/go) when you had an accident?
12. She………………………..(play) tennis since she was six.
13. The house was very quiet when I got home. Everybody ………..(go) to bed.
14. We……………………….(play) tennis for half an hour when there was a terrible storm.
15. A: The match begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.15.
B: That is, at 8.30 we……………………..(watch) it.
16. We………………………(wait) for no reason if our lecturer does not come.
17. Jim was leaning against the wall, out of breath. He………………(run).
18. It’s been decided. I……………………(wed) next week.
19. By the time you come back to work, I ………………….(type) the letter.
20. I ……………(visit) many African cities.
[Link] already (cover) your studies?
22. Daddy (leave) for the city many years ago.
23. Our lecturer told us that blood (be) red.
24. There is no doubt, the Prime Minister (visit) our campus tomorrow.
25. This time next week, we (decide) on the future of our oil plant.

II. Fill in these sentences with the correct past forms of the verbs in brackets

1. My father....................when the thieves ................ (leave, attack)

2. The shopkeeper....................his shop early yesterday. (close)
3. The leather jacket he................ at Aunt Teta’s shop......................him fifteen thousand
francs.(buy, cost)

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 4. I…………..from KIU in 2006 and later in 2000 I……….for the UK postgraduate studies
(graduate, leave)
5.I………………my assignment while my room-mate…………..TV. (do, watch)

Reading text: People in America

Every week at this time we tell you about people, all sorts of people of the past or living today:
writers, artists, scientists or leaders in governments or industry. Today, we bring you the fifth and
last part of the story of Thomas Arthur Edison, scientist and inventor who gave the world the
electric light and many other useful things. Last week, we told you about Edison’s success in
developing electric light; we’ll now tell you about the last years of his life. Here are Henry Monroe
and George Michener with our program.
Electric power brought great changes to the United States in the 1900. Because of this power, the
nation began to look different. Electricity began to turn the great motors of American factories.
Electric cars carried people up and down buildings that were being built higher and higher.
American cities began to build fast moving electric street cars and underground railways and at
night Thomas Edison’s electric lamps made the cities beautifully bright. Everywhere people felt
that Edison was the leader in bringing this power to the United States. He was honoured and loved
by the American people. Men were interested in Edison’s ideas on everything and Edison was glad
to tell people what he thought about all things. In 1914 after the start of the first world war, the
United States government feared that it might later be pushed into the war. President Wilson
decided to organize a group of scientists and inventors to advise the America’s military forces.
He named Thomas Edison to lead the group. Edison made many important scientific proposals:
one was later used in successfully fighting German submarines, but his most important proposal
was to start a naval science laboratory. And the time came when such a study laboratory was
organized. This laboratory proved valuable in getting the United States ready for the world war
two. In 1918, when the WW1 ended, Edison was 71 years old. He was still working 16 hours a
day, mostly in the development of batteries and in the making of phonographs and other machines.
But time was passing, new ideas and new uses of electric power were making some of Edison’s
inventions old and less useful. The electric phonograph was developed and the radio receiver. In
1926, Edison decided to stop manufacturing any more things. He was 80 years old at this time and
he went to Florida to spend his last days in the garden of his home. But he was a man who could
not rest. He started a botanical laboratory and began to work with plants. He hoped that he might
create something that could be used in place of rubber. This is how Edison’s wife remembered
these days: ‘everything turned to rubber in the family. We talked rubber, thought rubber, dreamed
rubber. Mr Edison would not let us do anything else. After 1929, life began to change for Thomas
Edison. He was now 82 years old and he began to feel the weight of his years. He started getting
sick and his hearing even got worse so that now he could hear nothing. He was weak and could do
little work but the nation continued to honor him. In 1928, Congress gave him the nation’s highest
prize, the medal of honor. The nation, in 1929, celebrated the 50th birthday of Edison’s first electric
lamp. The ceremony was called the golden jubilee of the light. Political leaders and industrialists

23
lead the celebration. Among them was President Herbert Hoover and scientists from all parts of
the world, including Mme Eva Curie, the discoverer of radium, came to the United States to join
in honoring Thomas Edison. President Hoover spoke the feelings of all Americans. His words of
praise for Thomas Edison were simple ones. He said that he thought his only right for the president
for the United Nations to join in honoring the great American. He said Mr Edison had brought
light where before there was darkness, that he brought great honor to the United States in all parts
of the world, that he brought great good to all men. The excitement was too much for Thomas
Edison.

Comprehension questions
1. Write the names of the presenters of this programme?
2. What is the programme about?
3. Do you think electric power brought difference in the United States? If yes, give reasons.
4. Who invented the first electric light?

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UNIT THREE: WORD FORMATION

This lesson deals with some of the common processes of word formation in English. Many
words are formed from combinations of words and prefixes or suffixes. It is often easy to see
a connection between the meanings of its parts. So if you find a new word, you may be able to
guess what it means.
Prefixes are additions made at the beginning of words.
e.g. Un- (‘not’) + clear = unclear (‘not clear’).
Suffixes are additions made at the end of words.
e.g. green + -ish ( ‘slightly’ or ‘ rather’) = greenish
(‘Slightly green’).
Now let us look at some common types of prefixes and suffixes.
1. Prefixes
The following prefixes can be used in front of many words to produce an opposite meaning.
 Un-
Happy - unhappy block – unblock expected – unexpected
Fortunate – unfortunate lock – unlock fair – unfair
Kind – unkind selfish – unselfish friendly – unfriendly
Wind – unwind faithful - unfaithful satisfied – unsatisfied

e.g. I’m not happy. I’m, in fact, very unhappy.

 In-; im-; il-; ir-
Efficient – inefficient Regular – irregular Relevant – irrelevant
Possible – impossible Security – insecurity Effective – Ineffective
Literate – illiterate Responsible – irresponsible Mature - Immature

e.g. It’s not possible to do that, it’s impossible.

 Dis-
Agree - disagree Obey – disobey Regard – disregard
Approve – disapprove Honest – dishonest Like – dislike

25
e.g. I don’t agree with everything you said. I disagree with the last point.
 De –
Centralize - decentralize Ascend – descend
Increase – decrease Inflate – deflate

e.g. Increase means to make or become larger in account or number.

Decrease means to make or become small in account or number.

 Non -
Sense - nonsense Resident - non-resident
Payment - non-payment Conformist - non-conformist

e.g. This hotel serves meals to residents (= people who are staying in the hotel) only.
Non – residents are not allowed in.
2. Suffixes
a. English suffixes of nouns
 Denoting agent or doer
- er ( -ar, -or)
Teach – Teacher Visit – visitor Sail – sailor
Beg – beggar Act – actor Preach – preacher

e.g. Paul is a teacher. He teaches Biology.

 Denoting state, action, condition, etc.
- dom
Free – freedom King – Kingdom Wise – wisdom

e.g. King Salomon was praised for his wisdom.

- hood
Child – childhood Brother – brotherhood
Neighbour – neighbourhood Girl – girlhood

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e.g. She lived in London during her girlhood.
- ness
Good – goodness Sweet – sweetness Sad – sadness
Happy – happiness Kind – kindness Shy – shyness

e.g. Is money source of happiness ?

- ship
Friend – friendship Hard – hardship
Lord – Lordship Lead – leadership

e.g . Acquaintance leads to friendship.

- th
Grow – growth Strong – strength
Long – length Wide – width

e.g. Calcium is needed for body strength.

b. English suffixes of adjectives

- en ( = made of)
Wood - wooden Earth – earthen
Gold – golden Wool – woolen

e.g. The hut had an earthen floor and a thatched roof.

- ful ( = full of)
hope – hopeful care – careful
joy – joyful fruit – Fruitful

e.g. Be fruitful and multiply, god said to Adam and Eve (Gen.1: 28).
He made fruitful efforts.
- less (= without, free from)

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 Care – careless Fruit – fruitless Meaning – meaningless
fear – fearless Hope – hopeless Father – Fatherless

e.g. All diplomatic attempts at a peaceful solution to the crisis have been fruitless.
In my opinion, the homeless should be assisted.

- y (=like the stated thing,….)

rain – rainy sun – sunny cheese – cheesy
wind – windy ink – inky brain – brainy

e.g. The sunny weather is likely to continue until May

- ish (= somewhat like)

red – reddish girl – girlish child – childish

e.g. Murego eyes are girlish.

C. English suffixes of verbs.

- en (= causative)
sad – sadden glad – gladden long – lengthen
weak – weaken wide – widen strong – strengthen
broad – broaden sweet – sweeten sharp – sharpen

e.g This news gladdens my heart.

- ize
Modern – modernize Legal – legalize American – Americanize
Central – centralize Popular – popularize Final – finalize
e.g. Payment of bills are now centralized (= organized at one place instead of several)..

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-fy
pure – purify beauty – beautify
glory – glorify simple – simplify

e.g. I’m going to beautify myself- it should only take a few hours.

d. English suffixes of adverbs.

-ly (-like)
wise – wisely
e.g. Peter speaks wisely.
- ward (= towards )
home – homeward on – onward land – landward
north – northward back – backward

e.g. At last we’re walking homeward

At last, to our joy we were sailing landward.
Move onward / backward three squares.
Points to remember
 A number of words are formed by making some change in the of the simple words.
Verbs Nouns Nouns Verbs
Advise Advice Bath Bathe
Choose Choice Belief Believe
Grieve Grief Blood Bleed
Live Life Breath Breathe
Lose Loss Cloth Clothe
Prove Prof Food Feed
Sing Song Grass Graze
Practise Practice Glass Glaze
Tale Tell Half Halve

Thief Thieve Price Prize

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  A number of verbs are formed by using the prefix en-in front of words.
e.g. able - enable
title - entitle
courage - encourage

PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Complete the table below with the missing words:

Verb Noun Adjective

Renewable
Modern
Forgive
Courage
Able
Strength

2. Add suffixes to the words in brackets and use them to fill in the gaps.
i) They have had a very ……………..winter this year. (snow)
ii) My boy-friend always provides me with………..advice. (value)
iii) This product is known to be……………..to people with asthma. (harm)
iv) She was depressed and felt………..about the future. (hope)
v) Do not rush him! Let him do it…………..(slow).
Reading Text: The magic calabash: Part 1

Once upon the time, an old widow lived in the forest with her two children. Her own daughter
known by the name of Tunde and her step-daughter whose name was Ayo. She loved Tunde very
much, but she did not love Ayo at all. So Ayo did the housework while Tunde went out dancing
every night.
One day the widow filled a calabash full of clothes and told Ayo to take them to the stream and
wash them. While she was there a bright bird flew out of the trees. Ayo stared at it and did not
notice that the river had carried her calabash away. She ran along the river asking people if they
had seen her calabash. But nobody had seen it so far.
Late that night poor Ayo went to sleep under a tree. In a dream, she saw the same bright bird who
said: ‘At the end of this path lives a witch. If you do what she tells you, she’ll give you a new
calabash.’ The following morning Ayo found the witch sitting outside her hut. ‘Go away.’ She
said. I don’t want to see anybody. My legs hurts.’
Ayo asked her if she could help her. ‘Yes, said the witch, ‘pound what you see in my mortar.’ Ayo
started pounding, but it was soon full of stones! ‘I’m wasting my time.’ She thought. But soon the
stones turned into soft white rice. ‘Now’, said the witch, ‘I want you to get some water in that

30
sieve.’ ‘ Water in a sieve!’ thought Ayo. But although she thought it was impossible, she poured
some water into the sieve and it did not run out.
‘Good’, said the old woman. ‘Now, I want you to change the bandages on my leg.’ Ayo looked at
the dirty smelly bandages on the old woman’s leg. She was nearly sick when she carefully
unwrapped them, she found there was nothing wrong with the witch’s leg.
You’re a kind girl, ‘said the witch. ‘Go down the stream and take a calabash. But be careful! Don’t
take a big one.’ Ayo went down to the stream and found the calabashes. The large ones shouted:
‘Take me, take me!’ The little ones ran away crying: ‘don’t take me! Don’t take me!’ She picked
the smallest calabash she could find and ran home with it.

Find the answer from the text above to each of questions below
1. Whom did the old witch live with?
2. How did she consider both children?
3. Why was Tunde freer than Ayo?
4. Why did Tunde have enough time to go dancing?
5. Where did Ayo take the clothes to, and for which reason?
6. What did Ayo see at the river?
7. What happened to Ayo’s calabash?
8. Which word in the text that means:
a. A woman whose husband has passed away?
b. A child of your partner, wife or husband?
c. A woman who is a sorcerer?
9. Which difference is there between housework and homework?
10. Was Ayo wise to pound what she was given in the mortar? Explain your answer.
11. Do you think Ayo was given a basic good education? Say why.
12. Why were the calabashes at the river speaking?
13. Which title can you give to this text?
14. Do you think there is something good or bad in the calabash that Ayo has picked? Give
your view.

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 UNIT FOUR: PHRASAL VERBS

Read the following dialogue:

Lucie: Did you turn the radio off at home, Vandric?
Vandric: I think I did. Yes, I turned it off before I put my coat on.
Lucie: And did you turn off the electric fire?
Vandric: Oh dear, I don’t know. Let me turn the car round. Let’s go back and look.
Lucie: No, hold on. I remember now, I turned it off myself. Yes, I’m sure I did. So, let’s carry
on.
Turn off, put on, turn around, hold on & carry on are examples of phrasal verbs.

What is a phrasal verb?

A phrasal verb is a usually simple verb that combines with a preposition or adverb, or both, to
convey a meaning more than the sum of its parts.
e.g. Do not let me down= Do not disappoint me
Paul usually looks down on illiterate people= Paul usually disregards illiterate people.

Here is a list of the most common phrasal verbs

1. To abide by something: to comply with something, to accept and obey something

e.g. Students must abide by the university rules and regulations.
2. To back someone up: support
e.g. My wife backed me up over my decision to quit my job.
3. To break down: stop functioning (vehicle, machine, …)
e.g. The car broke down at the weekend.
4. To break up: end a relationship
e.g. My girlfriend and I broke up before I moved to America.
5. To bring up: raise in family
e.g. My grandfather brought me up after my parents had died.
Note that ‘ to bring up’ can also mean ‘to start talking about something’, as in: My mother
walks out the room when my father brings up sports.
6. To call back: phone again
e.g. Could you call back tomorrow, please?
7. To call off: cancel
e.g. They have called off the strive.
8. To call up: phone
e.g. Let’s call daddy up and ask him for advice.
9. To calm down: relax after being angry
e.g. You are still mad. You need to calm down before you drive a car.
10. To carry on: To continue.
e.g. Are you going to carry on studying German?
11. To cheer up: Become happier.

32
e.g. She cheered up when she heard the good news.

12. To cheer someone up: Make someone happier.

e.g. I brought you some flowers to cheer you up.
13. To clean something up: Tidy, clean.
e.g. Please clean up your bedroom.
14. To clear up: stop raining
e.g. I’ll come to see you if it clears up.
15. To come across: Find unexpectedly.
e.g. I came across these old photos when I was tidying the closet.
16. To count on: rely on.
e.g. I am counting on you to make dinner while I am out.
17. To come back: to return.
e.g. Peter’s leaving tomorrow and coming back on Sunday.
18. To cut back on something/ To cut down on sth: to consume less
e.g. My doctor wants me to cut back on sweets and fatty foods.
19. To cut down: reduce
e.g. The company has cut down its cost/expenditures by employing a fewer workers.
20. To do something over: To do something again
e.g. My teacher wants me to do my essay over because she doesn’t like my topic.
21. To dress up: wear nice clothing
e.g. Let us dress up and go to the party.
22. To drop in/by/over: Come without an appointment.
e.g. I might drop in/by/over for tea sometime this week.
23. To drop out: quit a class, school, etc
e.g. I dropped out of science because it was too difficulty.
24. To eat out: eat at a restaurant.
e.g. I don’t feel like cooking tonight. Let’s eat out.
25. To end up: eventually reach/do/decide.
e.g. We ended up renting a movie instead of going to the theatre.
26. To fall down: Fall to the ground.
e.g. The picture that you hung up last night fell down this morning.
27. To fall out: Separate from an interior.
e.g. The money must have fallen out of my pocket.
28. To figure out: understand, find the answer, imagine.
e.g. I need to figure out how to fit the piano and the bookshelf in this room.
29. To fill in/ out: to complete/to write information in blanks.
e.g. The form must be filled in/out in capital letter.
30. To find out: Discover
e.g. We tried to keep the time of the party a secret, but Samantha found it out.
31. To get along/on: Like each other.
e.g. I was surprised how well my new girlfriend and my sister got along/on.
32. To get away: to go on a vacation.
e.g. We worked so hard this year that we had to get away for a week.
33. To get back: to return.
e.g. We got back from our vacation last week.

33
34. To get something back: receive something you had before.
e.g. Liz finally got her science notes back from my room-mate.
35. To get off: To leave the bus.
e.g. You get off at the end of Gass Street.
36. To get on with someone: To agree, work well together.
e.g. I get on well with my boss.
37. To get over: to recover.
e.g. I had an operation, but I am getting over it now.
38. To get through: to make a successful telephone call.
e.g. Did you get through.
39. To get together: to meet (usually for social reasons)
e.g. Let us get together to discuss the issue this weekend.
40. To get up: to rise from bed
e.g. I always get up at six o’clock.
To get up is also used to mean “ to stand”
41. To give back: to return a borrowed item
e.g. I have to give this book back to Frank by Friday.
42. To give something up: to quit a habit
e.g. I am trying to give up smoking.
43. To give up: to stop trying, to abandon
e.g. I know it is difficult affording school fees, but I can’t give up.
44. To go ahead: to start, proceed
e.g. Please go ahead and eat your food before it gets cold.
45. To go back: to return to a place
e.g. I have to go back home and get my lunch.
46. To go on: to continue
e.g. Please go on with what you are doing.
47. To hand in: to submit
e.g. I have to hand in my assignment by Monday.
48. To hand something out: to distribute to a group of people.
e.g. You have to hand out these invitations now.
49. To hang on: to wait a short time
e.g. Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes.
50. To hang up: to end a phone call
e.g. He didn’t say goodbye before he hung up.
51. To hold on: wait a short time
e.g. Please hold on while I transfer you to the Sales Department.
52. To keep on: to continue
e.g. Keep on begging him.
53. To keep up with: to stay at the same level with
e.g. You walk so fast that I cannot keep up with you.
54. To let someone down: to disappoint someone
e.g. Study hard so as not to let your parents down.
55. To look after: to take care of
e.g. I have to look after my sick mother.
56. To look down on: to consider inferior

34
e.g. Do not look down on illiterate people.

57. To look for: to try to find

e.g. I am looking for a red dressing for the wedding.
58. To look forward to something: to be excited about something
e.g. I am looking forward to seeing my cousin again.
59. To look into: to examine/investigate
e.g. Let us look into the issue tomorrow.
60. To look out: to be careful
e.g. Look out! That car is going to hit you.
61. To look something over: to check/ examine
e.g. Can you look over my composition for spelling mistakes?
62. To look something up: to search and find information in a reference book or database
e.g. We can look up the meaning of this word in the dictionary.
63. To look up to someone: to have a lot of respect for
e.g. My students have always looked up to me.
64. To make up: to forgive each other
e.g. We were angry with each other last night, but made up at breakfast.
65. To pass away: to die
e.g. His uncle passed away last night after a long illness.
66. To pay someone back: to return owed money
e.g. Thank you for lending me money. I’ll pay you back on Monday.
67. To pay for something: to be punished for doing something bad
e.g. You will pay for being rude to my little brother.
68. To pick something out: to choose
e.g. I picked three jackets for me to try on.
69. To pick up: to collect (by car)
e.g. I am going to pick my kids up at school.
70. To put someone down: to insult, to make someone look stupid
e.g. The students put the substitute teacher down because his trousers were short.
71. To put something off: to postpone
e.g. We decided to put our trip off until December because of the rain.
72. To put up with: to tolerate
e.g. I don’t think I can put up with three small kids in my car.
73. To put something on: to wear sth
e.g. It’s raining out there. Put on your raincoat.
74. To put through: to connect on the telephone
e.g. Could you put me through to the Branch Manager?
75. To put up: to accommodate
e.g. Can I put you up for the weekend?
76. To ring back: to phone again
e.g. Please, ring back later.
77. To ring up: to phone
e.g. I’ll ring you up as soon as I get there.
78. To run over something/someone: to drive a vehicle over sth/s.o
e.g. He accidently run over an old woman.

35
79. To run out: to have none left
e.g. I’ m running out money. So I have to borrow some.
80. To save up: to put money aside
e.g. I’m trying to save up for my vacation.
81. To show off: to act extra special for people watching (especially boastfully)
e.g. He always shows off.
82. To show somebody around: to show someone a place he has never visited before
e.g. When you come over to Rwanda, I’ll show you around.
83. To set off (for): to leave for, to start a journey
e.g. When are you setting off for Kigali?
84. To sort something out: to resolve a problem
e.g. We need to sort this problem out before our Boss gets back.
85. To sleep in: to wake up late
e.g. Sorry I’m late. I slept in.
86. To switch on: to start the energy flow, to turn on
e.g. Switch on the car radio.
87. To switch off: to stop the energy flow, to turn off
e.g. Could you switch the light on? It’s too bright.
88. To take off: to start to fly
e.g. My plane takes off in five minutes.
89. To take sth off: to remove sth (usually clothing)
e.g. Take off your shoes and socks and come in the lake.
90. To throw away: to dispose of
e.g. He threw his old shoes away when he bought the new ones.
91. To tear up: to rip into pieces
e.g. Tear this letter up after you have read it.
92. To think back (on): to remember
e.g. When I think back on my youth, I wish I had studied harder.
93. To think over: to consider
e.g. Let me think this job over before I make my final decision.
94. To turn something down: to refuse/reject
e.g. My application letter has been turned down.
95. To turn something up: to increase the volume or strength
e.g. Can you turn the music up? This is my favorite song.
96. To turn something on: to switch on
e.g. It’s dark in here. Let’s turn some lights on.
97. To turn something off: to switch off
e.g. Your mother wants you to turn the TV off while the guests are here.
98. To try something on: to sample clothing
e.g. Let me try these jeans on, but I don’t think they will fit me.
99. To try something out: to test
e.g. Could try this machine out, please?
100. To use up: to finish the supply
e.g. The kids have used all the toothpaste up, so we need to buy some more.
97. To turn something off: to switch off
e.g. Your mother wants you to turn the TV off while the guests are here.

36
98. To try something on: to sample clothing
e.g. Let me try these jeans on, but I don’t think they will fit me.
99. To try something out: to test
e.g. Could try this machine out, please?
100. To use up: to finish the supply
e.g. The kids have used all the toothpaste up, so we need to buy some more.
97. To turn something off: to switch off
e.g. Your mother wants you to turn the TV off while the guests are here.
98. To try something on: to sample clothing
e.g. Let me try these jeans on, but I don’t think they will fit me.
99. To try something out: to test
e.g. Could try this machine out, please?
100. To use up: to finish the supply
e.g. The kids have used all the toothpaste up, so we need to buy some more.
101. To wake up: to stop sleeping
e.g. We have to wake up early for work on Monday.
102. To wash up: to wash the dishes
e.g. Linda washes up every morning.
103. To wear out: to become old and unusable
e.g. These shoes have won out very quickly.
104. To see someone off: to accompany someone
e.g. Can you see me off at the airport?
105. To be over: to end
e.g. The war is over.

PRACTICE EXERCISES
I. Fill in the blanks with appropriate phrasal verbs from this list: take out, fill out,
hold on, pay back, print out

1. If you lend me some money, I’ll……………………………..by Friday.

2. Dear customer, …………………………..a minute and I’ll give you the money.
3. Let me………………………….this cheque.
4. Go to the credits agent. He’ll…………………….your account’s statement for the month
of June.
5. How much money did you……………………..of your account yesterday.

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II. Complete these sentences using a suitable phrasal verb from the box. Use the correct
form where applicable.
break down, clear up, come back, speak up,
take off, cut down on, try on, get on, fill in,
grow up

1. Sorry I’m late. The car………….

2. It’s warm. So, ……….your coat.
3. Jack has ………smoking. He only smokes five cigarettes a day now.
4. Tom is leaving tomorrow and……………… on Saturday.
5. The weather’s horrible, isn’t it? I hope it…………later.
6. I saw a jacket which I liked in the shop. So I went in and……….the Jacket to see if it
fitted me.
7. Tom is eight years old. When he…………, he wants to be pilot.
8. I can’t hear you very well. Can you…………..a bit?
9. How did you …………in your interview yesterday?
10. Could you………this form?

III. Fill in the blanks with the phrasal verbs listed below:
Cut down, give up, calm down, cheer up, catch up, let down, turn down, call off, hand in, carry on
N.B: Make changes about the verb form where applicable.

1. Could you…………………the music? It’s too loud.

2. Shall I continue? Yes, ………….please.
3. My assignment is to be……………….by Wednesday.
4. Is he still angry? No, she has…………..now.
5. I………….smoking 2 years ago. I haven’t touched a cigarette.
6. He drinks too much. He should……………on alcohol.
7. The hotel was horrible. We were really…………by it.
8. I’m really behind my studies. I must……………..on them.
9. Don’t be so upset. Try and…………..
10. They’ve……………..the match because of a bad weather.

Reading Text: The Magic Calabash (part Two)

When Ayo got home, her mother was furious and beat her with a big stick. Then Ayo showed her
the calabash, and the widow cut it open. Gold and silver poured out. Tunde and the widow had
never been so happy. They bought a new house in town, had a lot of servants, drove around in a
big car and drank whisky every day. But Ayo still lived in the kitchen and drank water. Soon there
was no money left. The servants left because nobody had paid them. The widow did not know
what to do.
Suddenly she had a bright idea. ‘Tunde’, she said, ‘I want you to go to the forest and bring back a
calabash. But get a big one this time.’ Tunde asked Ayo where she had found the witch. Ayo told
her and warned her not to get a big calabash.
When Tunde found the witch she said, ‘Hey you, mammy, mammy! I’ve come to get one of your
magic calabashes. Where do you keep them? Hurry up I haven’t got much time.’
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The old woman told her to pound the stones in the mortar, but Tunde said, ‘What! Do you think I
am a fool? I won’t waste my time pounding stones!’ ‘It’s up to you, ‘ said the witch, who was
fanning herself with a piece of grass. Tunde grumbled so much that the stones did not turn into
rice for a long time. When the witch told her to get water in a sieve, she was very angry, but she
remembered the calabash and got the water. Then the old woman told her to change her bandages.
Tunde tied a handkerchief over her nose and unwrapped the bandages so carelessly that the witch
yelled with pain. But there was nothing wrong with her leg. ‘I’ve had enough of your stupid games,
mammy,’ she said. 4tell me where my calabash is.’
The old woman told her and warned her not to take a big one. But Tunde was greedy, so she
grabbed the largest one she could find. Then she ran home to show her mother. When she got
home, Tunde cut open the calabash. Instead of gold out jumped snakes and toads, cockroaches and
scorpions. Tunde and the widow ran out of the house and never came back.

Questions
1. Was the mother happy with the calabash Ayo brought?
2. What did the mother do to Ayo?
3. What was in the calabash? Was this good to Ayo? Explain
4. Did the riches took long, why?
5. Why did the widow send Tunde to see the witch?
6. Is the language of Tunde good? Explain.
7. What did the test consist of? Did Tunde pass it?
8. What did the old witch tell Tunde once at the river?
9. Did Tunde respect the witch’s advice? What happened?

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 UNIT FIVE: IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS, PROVERBS & SAYINGS

5.1. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

An idiomatic expression is a group of words whose meaning together is different from all the
words taken individually.
e.g. It is raining eats and dogs.
Here is a list of some common idiomatic expressions:
1. To turn a deaf to ear = to disregard
e.g. John turned a deaf ear to my advice.
2. To gain the ground= to become more general.
e.g. The belief in efficacy of vaccination is gaining the ground.
3. To lose the ground= to become less powerful or acceptable.
e.g. The belief in witchcraft is losing ground.
4. To turn over a new leaf = to change for the better, to begin a different mode of life.
e.g. I am glad, my son has turned over a new leaf.
5. To make up ones’ mind = to decide, to resolve
e.g. I’ve made up my mind to retire from business
Opp. To change one’s mind
6. To be on good terms = to live together in harmony sociably
e.g. My boss and I are on good terms.
7. To live from hand to mouth = to live without any provision for the future.
e.g. Many people in that country live from hand to mouth.
8. To throw cold water on sth = to show indifference to sth.
e.g. My parents threw cold water on my scheme
9. To sit on the fence = to halt between two opinions, hesitating which side to join.
e.g. In a debate, you shouldn’t sit on the fence.
10. To be at sixes and sevens = to be in disorder or confusion
e.g. When I entered the house everything was at sixes and sevens.
11. To get into hot water = to be in trouble
e.g. I am told the major has got into hot water.
12. To hit the nail on the head = to say or to do exactly the right thing

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e.g. You have hit the nail on the head.
13. To be in high spirits = to be cheerful, joyful.
e.g. Today Peter is in high spirits.
Opp. To be out of spirit = to be gloomy, sad
e.g. You look /seen out of spirit. How is that?
14. To spread like wild fire = to spread rapidly
e.g. A bad news spreads like wild fire.
15. To take heart = to cheer oneself up
e.g. John was disappointed, but he took heart.
16. To give ear to = to listen to
e.g. Don’t give ear to a tale-bearer.
17. To smell a rat = to suspect sth, to be suspicions.
e.g. I smell a rat.

18. To be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth = to be born in wealth and luxury.
e.g. That young boy was born with a silver spoon in his mouth.
19. To pay somebody back his own coin = to treat him in the same way as he had treated you.
e.g. When the opportunity comes, I’ll pay him back his own coin.
20. To end in smoke = to come to nothing.
e.g. All his schemes ended in smoke.
21. To (be) ill at ease = to be anxious, uneasy.
e.g. He seems ill at ease.
22. To feel like a fish out of water = to be in a strange situation, to feel uncomfortable.
e.g. While the members of committee were discussing questions of finance, I felt like a fish out of
water.
23. To take things easy = not to work seriously.
e.g. Paul has made his fortune and he now takes things easy.
24. To be in the bed you have made = to take the consequences of you own acts, to suffer from
your own misdeeds.
e.g. Alice had an abortion. So she must lie in the bed she has made.
25. To take into account = to consider

41
e.g. You must take into account his good services.
26. To blow one’s own trumpet = to praise oneself.
e.g. As usual, Peter is blowing his own trumpet.
27. To pass muster = to be accepted as satisfactory.
e.g. Your excuses will not pass master.

28. To be caught red-handed = to be caught in the very act of committing the theft, adultery,…
e.g. The thief was caught red-handed.
29. To be all ears = to be deeply attentive
e.g. We were all ears throughout the president’s speech.
30. To be all eyes = to be eagerly watching.
e.g. I was all eyes to see what he would do.
31. To cut sb short = to interrupt sb.
e.g. While he was speaking, his father cut him short.
32. To let the grass grow under one’s feet = to remain idle.
e.g. I’m not a kind of man to let the grass grow under my feet.
33. To move heaven and earth = to make every possible effort.
e.g. His adversaries moved heaven and earth to get him dismissed.
34. To be led by the nose = to follow submissively.
e.g. He refused to be led by the nose.
35. To be sb’s right-hand man = to be sb’s most efficient assistant.
e.g. Mugabo is regarded as our boss’s right-hand man.
36. To wash one’s dirty linen in public = to discuss unpleasant private matters before strangers.
e.g. There is nothing so bad as washing one’s dirty linen in public.
38. To be at daggers drown ( - used when some people’s relations are strained).
e.g. They are at daggers drawn ever since the dissolution of the partnership between them.
39. To be a man of his words = a man to be depended on, a trustworthy man.
e.g. You can safely trust him; he is a man of his words.
40. To be a wolf in sheep’s clothing = to be hypocrite
e.g. Beware of Paul. He’s a wolf in sheep’s clothing.
41. To be a black sheep = to be a bad character e.g. There are black sheep

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 in every community
42. To lead a cat-and-dog life = to live a life full of quarrels.
44. To be hard up / short of money : not to have money
45. To flog a dead horse : to waste time or energy on sth useless, unchangeable,…
46 To sleep like a log : to sleep very deeply
47. To be easy like falling off a log : to be very easy.
48. To let the cat out of the bag = to reveal a secret.
49. To kill the time = to do sth in order to make time pass more quickly
50. To promise the moon = to make a promise that is impossible to keep.
51. To be in quandary = to be confused, to experience
52. To be between the devil and a deep blue sea = to be in a tight situation.
53. To give up the ghost: to die
54. To be born under a lucky star = to be continually lucky
55. To be a noboby/To be good-for-nothing: to be a person without importance
56. To be at death’s door = to be about to die.
57. To take a French leave = (1) to leave sth without saying bye.
(2) To remain absent without permission.
58. To have a memory like an elephant = to have a good memory, not forgetting things easily.
Opp. To have a memory like a sieve
59. To have as many faces as the moon = to be deceitful and insincere.
59. To start from scratch = to start completely from the beginning.
60. To mend one’s way = to change or improve one’s behaviour.
61. To sugar the pill = to praise ironically, to make sth bad seem less unpleasant
62. To work like a Trojan = to work very hard.
63. To hold one’s tongue = not to say a word.
64. To have other fish to fly = to have other tasks to carry out
65. To be dressed up to the mines = to be very well dressed.
66. To build castles in the air = to boast
68. To have one’s finger in more than one pie = to grasp lots of different things at a time.

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 5. 2. PROVERBS & SAYINGS

These are well-known and wise statements, which often have meanings that are different from the
simple meanings of the words they contain.
e.g
One finger does not kill a louse.
Used to emphasize the important of unity, or helping one another.
He who is not taught by his mother is taught (disciplined) by the world.
Used to tell parents pot to spoil their children by giving them too much love and failing to
discipline them.
Here is a list of some common English proverbs and sayings:
1. “Absence makes the heart grow fonder"
Sometimes it's good to be away from your partner, because it makes you want to see each other
again.
2. "Actions speak louder than words"
Just saying that you'll do something doesn't mean much. Actually doing it is harder and more
meaningful.
3.“A fool and his money are soon parted”
Stupid people spend their money carelessly and soon become poor.
4.“A good name is better than riches”
Your good reputation is worth more than money.
5. “All that glitters is not gold”
Said about something that seems to be good on the surface, but might not be when you look at it
more closely.
5.“A little learning is a dangerous thing”
It may be safer not to learn something at all than to half know it.
6. "A penny saved is a penny earned"
Save your money.

7.“Appearances are deceptive”

The way something or someone looks from outside may give us the wrong impression.

8.“A word to the wise is enough”

A very brief warning or explanation is enough for an intelligent person.
9.“Bad news travels fast”
People tend to tell bad news (e.g. death, accident,…) more quickly than bad news (e.g. passing
exam, getting a job,…).

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10. “Barking dogs seldom bite”
Don’t be afraid of dogs that bark or people that threaten you (i.e. say that they will do something
bad to you)- in both cases they rarely take action.

11. “Behind a successful man is a woman”

Many men owe their achievements in life to their wives.
12.“Beauty is in the eye of the beholder”
Different people see beauty in different ways. What one person finds beautiful may not appeal to
another person.
13.“Better an egg today than a hen tomorrow”/ “A bird in hands is worth two in the bush”
You should not risk losing something you already have by trying to get something you think must
be better.
14."Better late than never"

15.“Better safe than sorry”

We should be careful in a dangerous situation. It is better to stay safe than to have an accident (and
be sorry about it).
“Better untaught than ill taught”
It is better not to be taught at all than to be taught badly. It is better not to learn something than to
learn it badly.
“Beware of a silent man and still water”
A large expanse of water that is still and does not move is often deep and dangerous. We should
be careful of it. In the same way, we should be careful with a person who does not talk much.

16."Birds of a feather flock together."

People like to spend time with others who are similar to them.

17.“Charity begins at home”

Our first responsibility is to our own family and friends.

18. “Don’t count your chickens before they hatch.”

Your plans might not work out, so don’t start thinking about what you’ll do after you succeed.
Wait until you’ve already succeeded, and then you can think about what to do next.

19."Don't put all your eggs in one basket."

Have a backup plan. Don't risk all of your money or time in one plan.

20.“Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”
It is good for us to sleep early in the evening and wake early in the morning.

21."Easy come, easy go."

When you get money quickly, like by winning it, it's easy to spend it or lose it quickly as well.

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22.“Empty vessels make the most noise”
Stupid people speak loudest.

23.“Every dog has his day”

We will all have good luck or success at some point in our lives.

24.“Everything comes to him who waits”

Patient people eventually receive all things.

25.“Forewarned is forearmed”
If we know about a possible danger in advance, we have an important advantage.

26. “Fortune knocks once at every man’s door”

We all get at least one good opportunity in life; everyone has the opportunity to be successful in
life.

27. “God helps those who help themselves."

Don't just wait for good things to happen to you. Work hard to achieve your goals.

28. "Good things come to those who wait"

Be patient.

“Good wine needs no bush”

Something of good quality does not need to be advertised.

29. “Health is better than wealth”

Being free from illness is better than being rich.

"Honesty is the best policy"

Said to advise someone that it is better to tell the truth than to lie.

30. “If you play with fire, you will get burned”
If you fool around with something that is potentially dangerous, you must expect to get harmed.

31. “Knowledge is power”

Facts, information and skills give us strength and influence.

32. “Let sleeping dogs lie”

Don’t restart an old argument or conflict.

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33. “Life is what you make it”
It is up to you to make of your life what you want.

34. “Look before you leap”

This saying advises us to think carefully before any action. Don’t jump without looking where
you are jumping.

35. “Man proposes, God disposes”

Human beings can make any plans they want, but it’s God that decides their success or failure.

36. “Many hands make light work”

The more people that do a job, the easiest the job for each person.

37. “Marry in haste, and repent at leisure”

If we get married quickly, without thinking carefully, we may be sorry later. And we will have
plenty of time to be sorry.

38. “Money doesn’t grow on trees”

It’s not easy to get money. We have to work hard to make money. We can’t just walk around and
pick it like fruit from the trees.

39. “Money is a good servant, but a bad master”

If you use your money wisely, it will serve you and work for you well. Otherwise, it will control
you in an unpleasant way.

40. “Money is the root of all evil” / ‘The love of money is the root of all evil’
According to this saying, all immorality and wickedness is caused by money.

41. “Money makes money”

If you have money, you can use it to get more money through investment.

42. “Money talks”

If you have a lot of money, it gives you power and influence.

43. “Necessity is the mother of invention”

If we absolutely need to do something that has never been done, we will find a way to do it. It is
this need or necessity that forces people to invent things.

44. “Never look a gift horse in the mouth”

If someone offers you a gift, don't question it.

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45. "No man is an island."
You can't live completely independently. Everyone needs help from other people.

46. “No news is good news”

If we are waiting for news about something, it’s probably good if we hear nothing because “bad
news” would arrive quickly.

47. “No pain, no gain”/ “No sweat, no sweet”

If we do not do hard work, and suffer some pain, we will achieve or gain nothing.

48. “Nothing is impossible to a willing heart”

Someone who is eager, keen and determined can achieve anything.

49. “Nothing ventured, nothing gained”

We can’t expect to achieve anything if we never take any risks.

50. “Once bitten, twice shy”

If an animal (such as a dog) bites you one time, you will be extra careful the next time. This
saying talks about learning from our mistakes.
51. “One good turn deserves another”
If someone helps you, they merit being helped in return. This saying is used to encourage people
to be kind and generous to others (because to do good brings some other good ).
52. “One finger does not kill a louse”
Used to emphasize the important of unity, or helping one another.
53. “Opportunity seldom knocks twice”
Take any opportunity or chance when it comes- it may not come again.
54. “Practice makes perfect"
You have to practice a skill a lot to become good at it.

55. “Prevention is better than cure”

It is better to take care that a problem does not happen than to have to solve the problem
afterwards. It is easier to stop something bad from happening in the first place than to fix the
damage after it has happened.

56. “Pride comes before a fall”

If we are too proud about ourselves or something, we will probably meet with failure or disaster.
When we are too self-important or conceited, something is sure to happen to make us look
foolish.

57. “Quietness is a great treasure”

Silence is valuable.

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58. “Rome wasn’t built in one day”
All things take time to create. And great things like the city of Rome take a very long time. So
we shouldn’t expect to accomplish something or achieve success immediately.

59. “Say well or be still”

If you cannot speak good of someone or something, then it is better not to speak.

60. “Scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours”

I will help you if you will help me. If you do me a favour, I’ll do one for you in return.

61. “Silence is golden’

This saying emphasizes the value of saying nothing.

62. “Silent means consent”

The idea here is that if you don’t disagree, you automatically agree. Keeping quiet is the same as
giving permission.

63. “Speech is silver, silence is golden”

Speaking is good but saying nothing is better. Discretion can be worth more than even eloquent
words.

64. “Still waters run deep”

People who are calm and tranquil on the outside, often have a strong, “deep” personality.

65. “Strike while the iron is hot”/ “Don’t cast for tomorrow what you can do today”
Seize the opportunity! When we have the chance to do something, we should do it immediately.
Otherwise it may be too late.

66. “Talk of the devil, and you’ll see its tail”

We often say “Talk of the devil!” or “Speak of the devil!” when somebody that we have just
been talking about suddenly appears.

67. “Tell me who you go with and I’ll tell you who you are”/ “A man is known by the
company he keeps”
If I know who your friends are, I know what your character is.

68. “The best advice is found on the pillow”

If we have a problem, we may find the answer after a good night’s sleep.

69. “The early bird catches the worm”

You should wake up and start work early if you want to succeed.

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70. “The end justifies the means”
If our objective is good, then it doesn’t matter if the way we achieve it is bad or wrong or evil.

71. “The way to man’s heart is through his stomach”

Many women have won a man’s love by cooking delicious meals for him. They fed his stomach
and found love in his heart.

72. “There is a time to speak and a time to be silent”

We should know when to say something and when to say nothing.

73. “There is truth in wine”

When people are drunk, what they say is often true. People often speak the truth when they lose
their self-control.

74. “They that sow the wind shall reap the whirlwind”
We must expect to suffer serious consequences as the result of our own bad actions. We get back
what we give out.

75. “Time and tide wait for no man”

Nobody can stop the progression of time. So we should act on favorable opportunities
immediately, without delay.

76. “Time is money”

Said to emphasize that time is as precious as money. So we should not waste time.

77. "Too many cooks spoil the broth”

Sometimes it is better to have one or a few people do a job than to have many people do it. If too
many people are involved, the task will not be well done.

When there are too many people trying to lead and give their opinions, it's confusing and leads to
bad results. Jobs and projects should have one or two strong leaders.

78. "Two heads are better than one"

When two people cooperate with each other, they come up with better ideas.

79. “United we stand, divided we fall”/ “Unit is strength”

If we work together we can be successful. If we fight each other we will fail.

80. “We must learn to walk before we can run”

We have to be patient when learning. Babies crawl before they walk. And children walk before
they run. We cannot do difficult tasks before we can do easy tasks.
81. "When in Rome, do as the Romans"

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Act the way that the people around you are acting. This phrase might come in handy when you're
traveling abroad notice that people do things differently than you're used to.

82. “When the cat’s away the mice will play”

This famous saying suggests that when a person in authority is not present, the people under his
rule will enjoy their freedom.

83. “Where there is a will there’s a way”

If we have the determination to do something, we can always find the path or method to do it.

84. "You can't judge a book by its cover."

Things sometimes look different than they really are. A restaurant that looks old and small might
have amazing food, for example.

85. “You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink”
You can show people the way to find something or to do something, but you cannot force them
to act after that.

86. “You can’t make an omelet without breaking eggs”

Sometimes, when we want to create or achieve something, we must sacrifice or destroy another
thing to do it.
87. “A rolling stone gathers no moss”
A person who never settles in one place or often changes his job or mind will not succeed in life.
88. “An idle brain is the devil’s workshop”
One who has nothing to do will be tempted to do mischievous acts.
89. Great haste makes great waste
If you do something too quickly, you will make a lot of mistakes
90. “It’s no use crying over spilt milk”
There is no point being upset about something lost which cannot be found or a mistake done which
cannot be corrected.

I. Complete the following parts of proverbs/sayings:

1. No sweat…………………..
2. Practice makes……………………………………..
3. Time and tide……………………………………
4. No man is………………………………………
5. United we stand…………………………………………….
6. A rolling stone………………………………………………
7. When in Rome…………………………………………….
8. Two heads…………………………………………………………..
9. Where there is a will…………………………………………..
10. Opportunity………………………………………………………..

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 II. Briefly explain the circumstances under which the following proverbs/sayings
are used:
1. Speech is silver, silence is golden
2. Strike while the iron is hot
3. Time is money
4. All that glitters is not gold
5. Nothing ventured nothing gained

III. Match elements in column A with their counterparts in B

A B
1. To turn a deaf ear a. To be cheerful, joyful
2. To be in high spirits b. To disregard
3. To make up one’s mind c. To be impartial
4. To sit on the fence d. To decide
5. To hit the nail on the head e. To feel uncomfortable
6. To take a French leave f. To say/do the right thing
7. To feel like a fish out of water g. To leave without saying bye

Reading Text: Animal Farm

(This is an excerpt from the above book, written by George Orwell)
I can say something about "Animal Farm" which describes the Politics of Russia after the
revolution. This is George Orwell's work details how the dictatorship of Stalin uprooted the
Communism from Russia and shows that the end of communism was the rein of capitalism and
religion. This revolution rooted from the world-wide depression that had began in United States
of America when the stock market crashed in October 1929. This spread throughout the world
because American exports depended on Europe. Despite this, United States of America was also
the major contributor to the world market economy and the promoter of capitalism. So, the aim
was to install capitalism in the place of Communism. It was the great hit on the whole Europe
whereby only leaders and the faithful followers or supporters of Stalin ate their fill during the
period of 1930s. Since the citizens or some of officials noticed that they were suffering, the writer
used the names of animals to describe how they revolt on the socialist empire and root it up. When
the hunger and stress were aside, the capitalists forgot about Karl Marx’s political and social
theories. But the writer, as he was criticizing the communism, mentioned that the idea behind the
promotion of capitalism was that there could not be any perfect society, no pure socialist
civilization and no way to escaping the evil grasp of capitalism. This work symbolizes also that

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socialism was simply a theory which could not succeed even if the philosophy behind was good.
The evidence is that it started good under the regime of Stalin while treating all citizens equally,
but it reached a point when he left the original equality of socialism behind, gave himself all the
power and lived in luxury while citizens were suffering. He started suspecting one of his officials
known as Trosky. He had ever argued with the latter at the extent that Trosky exiled and the
supporters of Stalin followed him up to Mexico, where he exiled and killed him. Stalin also
murdered many of the people he suspected that they were the supporters of Trosky.
The good thing on the rebellion was that at least it gave time to religion. Moses, who was Mr.
Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker. He claimed to
know of the existence of a mysterious country called Sugarcandy Mountain, to which all animals
went when they died. It was situated somewhere up in the sky, a little distance beyond the clouds,
Moses said. In Sugarcandy Mountain it was Sunday seven days a week, clover was in season all
the year round, and lump sugar and linseed cake grew on the hedges. The animals hated Moses
because he told tales and did no work but some of them believed in Sugarcandy Mountain, and the
pigs had to argue very hard to persuade them that there was no such place." Moses represents
Orwell's view of the Church. To Orwell, the Church is just used as a tool by dictatorships to keep
the working class of people hopeful and productive. Orwell uses Moses to criticize Marx's belief
that the Church will just go away after the rebellion. Jones first used Moses to keep the animals
working, and he was successful in many ways before the rebellion. The pigs had a real hard time
getting rid of Moses, since the lies about Heaven they thought would only lead the animals away
from the equality of socialism. But as the pigs led by Napoleon become more and more like Mr
Jones, Moses finds his place again. After being away for several years, he suddenly returns and
picks up right where he left off. The pigs don't mind this time because the animals have already
realised that the "equality" of the revolt is a farce. So Napoleon feeds Moses with beer, and the
full circle is complete. Orwell seems to offer a very cynical and harsh view of the Church. This
proves that Animal Farm is not simply an anti-communist work meant to lead people into
capitalism and Christianity. Really Orwell found loop-holes and much hypocrisy in both systems.
It's interesting that recently in Russia the government has begun to allow and support religion
again. It almost seems that like the pigs, the Kremlin officials of today are trying to keep their
people motivated, not in the ideology of communism, but in the "old-fashioned" hope of an after-
life.

53
The writer accused hundreds of people of supporting the communist regime, from famous actors
in Hollywood to middle-class ordinary people. The fear of communism became a phobia in
America and anyone speaking out against the government was a suspect.

Questions
1. Who wrote this story?
2. What does he talk about in the story?
3. In the story animals are acting like human being, what do you call this?
4. What do you understand by Sugarcandy Mountain?
5. Who does Orwell use to criticize the dictatorship in Russia at this time?
6. Is dictatorship good or bad? Explain

54
 UNIT SIX: INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION
6.1. WRITING SENTENCES

When we speak or write we use words. We generally use these words in groups; as in:
My uncle speaks English fluently.

A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called a sentence.

Use complete sentences in your writing.

Examples:
John loves Mary. Sentence
Joy studies at ULK. Sentence
Mixed lemon juice and water. Not a sentence
Then the woman. Not a sentence
She wrote a message on the paper. Sentence

The words in a sentence must be in an order that makes sense. When you write, put the words in
the right order.
The first word of a sentence begins with a capital letter.
A sentence has two parts: subject and predicate.
The subject of a sentence names someone or something. When you write, vary the subjects of
your sentences.
The predicate of a sentence tells what the subject is or does. When you write, add variety by using
a different predicate in each sentence.

Examples:
John is a good artist.
S P
Claudien paints a picture.
S P

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Classification of sentences
Classification 1
Here, four kinds of sentences are distinguished:

(1) Declarative or Assertive sentences (those which make statements or assertions); as in:
 Peter fought bravely.
 They did not attend the meeting.
 I bought a package of wrapping paper today.

(2) Interrogative sentences (those which ask questions); as in:

 Where do you live?
 How often does Jane pay you a visit?
 What are you going to wrap?

(3) Imperative sentences (those which express commands, requests or

entreaties); as in:
 Be quiet!
 Have merry upon us.
 Help me to tie this bow.

(4) Exclamatory sentences (those which express strong feelings); as in:

 How cold the night is!
 What a shame!
 What a charming girl (she is)!
 How well she dances!
 What a pity!
 What a nice gift you gave me!
 How bright the color is!
Classification 2
Here, two kinds are distinguished:

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(1) Major sentences (sentences that contain at least one subject and a
finite verb); as in:
 We are going.
 They won.

Note
Major sentences frequently have more than this; as in:
 They bought a car.
 They arrived yesterday.
 We are going away next week.
Major sentences are sometimes described as regular because they divide into certain structural
patterns: a subject, finite verb, adverb or adverb clause, etc.

(2) Minor/ irregular/ fragmentary sentences

These include:
- Formula expressions such as ‘ Good morning’, ‘Bravo’ and ‘Well done’
- Short forms of longer expressions, as in ‘Traffic diverted’, ‘Shop closed’, ‘No dogs’ and
‘Flooding ahead’.

Such short expressions could be rephrased to become major sentences, as in ‘Traffic has been
diverted because of roadwork’, ‘The shop is closed on Sunday’, ‘The owner does not allow
dogs in her shop’ and ‘There was flooding ahead on the motorway’.

Classification 3
Sentences can also be classified as:

(1) Simple sentence

This is a sentence that cannot be broken into other clauses. It generally contains a subject and
one finite verb in the predicate. Simple sentences include ‘The man stole the car’ and ‘He
kicked the ball’.
More examples:
 John worked hard.

57
  He won a scholarship.
(2) Complex sentence
This is a type of sentence in which there is a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
e.g.
The sentence ‘We went to visit him although he had bee unfriendly to us’ is a complex
sentence since it is composed of a main clause ( ‘We went to see him’) and one subordinate
clause (‘although he had been unfriendly to us’).
The sentence ‘We wondered where he had gone and why he was upset’ is a complex sentence
since it is made up of a main clause (‘We wondered’) and two subordinate clauses (‘where he
had gone’ and ‘why he was upset’).
More examples:
 If you have flown a kite, you will know that it goes up to the air when you pull it against
the wind.
 We visited the house where Gandhi was born.
(3) Compound sentence
This is a type of sentence with more than one main clause and linked by a coordinating
conjunction, such as ‘and’ or ‘but’, as in ‘He applied for the job and got it’ and ‘I went to the
cinema but I did not like the film’.
More examples:
 John worked hard and he passed in the first division.
 You may go home or read in the library.
 You may either stay in a hotel or stay with a relative of yours.
 The old man could neither read nor write.
 He is very rich, yet he is not happy.
 The best doctors are attending on him, still not out of danger.
 I am very tired for I have been walking all day.
 There was no quorum, so the meeting was adjourned.
 The enemy not only captured the city, but also destroyed several buildings and factories.
 He was absent without leave for several months, therefore his name was removed from
the rolls.

58
Practice
1. Change each sentence below into a different kind. Tell what kind you
have made it.

(a) The contest deadline is tomorrow.

(b) How many pennies are in that bowl.
(c) Write your answer in the box.
(d) What an interesting guess you made!

2. Combine each pair of sentences into a compound sentence by using a comma and and,
but, or or.

(a) We could play tennis. We could go to the movies.

(b) I brought y key home. It is not in my pocket.
(c) We played singles for an hour. Then we played doubles.
(d) Mom will drive me there. Aunt Elise will bring me back.
(e) I used to like hockey. Now I prefer baseball.

3. Think of a sport or game you enjoy. Write three compound sentences and three
complex sentences about it.

59
 6.2 WRITING A PARAGRAPH
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate to one main idea in a coherent logical sequence.
Often a paragraph contains a sentence that tells what the main idea of the paragraph is. This is
called the topic sentence. The other sentences give supporting details about the main idea.
Paragraphs can be short or long. However they always have a beginning, middle and an end.
Usefulness of a paragraph

Paragraphs are used for a number of reasons:

 They present an idea in a concise and well thought-out manner
 They can be used to describe a person, a place or an event
 They ca n be used to express some reflection or thought
Features of a paragraph

The basic features of a paragraph are as follows:

 A paragraph usually has a title.
 The opening sentence forms the introduction of a paragraph. Such a sentence is known
as the topic sentence. This introduces the topic, theme, subject or idea that the
paragraph is based on.
 The main body of the paragraph consists of supporting ideas. These provide more
information about the main idea presented in the opening sentence. However these
ideas must not stray from the topic sentence mentioned in the opening of the paragraph.
The sentences that form the body of the paragraph must be closely related to each other.
Variety in the body of the paragraph should be brought using different types and kinds
of sentences. Thus, the sentences in a paragraph must follow the principle of unity. All
the sentences must be presented in a logical order or sequence. Since they develop the
idea, they are often arranged in the order of importance.
 The concluding or closing sentence must sum up the entire paragraph. It is a reflection
of the idea presented in the topic sentence. A paragraph must be brief and one must
avoid excessive or unnecessary details.
Important points to consider

60
 We must keep in mind some important points when we write a paragraph.
 Do not present new ideas in the paragraph
 Do not repeat the same ppointss over and ove again
The following includes the basic features of a paragraph

Man’s Best Friend

It is often remarked that throughout history, a dog is man’s best friend. For centuries, man has
kept a dog by his side- as pets, as guards, and as friends. Dogs have proven to be very loyal. A
dog will never abandon his master and will often do anything to protect him. The bond shared
between dog and man is deep. While a dog depends on man for food, water and affection, man
depends on dog for protection and companionship. This bond is so strong that sometimes dogs do
not eat or drink, if their master is unwell. There several books and movies that document this
unique relationship between man and dog. Scores of years pass by and things change, yet dog
remains man’s best friend.

Order in a paragraph

The order of the sentences in your paragraph depends on the topic. If you are writing about an
event, you usually order your paragraphs by time. You start with what happened first, and then tell
what happened after that, in order.

If you are explaining how to do something, you put your sentences in step –by-step order. Certain
order words, such as first, then, after, next and finally, will help make your steps clear.
Step for writing instructions
Here are the steps for writing a paragraph of instructions. You will follow these steps to write your
own paragraph.

Step One: Choose a topic

Think of some topic that you would like to explain and that someone else would enjoy knowing
about.

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Step Two: Write your paragraph

Write your first draft. Do not worry about making mistakes in spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
or handwriting. You will have time to correct them later.
Think about what to say, and find the words to say it. You may want to skip every other line. You
may need the extra space if you want to make changes later.

Step Three: Revise your paragraph

Read your draft with a critical eye. Ask yourself these questions:
- Are all the steps correct?
- Have all the steps been included,
- Are my instructions exact?
- Would they be easy to follow?
Revise your draft. Cross out words or sentences that do not belong. Add details by writing words
above the lines.
Discuss your paragraph with your classmate or anyone else. Then make any further changes that
you think would make your instructions better.

Step Four: Proofread your paragraph

Now you are ready to proofread your paper. When you proofread, you check your spelling, your
capitalization and your punctuation. You may even use a dictionary to check the spelling of any
words you are unsure of.
These questions are worth asking when proofreading:
- Have I spelled all the words correctly?
- Have I corrected my run-on sentences or sentence fragments?
- Does every sentence begin with a capital letter and end with a correct punctuation mark?
- Have I used a comma and a connecting word to join the parts of my compound sentences?
- Have I used commas to set off appositives,

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Step Five: Make a final copy to share

-Copy your paragraph over neatly.

-Think of a good title, and write it above the paragraph.
-Check your paper to be sure you have copied correctly.

Practice
Write a paragraph on how to keep fit and healthy, or on any other topic of your own choice.

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 6.3 ESSAY WRITING
 What is an Essay?
An essay is a short piece of writing, by a student or any other person, that discusses, describes
or analyses a particular topic.
 Types of Essays
Distinguishing between types of essays is simply a matter of determining the writer’s goal.
Does the writer want to tell about a personal experience, describe something, explain an issue,
or convince the reader to accept a certain point of view?
Given these purposes, we can distinguish four major types of essays:
- Narrative essays
In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. He narrates an event,
or series of events (e.g. accident, natural disaster, life of a given hero,…).

- Descriptive essays
In a descriptive essay, the writer describes a person, place or object or even memory of
special significance (e.g. Rwanda, Gorilla, elephant, …)

- Expository essays
In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic, using facts, statistics and
examples, of a short theme, idea or issue (e.g. Democracy in Rwanda).

- Persuasive or opinion essays

In a persuasive essay, the writer tries to convince the reader to adopt his position on an issue
or point of view (e.g. Computer technology has made life easier).

 Steps involved in essay writing process

Five steps are worth considering, notably: Brainstorming, Selecting, Outlining,

Drafting and Revising

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 1. Brainstorming ( - collecting ideas, facts, illustrations)
This is a way of collecting ideas, facts, and illustrations thinking quickly to produce as
many as possible on a given topic.
As you think over the topic, ideas, facts, and illustrations will pass through your mind. But
if you do not catch them as they come, you may forget them just when you need them.
So, as they come into your head, jot them down on a sheet of paper, without troubling
yourself about their order or suitability.

2. Selecting ( - Choosing ideas, …)

When you think you have collected enough materials for your essay, read over your notes
you have jotted down to select the points most suitable for your purpose.

3. Outlining ( - Logical arrangement of ideas,…)

This consists in making an outline or skeleton as a brief and orderly way of showing how
ideas will be related to one another in your essay.
If you do not decide on the line of thoughts of your essay, it will probably be badly arranged
and full of repetitions and irrelevancies.

4. Drafting ( -Writing the essay)

This is the actual writing process. It consists in making the first draft (rough copy) from which
you make the final draft ( - fair copy) to be submitted.

[Link] (- Proofreading the essay)

This consists in going though the essay to make sure you wrote relevant points as you were
intending to. You also proofread correcting grammatical, spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, contracted forms (such as don’t and can’t: they are used in spoken and
informal English) errors.

 Structure of an essay
Any essay should contain an introduction, a body made up of several paragraphs, and a
conclusion. Each of these parts has a specific function. Let us look at each of these parts in turn.

65
 a. The introduction
This, in a short essay, must be very brief. It would be absurd to have the porch bigger than the
building itself. It may be simply a short paragraph. But it should always be arresting/attractive
or interesting and pertinent to the subject. The introduction may consist of a definition or a
quotation, proverb, a very brief story or a general remark, leading up to the subject or
specification of key points the reader is going to find in the essay.

b. The Body of the Essay /The Middle or Development

This is an organization / series of paragraphs that build your argument. It is really the essay
itself – the house to which the introduction is the front door or entrance and the conclusion the
back or exit.

Concl
us.
BODY

Intro.
.

It should be noted that each new idea should be developed in its own paragraph.
e.g. Topic : Advantages of living in the countryside
- Cooperation among people (paragraph1)
- Low cost-of-living (paragraph 2)
- No pollution (paragraph 3)
When you are ready to begin a new main idea, make sure you start a new paragraph. Usually,
one sentence in the paragraph tells what the main idea is. That sentence is called the topic
sentence. It is often the first sentence of the paragraph. All the other sentences in the paragraph
add details (i.e. evidence, explanation or comment) about the main idea. They are called
supporting details.

Note:
Do not fail to use logical connectors to link your ideas. For example, to contrast an idea already
discussed, you can use however, nevertheless, despite…., in spite of….., etc. To add a new
idea, you can use secondly, thirdly, etc. However, it sounds unnatural to say fourthly, fifthly,

66
 sixthly, etc. You should instead use more to this, what is more, besides, in addition,
additionally, moreover, furthermore, etc.
Use these connectors at the start of a sentence.

c. The Conclusion
As the introduction should arouse interest, the conclusion should satisfy it. An effective and
satisfying end to an essay is as important as an arresting beginning. An abrupt or feeble ending
may spoil the whole effect of the essay.
Note that a good conclusion may consist of:

- a summing up of the arguments of the essay;

- final conclusion drawn from the subject-matter ;
- your position/point of view
- a suitable quotation put by a famous person or author. It can even be a proverb
- a sentence that strikingly expresses the main point you want to drive home (- suggestions/
recommendations).

Summary of the writing procedure

In short:
(1) Clearly define your subject in your own mind.
(2) Brainstorming, i.e. think over it, until ideas about it come into your mind, and jot down
the points on paper as they cross your mind, numbering them.
(3) Classify these points in groups under suitable headings, rejecting and rejecting those
that are unsuitable.

(4) Arrange these headings in a bare outline.

(5) Fill in the outline, making a full outline.
(6) Now begin to write the essay, dividing it into paragraphs.
(7) The essay should consist of introduction, body and conclusion.
(a) Make the introduction arresting/attractive..
(b) Keep the parts of the body of the essay in proportion; and take pains in choosing words,
constructing sentences and building up paragraphs.

67
 (c) Make the conclusion effective and satisfying.
(d) Each paragraph deals with one idea/ main point and if possible one illustration.
(8) Write in a simple, concise, clear, direct and natural style.
(9) Use short sentences, common words that you know well and avoid very informal
words.

USEFUL PHRASES

The following will help you organize your essay and make your argument clear.

Introduce the subject as follows:

It is a well - known fact that…
Many people believe that…
It is often claimed that…
By way of introduction, I would like to point out that…
There are several ways of looking at the problem of…
One of the most important issues in the society today is…
First and foremost,…
Generally speaking,…
In general,…
To begin with,…….

Start the discussion like this:

First of all,…
Firstly,…
To begin,…
To begin with,…
In the first place,…( not firstly of all,…)
Let us begin by looking at,…
First of all, let us consider
The first thing that should be noted is…
It is worth stating from the outset that…

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If you want to continue discussing one side of the question, start like this:

Secondly( not Second or secondly of all),…

As far as … is(are) concerned,…
As for…
As regards…
This brings us to the question of…(whether/how/who,…)
It should be also noted/stressed/emphasized/focused on/highlighted that…
If you want to show the other side of the question…
However/Nevertheless/Contrariwise…
The opposite is that…
The opposite may also be true.
There is more than one way of looking at this problem.

Present a conclusion or solution to the problem like this:

Lastly, …
Finally,…( not in the last/final place)
On balance,…
To sum up, it would seem that,…
In summary,..
In conclusion,..
This brings us to the conclusion that…
To conclude, it seems likely that…
In short,…
To be short,…
Without being long,…
In a nutshell,…
To be brief,…
In brief,..
Briefly,..
In a word,..

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Express your personal opinion.

In my opinion …( do not write: I think, after this phrase)

My personal opinion is that…
My own view of this is that…
It is my opinion that…

WRITING PRACTICE
Write a short essay on any of the following topics:
1. Poverty reduction strategies in Rwanda

2. Causes of students’ dropouts

3. Education is the most important investment.

4. Overpopulation: A global problem

5. Advantages and disadvantages of computer technology

6. Great achievements of the Rwandan government after the 1994

genocide

7. Foreign aid: Merits and demerits

8. Deforestation: An environmental issue

9. The role of cooperative movements in socio-economic development

Reading Text: Principles for a Successful Life (by Ron Kurtus; revised 6 February 2006)

A successful life is a satisfying life. It is one where you are healthy, happy and fulfilled in your
existence. Most people would like to lead such a life, but many think it is not easy to do. In fact, it
is not that difficult. Much of what happens to you in your life is a result of your philosophy or way
of thinking and the principles you follow, as well as your attitude toward things.

Have a positive philosophy: In order to lead a good, well or satisfying life, you need a positive
philosophy toward the major components in your life. These components are your attitude,
health (Physical, Emotional and Spiritual), communications, sensing the world and social
interactions, knowledge and activities (vocation and leisure).
Be good in each: You can be good and attain satisfaction in each of these items, leading to a
happy and healthy life. Your attitude can make your life satisfying, if you enjoy life, you are
accountable for your own well being, you think in terms of taking care of your whole person—

70
your body, mind and spirit. The following are ways to attain wellness in the different types of
health. Physical health: Good physical health can make your life satisfying, if you are
physically active, eat frugally, and minimize medical invasiveness. Emotional health: Good
emotional health can make your life satisfying, if you handle stress well, you are aware of your
feelings and appreciate the talents you have. Spiritual health: Good spiritual health can make
your life satisfying, if you are forgiving, you are grateful and you are at peace.
Communication: The following are ways to attain wellness in the areas of communication.
Sensing the world: Effective sensing of the world around you, can make your life more
satisfying, if you are observant, curious and use all your senses. Social interactions: Good social
interactions can make your life satisfying, if you have respect for other people, try to have
everyone win and live for today. Intellect: Good intellect can make your life satisfying, if you
think mindfully; you are creative and continually grow. Vocation: A good vocation can make
your life satisfying, if you have a purpose, help others and you are concerned about future
generations.
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1. What type of philosophy do I need to have?

2. How do attitude, health and wealth fit in?
3. What do I need to do to get started?
4. What is important in having a positive attitude?(choose one of these alternatives)
5. How can observation and using your senses make your life more satisfying?
6. Besides making money, what is important about a good vocation?

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 UNIT EIGHT: SOME COMMON MISTAKES IN ENGLISH
This unit aims at helping you correct some common mistakes to which you, as foreign learners of
English, are liable.
The method adopted throughout this unit is uniform. Errors dealt with are singled out, for they
have to be recognized before they can be corrected; then the correct forms are substituted for
incorrect ones; finally, simple explanations are given wherever necessary to justify particular
usages.
8.1. MISUSED FORMS

[Link]. Using the wrong preposition

Mistakes are often made by using the wrong preposition after certain words. The following list
includes some of the most troublesome words:
1. Accustomed to, not with
Don’t say: I’m accustomed with hot weather.
Say: I’m accustomed to hot weather.
Note also: used to, as in: He is used to the heat.
2. Angry with, not against
Don’t say: The teacher was angry against him.
Say: The teacher was angry with him.
Note 1: We get angry with a person but at a thing: He was angry at the weather (not with the
weather).
Note 2: Also annoyed with, vexed with, indignant with a person, but at a thing.
3. Arrive at, not to
Don’t say: We arrived to the village at night.
Say: We arrived at the village at night.

Note: Use arrive in with countries and large cities: Mr. Smith has arrived in
London.
4. Travel by train, etc., not with the train, etc.
Don’t say: He traveled with a train yesterday.
Say: He traveled by train yesterday.

Note: We say: by train, by boat, by plain, by bike; also, by land, by sea, by

air, by bus; in a bus or on a bus; by car or in a car, by taxi or in a taxi;
on horse-back, on a bicycle; on foot.
5. Congratulate on, not for
Don’t say: I congratulate you for your success.
Say: I congratulate you on your success.

Note: We can say congratulate for doing something, as in: I congratulate you
for doing well in your exam.
6. Covered with, not by
Don’t say: The mountains are covered by snow.

72
Say: The mountains are covered with snow.
7. Cure of, not from
Don’t say: The man was cured from his illness.
Say: The man was cured of his illness.
Note: The noun cure takes for: There is no cure for that disease.
8. Depend on or upon, not from
Don’t say: It depends from her.
Say: It depends on/upon her.

Note: Rely on/upon: I can’t rely on/upon him.

9. Deprive of, not from
Don’t say: Nelson Mandela was deprived from his freedom.
Say: Nelson Mandela was deprived of his freedom.
10. Die of an illness, not from or with an illness.
Don’t say: Many people have died with malaria.
Say: Many people have died of malaria.

11. Different from, not than

Don’t say: My book is different than yours.
Say: My book is different from yours.
12. Divide into parts, not in parts
Don’t say: I divided the cake in four parts.
Say: I divided the cake into four parts.
Note: A thing may be divided in half or in two: Paul divided the apple in half (or in two).
13. Good at, not in
Don’t say: My sister is good in maths.
Say: My sister is good at maths.
Note 1: Bad at, clever at, quick at, slow at, etc. However, weak in: He’s weak in grammar.
Note 2: He’s good in class means that his conduct is good.
14. Independent of, not from
Don’t say: Clare’s independent from her parents.
Say: Clare’s independent of her parent.

Note: We say dependent on: A baby is dependent on its parents.

15. Indifferent to, not for
Don’t say: They’re indifferent for politics.
Say: They’re indifferent to politics.
16. Interested in, not for
Don’t say: She’s not interested for her work.
Say: She‘s not interested in her work.
Note: Also take an interest in: She takes a great interest in music.
17. Live on, not from
Don’t say: Many birds live from insects
Say: any birds live on insects
Note: Feed on: Some birds feed on insects.

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18. Married to, not with
Don’t say: Angela was married with a rich man.
Say: Angela was married to a rich man.
Note: Also engaged to: Sally was engaged to Peter before they got married.
19. Opposite to, not from
Don’t say: There is opposite from mine.
Say: There is opposite to mine
Note: Opposite mine is also correct.
20. Prefer to, not than or from
Don’t say: I prefer a blue pen than a red one.
Say: I prefer a blue pen to a red one

21. Proud of, not for

Don’t say: He’s very proud for his promotion.
Say: He’s very proud of his promotion.
Note: We say take (a) pride in: A craft man takes pride in his work.
22. Related to, not with
Don’t say: Are you related with Simon in any way?
Say: Are you related to Simon in any way?
Note: Also relation to: Is he any relation to you?
23. Satisfied with, not from
Don’t say: Are you satisfied from your marks?
Say: Are you satisfied with your marks?
Note: Also content with, delighted with, angry with, happy with, displeased with, pleased with,
dissatisfied with, disgusted with.

24. Similar to, not with

Don’t say: Your house is similar with mine.
Say: Your house is similar to mine
25. Sit at a desk, not on a desk etc.
Don’t say: The bank manager was sitting on his desk.
Say: The bank manager was sitting at his desk
Note: Also sit at a table. But: on a chair, on a bench, on a sofa, etc. ; in an arm-chair, in a tree or
up a tree. A bird sometimes perches (=sits) on a tree.
26. Succeed in, not at
Don’t say: I hope he’ll succeed at his work.
Say: I hope he’ll succeed in his wolk.
Note: A person succeeds to a property, a title, or an office: Elizabeth II succeeded to the throne in
1952. Also one person can succeed another.
27. Superior to, not than or from
Don’t say: This is superior than that.
Say: These is superior to that.
Note: Also inferior to, junior to, senior to, prior to, subsequent to, etc.
28. Surprised with or by, not for
Don’t say: Harold was surprised for the loud bang.

74
Say: Harold was surprised with the loud bang.
Note: Also astonished at/by, amazed at/by, alarmed at/by, puzzled at/by, shocked at/by.
29. Translate into, not to
Don’t say: Translate this passage to English.
Say: Translate this passage into English.
8.1.2. Misuse of the infinitive

Use the infinitive:

(a) After prepositions or preposition phrases:
1. Without, etc. + -ing.
Don’t say: Do you work without to speak?
Say: Do you work without speaking.
2. Instead of, etc. + -ing
Don’t say: He went away instead of to wait.
Say: He went away instead of waiting.
(b) After words which regularly take a preposition:
1. Capable of + -ing.
Don’t say: They are quite capable to do that.
Say: There are quite capable of doing that.
Note: Also incapable of; to + infinitive follows able or unable: He is unable to do anything.
2. Fond of + -ing.
Don’t say: She’s always fond to talk.
Say: She’s always fond of talking.
3. Insist on + -ing.
Don’t say: Simon insisted to go to London.
Say: Simon insisted on going to London.
4. Object to + -ing.
Don’t say: I object to be treated like this.
Say: I object to being treated like this.
5. Prevent from + -ing.
Don’t say: The rain prevented me to go.
Say: The rain prevented me from going.
6. Succeed in + -ing.
Don’t say: Paula succeeded to win the prize.
Say: Paula succeeded in winning the prize.
7. Think of + -ing.
Don’t say: I often think to go to England.
Say: I often thing of going to England.
8. Tired of + -ing.
Don’t say: The customer got tired to wait.
Say: The customer got tied of waiting.
9. Used to + -ing.
Don’t say: She’s used to get up early.
Say: She’s used to getting up early.
(C) After certain verbs:
1. Avoid + -ing.

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Don’t say: You can’t avoid to make mistakes.
Say: You can’t avoid making mistakes.
Note: Also can’t help (= can’t avoid): I can’t help laughing.
2. Enjoy + -ing.
Don’t say: I enjoy to play football.
Say: I injoy playing football.
Note: Use the gerund or to + infinitive after verbs meaning to like or to dislike: He likes reading
English books, or He likes to read English books.
3. Excuse + -ing.
Don’t say: Please excuse me to be late.
Say: Please excuse my being late.
Or: Please excuse me for being late.
4. Finish + -ing.
Don’t say: Have you finished to speak?
Say: Have you finished speaking?
Note: To + infinitive or the gerund follow verbs meaning to begin: She began to speak, or She
began speaking.
5. Go on + -ing.
Don’t say: The music went on to play.
Say: The music went on playing.
Note: Also keep on: She kept playing the piano.
6. Mind (object to) + -ing.
Don’t say: Would you mind to open the door.
Say: Would you mind opening the door.

7. Practise + -ing.
Don’t say: You must practise to speak English.
Say: You must practice speaking English.
8. Remember + -ing.
Don’t say: I don’t remember to have seen him.
Say: I don’t remember seeing him.
Or: I don’t remember having seen him.
9. Risk + -ing.
Don’t say: We couldn’t risk to leave him alone.
Say: We couldn’t risk leaving him alone.
10. Stop + -ing.
Don’t say: The wind has almost stopped to blow.
Say: The wind has almost stopped blowing.
Note: Also give up (= stop): He gave up smoking.
(d) After certain adjectives:
1. Busy + -ing.
Don’t say: He was busy to revise the exams.
Say: He was busy revising the exams.
2. Worth + -ing.
Don’t say: Is today’s film worth to see?
Say: Is today’s film worth seeing?

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(e) After certain phrases
1. Have difficulty (in) + -ing.
Don’t say: She has no difficulty to do it.
Say: She has no difficulty (in) doing it.
2. Have the pleasure of + -ing.
Don’t say: I had the pleasure to meet him.
Say: I had the pleasure of meeting him.
Note: Also take pleasure in: He takes great pleasure in helping others.

3. It’s no use + -ing.

Don’t say: It’s no use to cry like a baby.
Say: It’s no use crying like a baby.
4. It’s no good + -ing.
Don’t say: It’s no good to get angry.
Say: It’s no good getting angry.
5. Look forward to + -ing.
Don’t say: I look forward to see you soon.
Say: I look forward to seeing you soon.
7. There’s no harm in + -ing.
Don’t say: There’s no harm to visit her now.
Say: There’s no harm in visiting her now.
8.1.3. Use of the wrong tense

(a) Using the past tense after did instead of the infinitive without to.
- To ask questions:
Don’t say: I did not went to school yesterday.
Say: I did not go to school yesterday.
- To make negatives:
Don’t say: Did you went to school yesterday?
Say: Did you go to school yesterday?
Use the present infinitive without to, not the past tense after the auxiliary did.
(b) Using the third person singular after does instead of the infinitive without
to.
- To ask questions:
Don’t say: Does the gardener waters the flowers?
Say: Does the gardener water the flowers?
- To make negatives:
Don’t say: The man doesn’t waters the garden.
Say: The man doesn’t water the garden.
After the auxiliary does, use the infinitive without to, and not the third person of the present.
(c) Using the past simple after to + infinitive.
Don’t say: He tried to kicked the ball.
Say: He tried to kick the ball.
Don’t use the simple past after to.

(d) Using the present perfect instead of the simple past.

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Don’t say: I have seen the film yesterday.
Say: I saw the film yesterday.
Use the simple past tense (and not the present perfect) for an action completed in the past at a
stated time.
Note: When a sentence has a word or a phrase denoting past time, like yesterday, last night, last
week, then, ago, etc., always use a simple past tense.
(e) Using the simple past instead of the present perfect.
Don’t say: The clock struck.
Say: The clock has struck.
If we are speaking of an action just finished, we must use the present perfect instead of the simple
past tense. For example, immediately after the clock strikes, we shouldn’t say The clock struck,
but The clock has struck
(f) Using the simple present instead of the present continuous.
Don’t say: Look! Two boys fight.
Say: Look! Two boys are fighting.
Note: We also use the present continuous for the future when something is pre-arranged or
expected with some certainty: Loma is arriving tomorrow at six. Tom and I are eating out tonight.
(g) Using the simple present tense instead of the present perfect.
Don’t say: I’m at this school (for) two years.
Say: I have been at this school (for) two years.

Use the present perfect (and not the simple present) for an action begun in the past and continuing
into the past. I have been at this school (for) two years means I’m still here.
(h) Using the simple past instead of the present perfect after a since clause of time.
Don’t say: Since he came, we’re happy.
Say: Since he came, we have been happy.
The verb after a since clause of time is generally in the present perfect.
(i) The continuous form misused.
Don’t say: I’m understanding the lesson.
Say: I understand the lesson.
As a rule, verbs denoting a state rather than an act have no continuous forms, like understand,
know, believe, like, love, belong, prefer, consist, mean, hear see, etc.
(j) Using the future in a clause of time instead of the present tense.
Don’t say: I’ll see you when I shall come back.
Say: I’ll see you when I come back.
If the verb in the main clause is in the future, the verb in the time clause must be ion the present
tense.
(k) Using the present tense after as if or as though instead of the past.
Don’t say: Janine talks as if she knows everything.
Say: Janine talks as if she knew everything.
Use the past tense after as if or as though. He talks as if he knew everything, means He talks as he
would talk if he knew everything.
Note: Use the subjunctive were with the verb to be after as if: He acts as if he were a rich man.
(l) Using the past conditional of wish instead of the present indicative.
Don’t say: I would wish to know more English.
Say: I wish (that) I knew more English.

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Use the present tense of wish to express a present meaning, followed by a that clause containing a
past verb.
(m) Wrong sequence of tenses.
Don’t say:
 Rachel asked me what I am doing.
 He said that he will join us.
 Last Sunday Ailsa told me that she may come.

Say:
 Rachel asked me what I was doing.
 He said that he would join us.
 Last Sunday Ailsa told me that she might come.

8.1.4. Miscellaneous examples

1. Using the possessive ’s with inanimate objects.

Don’t say: Her room’s window is open.
Say: The window of her room is open.
2. Using the objective case after the verb to be.
Don’t say: It was him.
Say: It was he.
Note however that the objective case is now used in conversation instead of the nominative case:
It’s me, It was him/her/them, etc.
3. Using the object pronoun me instead of the subject pronoun I.
Don’t say: John and me are going to the concert tonight.
Say: John and I are going to the concert tonight.
4. Using the objective case after the conjunction than.
Don’t say: My sister is taller than me.
Say: My sister is taller than I am.
Note: Use the objective case in spoken English: You’re much taller than me.
5. Using an object pronoun in a double genitive.
Don’t say: A friend of him told us the news.
Say: A friend of his told us the news.

We use the double genitive (of + name + ‘s, his, mine, etc.) when we want to emphasize the person
who possesses rather than the thing he possesses.
A friend of his is simply another way of saying one of his friends.
6. Misuse of –self forms.
Don’t say: Michael and myself are here.
Say: Michael and I are here.
Note: Use –self pronouns in two ways: (1) for emphasis: She herself was hurt; (2) reflexivity: She
hurt herself.
7. Using hisself or theirselves instead of himself or themselves.
Don’t say: They fell down and hurt theirselves.
Say: They fell down and hurt themselves.

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8. Using the relative pronoun which for persons.
Don’t say: I’ve a brother which is at school.
Say: I’ve a brother who is at school.

9. Using who, whom, or which after the superlative, instead of that.

Don’t say: It’s the best which I have ever seen.
Say: It’s the best (that) I have ever seen.
Note: That can be omitted.
10. Using who? or what? instead of which?
Don’t say: Who of the two boys is the taller?
Say: Which of the two boys is the taller?
Which is used because it implies choice.
11. Misuse of the gerund to express purpose.
Don’t say: I come here for learning English.
Say: I come here to learn English.
12. Using a double negative.
Don’t say: She says she’s not afraid of anybody.
Say: She says she’s not afraid of anybody.
Or: She says she’s afraid of nobody.
13. Using if instead of whether.
Don’t say: I asked Paul if he was going.
Say: I asked Paul whether he was going.
Where or not is implied, use whether, not if. Unlike whether, if does not expect a Yes or No reply:
I shall speak to him if he comes.
14. Using any for two, instead of either.
Don’t say: Any of these two books is books.
Say: Either of these two books is good.
15. Using both in a negative sentence instead of neither.
Don’t say: Both of them didn’t go to school today.
Say: Neither of them went to school today.
16. Using also or too in a negative sentence instead of either.
Don’t say: Joe has not come also (or too).
Say: Joe has not come either.
8.1.5. Un-English expressions
Mistakes often result from too close a translation into English of foreign idiomatic expressions.
The following are examples of such mistakes:
1. Take an exam, not to do an exam
Don’t say: The pupil did his exam.
Say: The pupil took his exam.
Note: The teacher gives or sets an exam. The student takes the exam or sits (for) the exam.
2. To be right or wrong, not to have right or wrong
Don’t say: You’ve right or You’ve wrong.
Say: You’re right or You’re wrong.
3. To be cold, not to have cold
Don’t say: I have cold. Say: I’m cold.

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 8.2. INCORRECT OMISSIONS

8.2.1. Omission of prepositions

The following are examples of mistakes made through the omission of the preposition after certain
words:
1. Ask for a thing, not ask a thing
Don’t say: She came and asked my book.
Say: She came and asked for my book.

2. Dispose/ get rid of a thing, not dispose/get rid a thing

Don’t say: He’ll dispose/get rid all his property.
Say: He’ll dispose/get ride of all his property.
3. Dream a thing, not dream of a thing
Don’t say: Young men dream glory and riches.
Say: Young men dream of glory and riches.
4. Explain to a person, not explain a person.
Don’t say: She explained me the matter.
Say: She explained to me the matter.
5. Listen to a person or thing, not listen a person or thing
Don’t say: They are listening music.
Say: They are listening to music.
6. Pay for a thing, not pay a thing
Don’t say: How much did you pay this book?
Say: How much did you pay for this book?
Note: A person can pay another person. He/she can also pay a bill, an account, or a subscription.
He/She pays for something that he/she buys.
7. Remind a person of something, not remind a person something
Don’t say: Please remind me that letter.
Say: Please remind me of that letter.
8. Reply to a person, not reply a person
Don’t say: She hasn’t replied me yet.
Say: She hasn’t replied to me yet.
9. Say to a person, not say a person
Don’t say: Kevin said me, ‘Come tomorrow.’
Say: Kevin said to me, ‘Come tomorrow.’
10. Search for a lost thing, not search a lost thing
Don’t say: They’re searching the ball.
Say: They’re searching for the ball.
Note: In search of: The wolf went in search of sheep. To search someone or something (without
for) means to look in one’s pockets or house: The policeman searched the man and his house.
11. Supply a person with something, not supply a person something.
Don’t say: Can you supply me all I need?
Say: Can you supply me with all I need?
12. Wait for a person or thing

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Don’t say: I’ll wait you at the station.
Say: I’ll wait for you at the station.
Note: Await takes no preposition: I’m awaiting your reply
13. Wish for a thing, not wish a thing.
Don’t say: He doesn’t wish any reward.
Say: He doesn’t wish for any reward.
14. Write to person, not write a person.
Don’t say: I’ll write you tomorrow.
Say: I’ll write to you a letter.
Note: When the direct object of write is expressed, omit the preposition: I’ll write you a letter.

8.2.2. Miscellaneous examples

1. The –s, or –es of the third person singular omitted.

Don’t say: He speak English very well.
Say: He speaks English very well.
Take great care not to leave out the –s or –es from the present tense, when the subject is he, she,
it, or a noun in the singular.
2. Using don’t instead of doesn’t.
Don’t say: He don’t care what he says.
Say: He doesn’t care what he says.
Use don’t (=do not) with I, we, you, they, and with plural nouns. Use doesn’t (= does not) with he,
she, it, and with singular nouns.
3. The –d or –ed of the past tense omitted.
Don’t say: I receive a letter yesterday.
Say: I received a letter yesterday.
Take care not to leave out the –d or –ed from the past tense of regular verbs. When speaking,
pronounce the ending of the past tense clearly.
4. The –s, -es or –ies of the plural form omitted.
Don’t say: I paid six pound for the book.
Say: I paid six pounds for the book.
Take care not to leave out the –s, -es, or –ies of the plural number.
Note: The following nouns have irregular plural: man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox,
oxen; foot, feet; tooth; teeth; goose, geese; mouse, mice.
5. Omission of the auxiliary do from questions.
Don’t say: You understand the problem?
He understands the problem?
She understood the problem?
Say: Do you understand the problem?
Does he understand the problem?
Did she understand the problem?
Place the auxiliary verb do (does, did) before the subject to ask questions in the simple present and
simple past tenses.
6. Omission do when do is a principle verb.
Don’t say: Do you your homework carefully?
Say: Do you do your homework carefully?

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In the correct form of the sentence, the first do means nothing on its own and only helps to make
the question. The second do is the principal verb of the sentence, and has the meaning of to
perform.
7. Omission of the preposition after the infinitive.
Don’t say: They’ve no house to live in.
Say: They’ve no house to live in.

8.3. UNNECESSARY WORDS

8.3.1. Unnecessary prepositions

The words below do not require a preposition to go with them because they have within them the
meaning of the preposition.
1. Answer (=reply to).
Don’t say: Please answer to my question.
Say: Please answer my question.
Note: The noun answer takes to: His answer to question was wrong.
2. Approach (=come near to).
Don’t say: Don’t approach to that house.
Say: Don’t approach that house.
3. Ask (=put a question to).
Don’t say: I asked to the teacher about it.
Say: I asked the teacher about it.
4. Comprise (=consist of).
Don’t say: The book comprises of five chapters.
Say: The book comprises five chapters.
Or: The book is comprised of five chapters.
5. Enter (=go into).
Don’t say: We entered into the classroom.
Say: We entered the classroom.
Note: We enter into a conversation, a debate, or a discussion.
6. Leave (=depart from).
Don’t say: Brian left from England last week.
Say: Brian left England last week.
7. Obey (=act according to).
Don’t say: We should obey to our parents.
Say: We should obey our parents.
8. Let (=give permission to).
Don’t say: The driver let John to sit in the front seat.
Say: The driver let John sit in the front seat.
9. Reach (=arrive at).
Don’t say: We reached at the school early.
Say: We reached the school early.
10. Resemble (=be similar to).

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Don’t say: Does she resemble to her father?
Say: Does she resemble her father?
Note: resemblance takes to or between: She bears no resemblance to her father; There is no
resemblance between them.
11. Tell (=say to).
Don’t say: I told to him to come at once.
Say: I told him to come at once.
12. Behind (=at the back of).
Don’t say : Edward hid behind of a large tree.
Say: Edward hid behind a large tree
9. Inside (=in the interior of).

Don’t say: The boys went inside of the room.

Say: The boys went inside the house.
14. Outside (=on the exterior of).
Don’t say: They stood outside of the door.
Say: They stood outside the door.
15. Round (=on all sides of).
Don’t say: The earth goes round of the sun.
Say: The earth goes around the sun.

8.3.2. Unnecessary articles

1. Wrong use of the with abstract nouns.

Don’t say: The bravery is a great virtue.
Say: Bravery is a great virtue.
Abstract nouns, if used in a general sense, can’t take the article.
Note: Abstract nouns, used in a general sense, use the article: The bravery of the Spartans was
renowned.
2. Wrong use of the with material nouns.
Don’t say: The gold is a precious metal.
Say: Gold is a precious metal.
Don’t use any article with material nouns, if used in a general sense.
Note: Material nouns, used in a particular sense, require the definite article: The coal from the
Midlands is exported to many countries.
3. Wrong use of the with plural nouns used in a general sense.
Don’t say: The dogs are faithful animals.
Say: Dogs are faithful animals.
Omit the definite article before common nouns in the plural if used in a general sense.
4. Wrong use of the with names of languages.
Don’t say: Tom speaks the English very well.
Say: Tom speaks English very well.
Never use the definite article before the names of languages.
Note: We can say: He speaks the English language very well.
5. Wrong use of the with names of meals.
Don’t say: We will start after the breakfast.

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Say: We will start after breakfast.
Don’t use the definite article before the name of meals, breakfast, lunch, dinner, or supper unless
you are referring to a particular meal: The lunch they provided was excellent.
6. Wrong use of the with names of games.
Don’t say: My favorite game is the football.
Say: My favorite game is football.
Don’t use an article before the names of games like football, hockey, tennis, cricket, volley-ball,
basket-ball.
7. Wrong use of the with names of diseases.
Don’t say: The cholera is a dreadful disease.
Say: Cholera is a dreadful disease.
As a rule, don’t use the definite article before the names of diseases.
Note: The indefinite article is needed with common names of illnesses: I was suffering from a cold
(a fever, a cough, a headache).
8. Wrong use of the with names of colours.
Don’t say: The green is a beautiful colour.
Say: Green is a beautiful colour.
Don’t use the definite article before the names of colours when used as nouns.
9. Wrong use of the with the names of the senses.
Don’t say: The sight is one of the five senses.
Say: Sight is one of the five senses.
Don’t use an article before the names of the five senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste and touch.
10. Wrong use of the with names of days and months.
Don’t say: The Sunday can be a day of prayer.
The December is the last month.
Say: Sunday can be a day of prayer.
December is the last month.
Note: We say the Sunday before last, the December of 1940, etc.
11. Wrong use of the with man denoting the human race.
Don’t say: The man was born a sinner.
Use man, denoting the human race, without the definite article. Also, mankind requires no article:
Disease is the enemy of mankind.
12. Wrong use of the with school.
Don’t say: My sister goes to the school on foot.
Say: My sister goes to school on foot.
To go to school means to be a student, while to go to the school, means to visit the school.
13. Wrong use of the with church.
Don’t say: On Sunday I go to the church.
Say: On Sunday I go to church.
To go to church means to go and pray; while to go to the church means to go to and visit the
church.
Note: Similarly, distinguish between go to bed and go to the bed, go to prison and go to the prison,
go to market and go to the market, go to hospital and go to the hospital.
14. Wrong use of the with whose.
Don’t say: The boy whose the father is ill has left.
Say: The boy whose father is ill has left.

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Don’t use the article after the relative determiner whose, because it takes the place of the article.
15. Wrong use of the indefinite article before work, etc.
Don’t say: Gillian has found a work at the bank.
Say: Gillian has found work at the bank.
Don’t use the indefinite article before such words as work, fun, health, permission.
16. Wrong use of the with society.
Don’t say: A thief is a danger to the society.
Say: A thief is a danger to society.
Note: Use the definite article if society is used in a particular sense: The society of the Greeks was
based on freedom.

8.3.3. Use of the infinitive

Mistakes are frequently made by using the infinitive without to after the following verbs, which
do not require it.
1. Can + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: My mother can to swim very well.
Say: My mother can swim very well.
Note: Always write the negative form cannot as one word.
2. Could + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: I could not to see you yesterday.
Say: I could not see you yesterday.
3. May + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: May I to visit you next weekend?
Say: May I visit you next weekend?
4. Might + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: He might to come in the morning.
Say: He might come in the morning.
5. Must + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: I must to see her in her office.
Say: I must see her in her office.
6. Let + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: Tom’s father would not let him to go out.
Say: Tom’s father would not let him go out.

7. Make (to force) + infinitive without to.

Don’t say: You can’t make Emma to understand.
Say: You can’t make Emma understand.
8. See + infinitive without to:
Don’t say: They saw him to leave the house.
Say: They saw him leave the house.
Note: They saw him leaving the house is also correct.
9. Watch + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: I watched the girl to play hockey.
Say: I watched the girl play hockey.
Note: I watched the girls playing volley-ball is also correct.

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10. Hear + infinitive without to.
Don’t say: We heard him to speak in English.
Say: We heard him speak English
Note: We heard him speaking English is also correct.

11. Feel + infinitive without to.

Don’t say: I could feel her heart to beat.
Say: I could feel her heart beat.
Or: I could feel her heart beating.
Note: If the verbs make, see, watch, hear, feel, are used in the passive, to must be used: He was
seen to leave the house; He was heard to speak in English.

8.4. CONFUSED WORDS

[Link] and At
a. To
Don’t say: We come at school every morning.
Say: We come to school every morning.
b. At
Don’t say: Someone is standing at the door.
Say: Someone is standing at the door.
Use to to express movement from one place to another, use at to denote position.
2. To and Till
a. To
Don’t say: We walked till the river bank.
Say: We walked to the river bank

b. Till
Don’t say: I’ll stay her to next month.
Say: I’ll stay with her till next month.
Use to with distance, and till (until) with time.

3. In and At
a. In
Don’t say: John has a flat at Paris.
Say: John has a flat in Paris.
We use in to describe the physical location of something as part of a large thing or place
b. At
Don’t say: My mother is staying in Nyundo.
Say: My mother is staying at Nyundo.
4. In and Into
a. In
Don’t say: Sylvain spent all the day into his room.
Say: Sylvain spent all day in his room.

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b. Into
Don’t say: Richard came in the room and sat down.
Say: Richard came into the room and sat down.
In denotes position inside something, while into denotes motion or direction towards the inside of
something.
5. between and Among
a. Between
Don’t say: There was a fight among two boys.
Say: There was a fight between two boys.
b. Among
Don’t say: Divide the apple between you three.
Say: Divide the apple among you three.
Use between for two only. Use among for more than two.
6. Since for For
Don’t say: She has lived here since two years.
Say: She has lived here for two years.
Place the preposition for before words or phrases denoting a period of time: for three years, for six
weeks, for two years, for a few minutes, for a long time. Use it with any tense expect the present.
Note: For is omitted. We can say: I’ve been waiting for two years or I’ve been waiting two years.
7. From and Since
Don’t say: Yves has been ill from last Friday.
Say: Yves has been ill since last Friday.
Place the preposition since before words or phrases denoting a point of time: since Monday, since
yesterday, since eight o’ clock, since Christmas.
When we use since the verb is usually in the present perfect, but it may be in the past perfect: I
was glad to see Tom. I hadn’t seen him since last Christmas.
Note: From can also denote a point of time, but it must be followed by to or till: He works from
eight o’ clock till one o’ clock without a break.
8. In and Within
Don’t say: I’ll come back in an hour- if you mean before the end of an hour.
In means after the end of, within means before the end of.

8.5. VERBS OFTEN CONFUSED

1. Tell and Say

Don’t say: He told, ‘I will go home.’
He told that he would go home.
Say: He said, ‘I will go home.’
He said that he would go home.
Use to say (1) when referring to a person’s actual words, and (2) in indirect speech if the sentence
does not contain an indirect object.
2. Make and Do
(a) Make.
Don’t say: The carpenter did a large table.
Say: The carpenter made a large table.

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(b) Do
Don’t say: You must make your work carefully.
Say: You must do your work carefully.
3. Lie and Lay
(a) Lie
Don’t say: I’m going to lay down for an hour.
Say: I’m going to lie down for an hour.
(b) Lay
Don’t say: Please lie the exam papers on the desk.
Say: Please lay the exam papers on the desk.

Lie (=to rest); lay (=to put). Their principal parts are lie, lay, lain, and lay, laid, laid.
Note: Lie, lied, lied is to tell an untruth: He has lied to me. Lay, laid, laid also means to produce
eggs: The hen has laid an egg. (Idiom: Lay the table is to prepare the table for a meal)
4. Sit and Seat
(a) Sit
Don’t say: Let us seat at this desk to write a letter.
Say: Let us sit down at this desk to write a letter.
(b) Seat
Don’t say: He sat the passengers one by one.
Say: He seated the passengers one by one.
We use sit (sat, sat) as an intransitive verb. Seat (seated, seated) is a transitive verb and requires
an object. Very often the object of seat is a reflexive pronoun: He seated himself near the fire.
5. Rise and Raise
(a) Rise
Don’t say: Tom raises very early in the morning.
Say: Tom rises very early in the morning.
(b) Raise
Don’t say: She rose their salaries too often.
Say:
Rise (rose, risen) is an intransitive verb and means to go up, stand up, or get out of bed. It does not
require an object. Raise (raised, raised) is a transitive verb and means to lift up something.
6. Like and Love
Don’t say: I like you! Will you marry me?
Say: I love you! Will you marry me?
Both verbs can be used for people and things. The only difference is one of degree. Love is much
stronger than like.

7. Stay and Remain

(a) Stay
Don’t say: We remained in a very good hotel.
Say: We stayed in a very good hotel.
(b) Remain
Don’t say: Not many figs have stayed on the tree.
Say: Not many figs have remained on the tree.

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Here, to stay means to leave for a short time as a guest or a visitor, and to remain means to be left
after part has been taken or destroyed.
Note: Use either verb when the meaning is to continue in the same place or condition: I’ll stay (or
remain) at home till tomorrow. Remain is more formal.

8. Lend and Borrow

(a) Borrow
Don’t say: I want to lend you a book from you.
Say: I want to borrow a book from you.
(b) Lend
Don’t say: Will you please borrow me a book?
Say: Will you please lend me a book?
To borrow is to get something from someone, and to lend is to give something to someone.
9. Remember for remind
Don’t say: Remember me to give it back.
Say: Remind me to give it back

To remember is to have in mind: I remember what you told me. To remind is to make a person
remember something.

10. Wear and Put on

(a) Wear
Don’t say: Kathy always puts on black shoes.
Say: Kathy always wears on black shoes.

(b) Put on
Don’t say: I wear my clothes in the morning.
Say: I put on my clothes in the morning.

Wear means to have upon the body a garment or as an ornament. To put on denotes a simple act.
Note: To dress has nearly the same meaning as to put on, but the object of dress is a person and
not a thing: He dressed himself and went out, The mother dressed her baby.
11. Accept and Agree
Don’t say: The teacher accepted to go with us.
Say: The teacher agreed to go with us.
To accept means to take something that is offered to you. Maria accepted the bunch of flowers. It
also means to believe something that you are told: Ken accepted his explanation. Agree to means
to do what one is asked to do: David agreed to come to London, but agree with means to have the
same opinion as someone else. The Long family never agree with each other.
Note: We agree with a person, but to a thing. I agree with Luke, but I can’t agree to this plan.

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 8.6. ADVERBS OFTEN CONFUSED

1. Hardly for Hard

Don’t say: She works hardly.
Say: She works hard.
Hard means severely or seriously: She rubbed her eyes hard. Hardly means not quite or scarcely:
The baby can hardly walk.
2. Just now for Presently
Don’t say: The messenger will arrive just now.
Say: The message will arrive presently.
If we are speaking of a near and immediate future time, we must use presently, immediately, in a
minute, or soon. Just now refers to present or past time, and not to future time: He’s not at home
just now (= at this moment), He left just now (= a little time ago).

3. Presently for At present

Don’t say: His uncle is in London presently.
At present and presently are not synonymous. At present means now, but presently means soon:
She will come back presently (= soon).
4. Scarcely for Rarely
Don’t say: John scarcely comes to see me now.
Say: John rarely comes to see me now.
Scarcely is not synonymous with rarely. Rarely means not often, scarcely means not quite: I hat
scarcely finished when he came.
5. Lately for Late
Don’t say: Last night I went to bed lately.
Say: Last night I went to bed late.
The opposite of early is late, not lately. Lately means in recent times: I have been there late
8.7. ADJECTIVES OFTEN CONFUSED

1. Many and Much

(a) Many
Don’t say: My brother hasn’t much books.
Say: My brother hasn’t many books.
(b) Much
Don’t say: Is there many dust in the room?
Say: Is there much dust in the room?
Use many with plural nouns: many books, many boys. Use much with uncountable nouns: much
water or much bread.
Note: In affirmative sentences many and much are generally replaced by a lot (of), a great deal
(of), plenty (o), a good deal (of), a great number (of), a large quantity (of) etc.
2. His and Her
(a) Her
Don’t say: John visits her aunt every Sunday.
Say: John visits his aunt every Sunday.
(b) His

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Don’t say: Ann visits his uncle every Sunday.
Say: Ann visits her uncle every Sunday.
In English, possessive adjectives (and pronouns) agree with the person who possesses, and not
with the person or thing possessed. When the possessor is masculine, use his, and when the
possessor is feminine, use her.
3. Interesting and Interested
(a) Interesting
Don’t say: I’ve read an interested story.
Say: I’ve read an interesting story.

(b) Interested
Don’t say: Are you interesting in your work?
Say: Are you interested in your work?
Interesting refers to the thing which arouses interest, while interested refers to the person who
takes an interest in the thing.
10. Latter for Later
Don’t say: She got to school latter than I did.
Say: She got to school later than I did.
Later refers to time. Latter refers to order and means the second of two things just mentioned:
Alexandria and Cairo are large cities. The latter has a population of over a million. The opposite
of latter is former.
11. Last for Latter
Don’t say: Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens are both excellent writers, but I Prefer the last.
Say: Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens are both excellent writers, but I Prefer the latter.
“The latter” means the second of two people or things which have been mentioned, whereas “the
last” refers to a series of more than two.
12. Last for Latest
Don’t say: What’s the last news from the Palace?
Say: What’s the latest news from the Palace?
Latest means the last up to the present. Last is the final one: Z is the last letter of the alphabet.

13. Small, Big for Young, Old

Don’t say: I’m two years small than you.
She’s three years bigger than me.
Say: I’m two years younger than you.
She’s three years older than me.
If reference is to age, say young or old. Small and big usually refer to size: He’s big (or small) for
his age.
14. Beautiful for Handsome or Good-looking
Don’t say: He’s grown into a beautiful young man.
Say: He’s grown into a handsome young man.
We usually say that a man is handsome or good-looking, and that a woman is beautiful, lovely,
good-looking or pretty.
15. Sick for ill
Don’t say: He’s been sick for over one year.
Say: He’s been ill for over one year.

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To be ill means to be in bad health.
8.8. NOUN OFTEN CONFUSED

1. House and Home

Don’t say: You should go to your house now.
Say: You should go to your home now.
Take care not to say my house, his house, or your house when you should say home. A house is
any building used for dwelling in, and home is the particular house in which someone is living.
Note: Home may also denote one’s own country. When an Englishman abroad says: I’m going
home this summer he means going to England.
2. Story and History
(a) Story
Don’t say: She told me an interesting history.
Say: She told me an interesting story.
(b) History
Don’t say: We study the story of the Romans.
Say: We study the history of the Romans.
A story is an account of events which may or may not be true. History is a systematic record of
past events.
3. Shade for Shadow
(a) Shade
Don’t say: I like to sit in the shadow.
Say: I like to sit in the shade.
(b) Shadow
Don’t say: The dog saw its shade in the water.
Say: The dog saw its shadow in the water.
Shade is a place sheltered from the sun. Shadow is a shade of a distinct form, as a tree, a man, a
dog, etc.
4. Stranger for Guest
Don’t say: They had some strangers last night.
Say: They had some guests last night.
A guest is usually a friend who comes to our house for a visit, while a stranger is a person unknown
to us.
5. Customer for Client
(a) Customer
Don’t say: That grocer has plenty of clients.
Say: : That grocer has plenty of customers.
(b) Client
Don’t say: That lawyer has plenty of customers.
Say: That lawyer has plenty of clients.
6. Theatre for Play
Don’t say: Sarah is going to see a theatre tonight.
Say: Sarah is going to see a play tonight.
A theatre is a building in which plays are acted, not the play itself.
7. Play for Game
Don’t say: They had a nice play of football.

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Say: They had a nice game of football.
Avoid using play for game. Play means amusement: He is fond of play.
8. Woman for Wife
Don’t say: The man took his woman with him.
Say: The man took his wife with him.
In English, these two words are carefully distinguished: wife is the woman in marriage. Both
husbands and wives can be referred to as partners.
9. Ground for Floor
Don’t say: When I entered the room, I saw a book on the floor.
Say: When I entered the room, I saw a book on the ground.
The floor is the part of the room on which we walk. The ground is outside the house.

8.9. CONFUSION OF NUMBER

The following cannot be used in plural:

1. Advice
Don’t say: Nick gave me good advices.
Say: Nick gave me good advice.
Note: When we mean only one thing we say a piece of advice: Let me give you a piece of advice.
2. Information
Don’t say: Can you give me any informations?
Say: Can you give me any information?
Note: When we mean only one thing we say an item or a bit of information: He gave me a useful
item of information.
3. Furniture
Don’t say: Furnitures are usually made of wood.
Say: Furniture is usually made of wood.
Note: Furniture is a singular noun and always takes a singular verb and pronoun: A piece of
furniture means one thing only.

4. Luggage
Don’t say: Her luggages are at the station.
Say: Her luggage is at the station.
Note: Baggage, another word for luggage, cannot be used in the pliral either: The baggage is ready
for the train
5. Damage
Don’t say: The fire caused many damages.
Say: The fire caused a lot of damage.
Note: The plural form damages denotes money paid to make good a loss: The insurance company
paid the man damages.
6. Work
Don’t say: Today I have many works to do.
Say: Today I have a lot of work to do.
Note: The plural form works means a factory or the writings of an author: I visited the steel works;
the works of Shakespeare are many.
7. Character

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Don’t say: The school builds good characters.
Note: The plural form characters denotes the letters of the alphabet or the people in a book or play.

8. Hair
Don’t say: That man has long hair.
Say: That man has long hair.
Note: When we use hair to denote a single thread, the plural form is hairs: I found two long hairs
in my food.
9. Bread
Don’t say: Breads are sold at the baker’s.
Say: Bread is sold at the baker’s.
Note: We can say a loaf of bread and loaves of bread: I bought a loaf (two loaves) of bread.
10. Fish
Don’t say: Yesterday we had fishes for dinner.
Say: Yesterday we had fish for dinner.
Note: Fish as food or in bulk (=large number) is always singular. We rarely use the plural form
(fishes) which denotes fish individually: I caught three small fishes.
11. Fruit
Don’t say: We didn’t have many fruits this year.
Say: I didn’t have much fruit this year.
Note: We rarely use the plural form fruits which means different kinds of fruit: Cyprus produces,
apricots, and other fruits.
12. Grass
Don’t say: The dog lay down on the grasses.
Say: The dog lay down on the grass.
13. Dozen
Don’t say: I want to buy three dozens eggs.
Say: I want to buy three dozen eggs.
When dozen is not preceded by a numeral (like three) or by a we use the plural form: There were
dozens of eggs.
14. Hundred, etc.
Don’t say: The town has fifty thousands people.
Say: The town has fifty thousand people.
Note: Hundred, thousand, and million take the plural form if they are not preceded by a numeral
(like three) or by a: Thousands of people were present.
15. Knowledge
Don’t say: Karen has good knowledges of history.
Say: Keren has good knowledge of history.
16. Progress
Don’t say: Tom has made great progresses.
Say: Tom has made great progress.
17. Mathematics, etc. + singular verb
Don’t say: Mathematics are not easy to learn.
Say: Mathematics is not easy to learn.
18. Money + singular verb

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Don’t say: All her money are kept in the bank.
Say: All her money is kept in the bank.
19. News + singular verb
Don’t say: I’m glad that the news are good.
Say: I’m glad that the news is good.
Note: News, though plural in form, always takes a singular verb. If only one thing is meant we say
a piece or an item of news: This is a good piece of news.
20. Scissors, etc. + plural verb
Don’t say: The scissor is lying on the table.
Say: The scissors are lying on the table.

21. People + plural verb

Don’t say: There is lots of people in the cinema.
Say: There are lots of people in the cinema.
Note: People, meaning nation, is singular. The plural is peoples: The Greeks are a brave people,
The peoples of Europe are often engaged in war.
22. Wages + plural verb
Don’t say: Keith complains that his wage is low.
Say: Keith complains that his wages are low.
23. Misuse of the adjective in plural
Don’t say: The riches have the duty to help the poors.
Say: The rich has the duty to help the poor.
Note: The adjective cannot take the plural form, even if they are used as nouns in the plural.
24. Misuse of as well as with a plural verb.
Don’t say: Tom as well as Mark are coming.
Say: Tom as well as Mark is coming.
Two singular nouns joined by as well as require the verb to be in singular.
25. Misuse of all (=everything) with a plural verb.
Don’t say: Nothing’s left; all are lost.
Say: Nothing’s left; all is lost.
All meaning everything, takes a singular verb, all meaning everybody, takes a plural verb: All of
us are present.
26. Misuse of There is for There are
Don’t say: There is some girls waiting outside.
Say: There are some girls waiting outside.
There is changes to there are if the noun that follows is plural.

27. The number and A Number

(a) The number
Don’t say: The number of girls are increasing.
Say: The number of girls is increasing.
(b) A number
Don’t say: A number of students is absent today.
Say: A number of students are absent today.

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When we precede number by the it denotes a unit and is singular. When it is preceded by a it means
several or many and is plural.
28. Misuse of life, etc., for lives, etc.
Don’t say: Many people lost their life.
Say: Many people lost their lives.
In English, we use words like life, heart, soul, body, mind in plural when they refer to more than
one person.

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 UNIT NINE: LETTER WRITING
Although in recent times, communication has become much easier with the help of phones,
computers and faster travel options, it is important to learn the art of letter writing.
TYPES OF LETTERS
Letters can be classified into many kinds on the basis of their purpose. Letters can be informal or
formal. Now let us look at each of the two in turn.

9.1 INFORMAL LETTER

What’s an informal letter?

An informal or friendly letter is usually addressed to people you know personally or to your loved
ones. It is also called a personal letter. One of the most important features of a friendly letter is
that it is written almost as though one was speaking to whom he/she is writing to. Given this, one
can tackle several subject-matters when writing a friendly letter.

Why should you write a friendly letter?

‘Why should I write friendly letters?’ you may ask. ‘I can always call my family and friends on
the telephone.’
Often, this is true. There are some situations, however, when the pleasure that a letter can bring to
your friend or relative is worth the little bit of extra effort it takes to write it.
Suppose that your grandmother is ill. You sit down and write a friendly letter telling her that you
hope she will feel better soon. You include news about yourself and your family, too. Your
grandmother can read and reread the words you wrote especially to her as often as she wants. She
can share your letter with others, and she can save it.
In a nutshell, letters can be preserved and read any time in future. Reading such letters can bring
back memories of special people or important events.

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Sample of a friendly letter

Amahoro Street

Remera , 1052

Tel: 0788474889

March 12th, 2014

Dear Grandma,

I hope you are doing well. I missed you for my birthday party last week. I
want to thank you for the beautiful sweater you sent me for my birthday. When I
received it in the mail last week, I almost squealed in excitement.

Thank you for knitting such a pretty blue sweater for me. I is soft and keeps
me warm at night, and it is in my favourite colour too! I will show it to all my
friends once I go to school after the holidays.

I hope to come and visit you very soon, Grandma. I am eagerly waiting to
meet you.

Yours lovingly,

Tom

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Parts of an informal/ friendly letter

Looking again at the typical friendly letter above, you will notice that a friendly letter has 6
parts: the heading, greeting, body, closing, signature and sender’s name. The heading is
made up of the sender’s address and the date.

Things to consider when writing a friendly letter:

- The writer’s address (normally without her/his name) should go in the top right-hand corner.
Note, however, when writing a friendly letter to a parent, close relative, or friend, whom you know
very well, and who knows your address, you can omit writing the address. Only mention the date.

-The date is written immediately under the sender’s address after leaving a gap of one or two lines.
Alternative methods of writing the date are:

2/12/2014
December 2, 2014
2nd December 2014
December 2nd, 2014

- The salutation is put at the beginning of the line after a gap of one or two lines and followed by
a comma. The salutation is equivalent to “hello”. For people we know well we can use the form
Dear John. For close relations Dearest James can be used.

- The main body of the letter will, of course, depend on the person it is being sent to. Remember
that letter-writing is similar to conversation, and we should adopt the style we should use if we
were talking to the person we are writing to. The writing style of a friendly letter is casual and
informal. Anyway, there are different degrees of informality. For example, an informal letter to
one’s brother would be much more informal than a letter to one’s uncle.
The body or message of the letter includes the main purpose of writing the letter and the message
the writer wishes to convey. The body includes one or more paragraphs. The first paragraph of
the body usually introduces the main message and states the reason for writing the letter.
Remember to indent paragraphs, i.e. move in the first word of each paragraph.

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- The closing is equivalent to “bye”. It is written in the middle of the page a line or two below the
last line of the main body of the letter. Yours sincerely can be used for most personal
letters. Yours is also common. Yours ever can be used when writing to a person you have
known a long time. For a close relation one can use:
Yours affectionately,
Your ever admiring friend,
Love,
Note that a comma is used after the letter-closing.

- The signature is put under the ending of the letter.

- The sender’s name is written below the signature.

Note that in a personal letter we do not include the address of the person to whom the letter is
being sent.

Addressing the envelope

No matter how hard you work at writing a friendly letter, your letter will not be delivered unless
you address the envelope clearly and correctly. The name and address of the person to
whom the letter is written go in the center of the envelope.

Steps involved in writing a friendly letter

- Think of a person to write to. Choose one or more than one topics that will interest that
person.
- Write the first draft just to get your ideas down on paper.
- Revise your letter to make it more interesting. You read the letter to someone else, and ask
for suggestion.
- Proofread your work, and check the form of your letter.
- Make a final copy, address an envelope, and mail it.

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9.2 WRITING AN APPLICATION LETTER
What is an application letter?
An application letter is a letter that you write to a prospective employer when you are trying to get
a job.
Kinds of application letters
Application letter are of two kinds:
- Solicited application letter (written in response to an advertisement)
- Unsolicited application letter (not written in response to an advertisement)
Semi-block or indented form (British correspondance style)
James HABARUGIRA
POB BOX : 24523
KIGALI
March 12th, 2014

The Representative of
UNHCR in Rwanda
P.O BOX 125 KIGALI
KIGALI - RWANDA

Dear Sir,
RE: Applying for the post of Field Monitor

Having heard from one of my friends under your employ that you need a ‘Field Monitor’
in your office, I offer my services for the post and hope that your will give me an opportunity of
proving my worth to you.
I am an Accounting graduate from Kigali Independent University. Besides, I am 33 years
old, married, and have a sound physique.
I have worked for EWSA / Rubavu since 2006 but wish to leave my present position
because it does not offer me the opportunities which I would expect to find in an organisation like
yours.
I would appreciate working in a modern and challenging company like yours. I am ready
to appear an interview if necessary. Enclosed are copies of my academic testimonials.
I shall be highly obliged if you could consider me for the post.
Faithfully yours,

James HABARUGIRA

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John MUGIRANEZA
Western Province
Rubavu District
Tel: 08454509
E-mail: mugirjohn@[Link]

October 21st, 2013

The Managing Director

BRALIRWA / GISENYI
P.O BOX 112 GISENYI.

Dear Sir,
Re : REPLY TO AN ADVERTISEMENT FOR THE POSITION OF JUNIOR CLERK

With reference to your advertisement in ‘‘The New Times’’ dated the 21st March 2009,
I submit my application for the above mentioned post in the light of my qualifications and
experience given below.

I am a holder of a Bachelor’s Degree in Management, and possess a sound knowledge of

English.

During my studies, I was working as an honorary part-time clerk for the University and
have thus gained sufficient practical experience for filing, dispatching and drafting simple
letters.

I enclose two testimonials- one from KIU Finance Director and another from the Mayor
of Rubavu District.

I assure you that I shall do my utmost to please you with my hard and honest work.

I am looking forward to receiving your favourable reply.

Faithfully yours,

John MUGIRANEZA

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Like any other business letter, an application letter consists of the following:
1. The sender’s address

The usual position of the sender’s address is the top right hand corner.
2. The date

This is written on the right hand corner, just below the writer’s address, after leaving a gap of
one to two lines.
3. The receiver’s address

This is written on the left hand of corner, after skipping two to three lines from the date.
4. The letter opening/salutation

This should appear to three lines below the writer’s address. The letter opening can be written
in different ways, notably:
Dear Sir,
Dear Sirs,
Dear Madam,
Gentlemen,
Note: Every letter opening must normally be followed by a comma.
5. The subject

This indicates the purpose of the letter. It is written below the receiver’s address.
6. The body

This is the letter itself, the communication, the message.

It consists of three sub-parts: introduction, development and conclusion.

a. Introduction

This expresses the sense of the letter. The introduction must be striking and straight to the
point.
The introductory paragraph of an application letter can be written as follows:
1. I wish to apply for the post of “Secretary” in your enterprise, advertised in today’s
“IMVAHO NSHYA”.

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2. I am humbly writing to apply for the position of “Accountant” advertised in “The New
Times” dated the 3rd December 2012.
3. In response to your advertisement in this morning’s “The New Vision”, I submit my
application for the above mentioned post in the light of my qualifications and experience
given below.
4. I wish to be considered for the post of “Traffic Manager” which I understood has fallen
vacant in your enterprise recently.

b. Development

This is brief account of your age, qualifications, work experience, etc. such information is
provided so as to impress a prospective employer of your suitability for the post he/she wants
to fill. This means that you must that you must give him/her all the necessary details of the
skills and competences that you have.
The development should be made up of more than one paragraph. Note that each paragraph of
this section should contain one issue. Therefore, the number of paragraphs that this section
must have depends on the number of issues the writer intends to communicate to the addressee.
Remember to indent the paragraphs if you are using the standard English version.
c. Conclusion

Here, an assurance is generally given by the applicant that he/she would do his/her best to
satisfy the employer in case he/she is selected of the job.

Examples of concluding paragraph

1. I shall do my best to satisfy you with my hard and honest work, if selected for the post.
2. I shall be highly obliged if you could consider me for the post.
3. Should you be pleased to give me a chance, I assure you, Sir, that I will do my utmost to
satisfy you in all ways.
4. I look forward to hearing from you.

7. The letter ending/subscription

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 You can write the following expressions. If you do not know the person you are writing to,
use:
Yours faithfully,
Faithfully yours,
Truly yours,
Respectfully yours,
With due respect,
If you are know the person you are writing to, use:
Yours sincerely,
Sincerely,
8. The signature

This is placed below the letter ending.

9. The sender’s name

This is placed below the signature.

WRITING PRACTICE

Write a letter on any of the following:

1 . Write a first letter to your pen-friend telling her/him about yourself, your family, and your
interests or hobbies. Add any information you wish.
2. Write a letter to anybody at home, telling him/her about how you are getting on with courses
at university.
3. Write a letter your pen-friend telling him/her about your country.
4. Write a letter to your pen-friend telling him about ULK, your university. Everything
considered, request her/him to tell you about her/his university as well.
5. Write a letter to your uncle who has promised to help you financially when you continue your
studies beyond their present level. Tell him of your plans for the next three years and state what
you expect your financial needs will be.
6. Write a letter to your parents and tell them that you have arrived safely at school despite a lot of
problems you faced on the way. Explain the problems and how they were solved.

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  FORMAL LETTER
What is a formal letter?
A formal or business letter is usually addressed to people we do not know very well, people we
have met, or people who are in authority. A formal letter is usually written to give information,
express a concern, make a request or complain.
The difference between formal and informal letters
One way in which a formal letter is different from a friendly letter is its form. A formal letter has
two parts that an informal letter does not have notably the receiver’s address and the subject
matter. Another way in which a formal letter differs from an informal letter is its writing style.
The language, or style, of a formal letter is formal and polite. The letter should be brief and to the
point, including all necessary details but not unnecessary personal information. In other words, it
should be businesslike.

Examine the business letter below (American correspondence style):

Gisenyi Sector
Rubavu District
Western Province
Tel.: 0788800115

March 12th , 2014

The Managing Director

Akagera Motors, ltd.
Kigali

Dear Sir,

Re: Complaining

I am writing to complain about the new car I bought from your company last week.

As a matter of fact, it has not been working since the second day after buying it. I read the manual
instructions carefully and also tried replacing the batteries. However, it still does not work.

I would be most grateful if you could help me find out why the car stopped working and whether
I can get it repaired or replaced.

I am looking forward to receiving your favorable reply.

Yours sincerely,
Francis MB

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Points on formal letters:

- The writer’s address and the date. The remarks made for the friendly letter apply here.
- The name and address of the person to receive the letter should appear on the left-hand
side of the paper next to the margin one or two lines lower than the date. The commas at
the end of each line are optional. The reason for including the name or position and address
of the person to receive the letter is that a business letter can be considered a legal document
and there should be n o doubt about whom it is intended for. The letter may be taken out
of its envelope by the clerk, and if there is there is no indication on the letter itself of the
person it is addressed to, there may be may be confusion.
- The salutation. Unless we have met the Manager and he is well known to us, we should
begin the letter Dear Sir or, more formally Sir. If we are writing to a company and not to
an individual, we use Dear Sirs or, using the American style, Gentleman.
- The main body of the letter does not contain informal and meaningless English. In a
business letter, as indeed in all letters, we should aim to write clear and simple English.
Naturally one’s style is not conversational, but this does not mean that it should be artificial
and stilted.
- The ending of the letter
Since you usually do not know the person who will read your letter, the closing should be
polite and formal rather than friendly and personal. In business letters use closings such as
Faithfully yours or Yours truly, not Your friend or Love.
- The signature should, of course, be neat and legible. What you write depends on the
customs of your own country. In most cases this will be your first name followed by your
surname or family name.
Steps for writing a formal letter
You will follow these steps to write a formal letter.

Step One: Choose a topic.

Formal letters can do many different jobs such as ordering something, requesting information, and
requesting action about a problem. You have to find which topic is appropriate to your letter. You
may ask yourself such questions as:
1. Am I going to write to ask for information about something?

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2. Am I going to write to order something?
3. Am I going to write to complain about something?

Step Two: Write your letter.

As you write your business letter, try to keep each of these suggestions in mind:
1. Think about the purpose of your letter. Make sure every sentence you write relates to that
purpose.
2. Make sure that you have included all necessary details for your letter to accomplish its purpose.
3. Do not include personal information.
4. Use language that is polite and businesslike rather than casual and informal.

Step Three: Revise your letter.

Read over your letter, and make any changes that you think will improve it. Ask yourself these
questions:
1. What is the purpose of my letter? Does every sentence fit the purpose?
2. Have I included all necessary information?
3. Is my letter written in a polite, businesslike style? Have I included personal information not
suitable for a business letter?

Step Four: Proofread your letter.

Add the heading, inside address, closing, and signature to your business letter. Then proofread it.
Ask yourself these questions:
1. Have I used proper business-letter form?
2. Are all the words spelled correctly?
3. Is each paragraph indented?

Step Five: Make a final copy.

Make a final copy of your business letter, either typed or written in ink. Check to make sure you
have copied correctly.

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Application letter sample

(THE NAME OF THE APPLICANT)

Gisenyi Sector
Rubavu District
Western Province
Tel.: 0788800115

March 12th , 2014

The Managing Director

Akagera Motors, ltd.
Kigali
Dear Ms. Thompson,

Re: JOB APPLICATION

I am interested in applying for the Sales Executive position recently advertised in The New York
Times. The marketing skills I have developed from my past work experience and educational
background support my candidacy for the announced position.

As you can see from my resume, the internship I had with XYZ Corporation, provided me an
opportunity to gain practical experience with account maintenance and cold-calling new
accounts. I have also worked as a waiter for the past four years, learning firsthand how to
effectively deal with customers and their demands. I have been formally commended by
management several times and have been rewarded with the title of "Employee of the Month"
several times.

I would like an opportunity to discuss your specific needs and my overall abilities regarding the
announced position. You can contact me at (718) 234-6767. You can email me at
[Link]@___mail.com. Thanking you for considering me for this position.

Sincerely,

Alex Wilson

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WRITING PRACTICE

1 Answer the following advertisement

The minister of Defense invites applicants from university leavers who wish to train as army
officers. Only students aged under 30 and with sound knowledge of English should apply. Special
importance should be attached to leadership qualities and physical fitness. Apply Minister of
Defense.

6. Write an application letter for the post of Marketing Officer in KCB/Muhanga Branch as
advertised in yesterday’s The New Times. The letter should be addressed to KCB Managing
Director/Kigali.

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 UNIT TEN: WRITING A CURRICULUM VITAE
A c.v. is a document giving detail on your qualifications, work experience, personal skills, etc. that
you send to a prospective employer when you are applying for a job.
Structure of a c.v.
A good c.v. mainly consists of the following components:
1. Personal details

Here, your name, contact address, nationality, place of birth, date of birth, marital status must be
provided.
2. Education background/ Qualifications

Past and present academic qualifications must be detailed in this part.

Note:
-That the most recent achievements should always appear on top of the ladder.
-It is not important to provide information on your primary education.
3. Work experience

Here, an account of your past and present work experience should be given. When describing your
work experience, start with the most recent job. Do not fail to mention relevant training courses
you have ever had.
4. Key skills

In this part, provide information on key skills of yours. Examples include “holding a driver’s
license”, “mastery of computer”, “fluency in English”, etc.
5. Personal interests or hobbies

In this part, list your relevant interests or hobbies, i.e. what you prefer doing as extra curriculum
activities, such as reading, swimming, football, sightseeing, music, etc.
6. Languages

Here, mention the languages you can speak and write. Do not fail to specify your level of
proficiency in each language.

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 7. References

In this part, list two or three people who may be contacted by your prospective employer for them
to provide information about you. Remember to write down their contacts (telephone numbers and
e-mail addresses)
SAMPLE OF A C.V.
CURRICULUM VITAE
I. PERSONAL DETAILS

Names: Peter NGABO

Place and Date of birth: TCHONA/ DRC, on 11/11/1974
Nationality: Rwandan
Marital Status: Married
Address: Rubavu District, Western Province,
Tel.: 078864543
E-mail: peterngabo@[Link]
II. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

- From 2010-2012: Graduate studies at Kampala University, English Language and

Education Literature Program. Award: MEDL
- From 2000-2004: Undergraduate studies at The National University of Rwanda.
Award: Bed.
- From 1986-1993: Secondary Education at Maendeleo Institute, DRC. Award:
Certificate in Teacher-Training (Psycho-Pedagogy).
I. WORK EXPERIENCE

* March 2006- Present: English Lecturer and Director of CELA (Centre de Langues) at KIST.
*2004- March 2006: Teacher of French and English at Rwankeri Adventist Secondary School,
former Ruhengeri Province.
*1996-2000: Teacher of English and French at Ecole des Sciences et Techniques de Busogo
(ESTB), in former Ruhengeri Province.
*1995-1996: Teacher of French and English at Institut SEAMAN, Goma/DRC.
*1993-1994: Primary school Teacher at Buzihe Pimary School, Masisi/DRC.

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ADDITIONALS:
*2011 to Present: Part time Language Lecturer at AUCA (Adventist University of Central Africa).
* In 2008: Training the staff in English and helping with translations.
*In 2007: Training soldiers in English at Marine Regiment.
II. KEY SKILLS

I am familiar with Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Power Point and Internet. Moreover, I am a
confident communicator.

III. PERSONAL INTERESTS & HOBBIES

Reading and Music

IV. LANGUAGES

I can speak and write four languages: English, French, Kinyarwanda & Kiswahili.
V. REFERENCES

-Dr KARASIRA Njoroge, Rector of KIST, Tel.: 0788309567

-MUGISHA Jean Paul, BNR, Tel.: 0788539686; 252540876
I, Peter NGABO, declare that the information provided above is correct and authentic.

ASSIGNMENT
Suppose you have read an advertisement about job vacancy, position accountant, Bralirwa Co Ltd.
in IMVAHO NSHYA. Draft an application in response to that advertisement, as well as a c.v.
standing as its accompaniment. Be as creative and imaginative as possible.

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UNIT ELEVEN: HOW TO WRITE A MEMO
Definition
A memo is a message or other information in writing sent by one person or department to another
in the same business organization. It is used between people at different levels within an
organization, for instance from a superior to a subordinate, from a subordinate to a superior, or
between employees of equal status,…
Specific uses of a memo
Specific uses of a memo include:
- Giving instructions;
- Conveying a piece of information;
- Reminding people about existing arrangements or regulations;
- Fixing responsibility;
- Requesting information;
- Etc.

Presentation of a memo
A memo mainly consists of: main heading, ‘To’ and ‘From’ headings, date and reference, and
main body.
1. Main heading
This is the title itself: MEMO or MEMORANDUM
2. ‘To’ and ‘From’ headings
These make clear who sent the memo, and to whom it was sent.
Always mention both the name and the position of the sender as well as those of the recipient,
except when sending identical memos to several people.
[Link]: Murego Medard, Head Teller
From: Dr Bahati Prince, Branch Manager

2. To: All Sales Staffs

From: Dr Tim NDAMIYE, Head of Sales Department
3. Date and Reference

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A date is essential on a memo to indicate when the communication was sent. A reference is equally
important to indicate the sense of the communication.
4. Main body
This is the memo itself, the message, the communication. It should clearly and concisely be
expressed.
5. Signing off
The person sending the memo should endorse it.

SAMPLE OF A MEMO
INTERNAL MEMO
To: All support workers
From: The Director of Human Resources

December 4th , 2012

Concern: Your lateness for work

I have noticed during the last few days that you come to work late. This is in violation of the Article
20 of our institution’s regulations.
I, therefore, take this opportunity to remind you that you have to take punctuality seriously. If there
is an unexpected happening that prevents you from arriving at work place on time, please contact
me to address your problem in advance.
Note that any lateness without apology will result in a disciplinary action.
Hoping that you are going to slap yourselves, I thank you.
Sincerely,
DHR

Assignment
Assume you are Mayor of X or Y District, and then draft a memo addressing all the Executive
Secretaries on any issue of your choice.

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 UNIT TWELVE: HOW TO WRITE MINUTES
What is meant by minutes?
Minutes are defined as a record of what was discussed during a formal meeting of any organization.
They can also be defined as a report kept about the meeting.
Importance of minutes
Whatever name they are given, what is important is that minutes record what happens or what is
discussed in the meeting with the purpose of having a record for reference in implementing the
decisions made by the organization. As the organization meets, it sets out plans, and to check
whether these plans have been implemented, the surest way is to check the minutes.
The other purpose of minutes is for attribution. In this case they are a record of what said what
and when.
Components of minutes
The following are some of the main components of minutes:
1. The title or the heading

This is always written in capital letters and underlined. It must have the name of the group that is
meeting, the date, time and venue of the meeting.
Note that the time could either be reflected from when the meeting started or from when it started
to when it ended.
e.g. MINUTES OF THE AGEULK’S MEETING HELD AT GISENYI CAMPUS ON 5 TH
SEPTEMBER 2013 AT 11:OO AM3.
2. Record of attendance

Attendance is a list of members present, members absent with apologies, those absent without
apologies, and as far as possible people in attendance (i.e. guests who have been invited in for
advice).
Note: The list of those attending the meeting must be recorded beginning with the senior most,
i.e. begin with the chairperson followed by the vice chairperson, then come the names of the others
listed in alphabetical order. The secretary’s name should come last.
The record of attendance is organized as follows:
(a) Present
(b) Apologies

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(c) Absent
(d) In attendance

3. The agenda

This specifies the general topics that guided the discussion during the meeting. There are some
mandatory or compulsory items that must always be there, notably:
- Opening prayer
- Communication from the chair (welcoming participants, thanking them for their
punctuality, addressing apologies received, etc.)
- Approval of the previous minutes (reading, correcting, and then approving the minutes)
- Matters arising from the previous minutes (reviewing the minutes to see whether the
decisions and recommendations made in the previous meeting have been implemented)
- AOB ( issues that might be raised during the meeting)
- Adjournment (the time when the meeting adjourned)
- Next meeting (the date of the next meeting if the group intends to meet again)

Note: Other items will depend on what the meeting is set to discuss. They are placed between
Matters arising and AOB.
4. Actual minutes
It is in this part that all the topics or issues of the agenda (be mandatory or specific) are tackled
and discussed, one by one. Each item of the agenda is given a number and a heading.
e.g. Min. 01/12/13: Opening prayer
Min. 02/12/13: Communication from the chair
Point to remember
-Discussions should not be recorded word for word. That is, minutes should record only decisions
arrived at.
- In minutes, do not write the names of people who made suggestions. It common to use the passive
voice: “it was reported….”, “the matter was discussed…….”, “it was decided………”, “it was
suggested……”,etc.

4. Signing off

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At the bottom, blanks are left for the secretary and the chairperson’s signatures after the minutes
have been confirmed at the next meeting.
SAMPLE OF MINUTES
MINUTES OF THE KAMPALA UNIVERSITY FOREIGN STUDENTS ASSOCIATION
3RD GENERAL HELD ON 22ND OCTOBER 2013 AT KAMPALA CAMPUS AT 11:00 AM
I. ATTENDANCE
Present:
Ms. Brumen Alice, Chairperson
Mr. Onze Charles, Vice Chairperson
Ms. Dough Pete
Ms. Kroges Rebecca
Ms. Kips Agnes
Mr. Matt Oga
Mr. Joe Fida, Secretary
Apologies:
Ms. Cox Peters
Mr. Cowford Acham
Mr. Bendict Gonen
Absent :
Ms. Justin Inka
Ms. Amelia Akol

II. AGENDA
1. Opening prayer
2. Communication from the chair
3. Reading of the previous minutes
4. Reaction from matters arising
5. About launching of Association
6. Nomination of the speaker
7. AOB
8. Adjournment

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9. Next meeting
10. Closing prayer
III. CURRENT MINUTES
Min 1/10/13: Opening Prayer
There was an opening prayer from Mr. Onze Charles.
Min 2/1O/13: Communication from the Chair
The chairperson welcomed everyone to the meeting and thanked them for attending promptly.
Min 3/10/13: Confirmation of the previous minutes
The minutes of the previous meeting were read through and members responded. Eventually, they
were accepted and duly signed by the chairperson and the secretary.
Min 4/10/13: Matters arising from the last meeting
Members wanted to know why the dress rehearsal scheduled to take place before the provincial
Drama Festival was not organized. The Chairperson explained that three main characters had been
sick.
Min 5/10/13: Launching of the Association
It was agreed that the launching should be on 8th April 2006 at Gaba Campus at 2:00 PM.
Min 6/10/13: Nomination of the Speaker
Mr. Giten Kinde was nominated as the speaker for Mutundwe Campus and Keiza Brandy as
speaker of Gaba Campus.
Min 7/10/13: AOB
Raised: Students excursion to be in Jinja.
Min 8/10/13: Adjournment
There being no other business, the meeting was adjourned at 2.15pm.
Min 9/10/13: Next meeting
The next meeting will take place at Mutundwe Campus, on November 5th, 2013.
Min 10/10/13: Closing Prayer
There was a closing prayer said by Ms. Krugen Rebecca
Minutes compiled by:
Secretary: Mr. Joe Fida Signature....................................
Confirmed by:
Chairperson: Ms. Brumen Alice Signature:.......................................

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Date: ......................................
PRACTICE EXERCISE
Work on either of the following questions:
1. Write the minutes based on the following agenda:
1. Opening prayer
2. Communication by the chair
3. Approval of the previous minutes
4. Matters arising from the previous minutes
5. How to develop our communication skills
6. Strategies leading to better performance
7. Farewell picnic
8. AOB
Date of next month’s meeting
Note: The meeting was held by Year II/CS./Day Students. Be as creative and imaginative as
possible.
2. Suppose you attended X or Y organization’s meeting, where you were assigned to take the
minutes. Write the minutes of that meeting. Be as creative and imaginative as possible.

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UNIT THIRTEEN: CONVERSATIONS AND GROUP DISCUSSIONS
Conversations and discussions are different from one another. In conversations, people talk about
several topics or subjects. What is talked about is not decided ahead of time; instead, the
conversation unfolds spontaneously. One person mentions something that sparks an idea or
memory in another participant, and the conversation shifts to something else.

In discussions, people usually share information and opinions about one topic or problem in order
to decide something. The subject of the discussion is decided beforehand, and the participants stick
to that topic.

Here are the seven rules of conversation:

Rule 1: When you do not know how to begin, look for ‘common
ground’.
Rule 2: Do not try to do all the talking.
Rule 3: Keep the conversation alive by tossing out questions.
Rule 4: If you do not want to arouse resentment, ask the right kind
of questions.
Rule 5: When others are talking, be a good listener.
Rule 6: Do not fail to comment on what has been said.
Rule7: Follow the scriptural principles that apply to all
conversation.
Guidelines for taking part in discussions
1. Know the topic or purpose of the discussion.
2. Move the discussion along by making helpful comments that
stick to the topic or by asking appropriate questions.
3. Listen carefully to what others say.
4. If you disagree about something, say so, but be polite.
5. If you do not understand something, say so.
6. Help others take part by asking them questions.
7. Try to reach a conclusion.
Practice

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1. Pair off with another student, and then snatch five minutes’ conversation. Make sure you apply
the seven rules pertaining to conversation.
2. Here is a discussion that took place in Mr. Mugabo’s class. Read
it and then answer the questions set on it.

Ali: We have to decide if we will bring our own food or collect

money and buy it.
Roger: I vote for bringing our own food. Then we will each get to
eat what we like.
Sylvan: I agree with Roger.
Group: Me, too.
Steve: We also have to decide where to have the picnic.
Sue: What about Akagera National Park?
Mr. Mugabo: What about it, Sue?
Sue: Well, it was great for last year’s picnic. Let’s have it there
again.
Edith: Wow!
Anny: Akagera National Park is nice, but there’s also Iwawa. Its
playing fields are better than Akagera’s. Besides, we can
have a view of Kivu Lake there. What do you think, Mike?
Mike: Anny’s right about the fields and lake view, but visiting
Iwawa is very demanding. We would need a pass from
Marine Regiment, as well as one or two well-equipped boats
to take us to the island.
Tom: What about the food?
John: Oh, Tom. Weren’t you listening? We have already decided
that we would bring our own food.
Mr. Mugabo: Is everyone agreed then about Akagera and bringing
your own food? Good. Then, it seems that you have
solved the two main problems-the place and the food.

Questions:

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1. What was the purpose of the discussion?
2. Did each speaker keep to the topic?
3. How do you know that the participants listened to one another?
4. Who did not?
5. What do you thing would have happened if everyone had not
agreed about the place and the food?

PRACTICE EXERCISE
Form a group with five or six classmates to have a ten-minute discussion. Decide on a topic, or
choose one of the following topics:
- What can be done to create an English environment on our campus?
- How can your class raise money to help vulnerable people?
- What should be done for ULK students to be much more proficient?

Reading text: PETER, FREDA AND PAULA

This is a story about three children who attend the same secondary school in a town called Dorado
somewhere in Africa. Their parents are farmers who live thirty kilometers from the town. There is
no secondary school nearby and that is why the children have to live away from home. Peter, the
oldest, is nearly sixteen. Freda and Paula are twins. They are thirteen and a half, but Freda does
very well at school and is in a higher class than her sister although they are the same age. Paula
has always been sensible and practical.
The three children stay with their uncle Bill and his wife Patience. Uncle Bill has a good job-
something to do with selling parts for cars- and he and Auntie Patience seem to have no problems,
either in getting money or in spending it.
The three children see very little of their aunt and uncle. Peter nicknamed them “Boeings” because-
like aeroplanes- they are always zooming off somewhere. Patience Boeing zooms off to meet
friends and buy clothes; Bill Boeing zooms off to make deals and drink beer. They regularly land
in the evening and it is the two girls who prepare, serve and wash up after each meal. Peter helps
chop firewood and runs errands for his aunt and uncle. Before going out in the morning, Patience
Boeing usually comes up with a list of orders for the day. These are mixed in with complaints
about what the children have done( or not done)the day before.
“I don’t think they would notice if I grew two heads,” said Paula sadly once, “as long as their food
was in time.” “Don’t complain,” said Peter. “We eat food too, they pay our fees and we have a
roof over our heads.”
The three children live in a room behind the main house. It has very small windows with bars on
them (at one time it had been a storeroom), but there is a room for three beds and the children

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boxes. Each has a key and they can come and go as they like. The Boeings never seem to care
much about what they do, but Peter is strict with his sisters. They have to be back by six to do their
homework and their housework in the main house, where they is electric light, and they have to be
in bed as soon as the washing-up is finished after dinner.

Comprehension questions
1. Where do the children live? Why do they live there?
2. Why do the children think their aunt and their uncle have no problems?
3. What do the children have to do in the house every day?
4. Where do the children sleep?
5. Who is strict with the girls? Why?

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UNIT FOURTEEN: DEBATING
A debate is a discussion in which people or groups state different opinions about a given subject.
A debate is, basically, an argument. But that is not to say that it is an undisciplined shouting match
between parties that passionately believe in a particular point of view. In fact, the opposite is true.
You will often be in a position when you will have to argue the opposite of what you believe in.
In any debate you will either be a proposer (supporting the motion) or opposer (discrediting the
points for the motion by providing contradicting evidence).

Stages involved in a debate

There are two stages in the exercise: Preparation and The actual debate.
(a) Preparation
When you are given a topic to prepare and debate on, it is important to familiarize yourself with
the topic. It is advisable to note down all the points relevant to the topic for debate during this
preparation period. The library, Internet and interviews with both fellow students and other people
connected with the topic in question will provide the kind of information needed for the debate.
During preparation, the information readily available will be useful to the proposer. The opposer,
however has the task of inferring the opposite information from the same sources. The proposer,
on the other hand, must bear in mind that he can only help spur on the debate if he is fully armed
with both supporting and contradicting points on a given topic. Only when one is able to predict
what one’s counterpart in the debate is going to say can one respond effectively.

(b) The actual debate

In debating, each team will present points in favour of their case.
Here are some tips which may help you win the debate:
- Know your fact
Do not state that something is true unless you absolutely know it is- be prepared to prove it if
necessary.
- Stick to the topic
When debating, you should never divert the topic at hand to another.
- Speak slowly
When debating, speak at normal speed.
- Be soft and steady

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When debating, you should never raise your voice. You should mind your tone. The louder you
talk, the louder your opponent talks, and the end result is a yelling match.
- Ask questions
When your opponent states a fact, probe deeper in to the fact with questions such as: “Can you
give me an example?”, “Another way of looking at what you’ve said is….., does this seem
reasonable?”
- Be silent
After making a strong argument, stay calm. Let your opponent do all the talking, especially if he
lacks the facts to oppose you. He will bluster and fumble, giving you a variety of new weapons
with which to attack him/her.

Useful expressions:

During the debate

During the debate, expressions such as ‘Thank you Mr. /Madam ………’, ‘Mr. X has just
asserted……’, ‘That’s fine as it goes, but…’, ‘I (strongly) disagree to what Miss… has just
said’ are quite common.

Some more useful expressions:

Do you think that………

In my opinion………..
As I consider things…….
My point of view is that……
Well, I must admit that…….., but…….
On the one hand ………….., on the other hand…………
When you say that ………., do you mean…………
You are wrong…………..
Anyone will tell you that……….
Before we go any further, let me …….

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If you would allow me to continue……..

When closing:
I declare the debate closed. Thank you ladies and gentlemen.
That concludes our debate for today. Thank you.
Well, I think that covers everything.
That’s all for today. Thank you.

When voting:
As there is a tie, I would like to remind you that you have to vote.
Those for the motion, please.
Those against.
Any abstention?
The motion is carried unanimously.
The motion has been rejected by 6 votes to 9.

Point to remember

-The speakers in a debate- both the proposers and the opposers- are required to make notes of the
proceedings in order to give accurate responses when called upon to do so.

-The audience too must engage themselves in intelligent listening. Each individual in the audience
must take notes of what is being said so that ‘points of information’ coming from the audience are
relevant.

-The secretary’s duty is to jot down every important point brought up by every speaker during the
debate. Thus, the secretary needs to write quickly and accurately; he may need conventionalized
symbols and abbreviations to meet his demand. At the end of the debate the secretary is expected
to summarize the points and announce the winner. In case of a tie, then voting becomes necessary
and the secretary conducts this. When the proposition side wins, we say the motion is carried,
and the motion is lost when the opposition side wins.

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Speaking Practice
Prepare and hold a debate on one of the following motions:

1. Should girls have the same educational opportunities as boys?

Decide for or against, using the following sets of arguments as well as some of your own:
For: - Women have proved themselves capable of doing most jobs.
- Girls will later be responsible for bringing up families.
- Educated husbands prefer educated wives.
- Girls have the same native intelligence as boys.
- Women make up 50 per cent of the population and to neglect their education is to
neglect the education of 50 per cent of the nation.
Against: - Educating girls leads to a breakdown of tradition.
- Money spent on girl’s education is often wasted because they marry and stop working.
- Educated women are more inclined to disobey the husbands than uneducated ones.
- Since there is not enough money to educate everyone, boys should be given preferences
as they are more likely to make use of their education.

2. Has science made life easy?

Decide for or against.
More topics worth debating on:

1. Should girls be given the same educational opportunities as boys?

2. Has computer technology made life easier?
3. Foreign aid has brought more harm than good.
4. Shifting from Francophone to Anglophone system in Rwandan Education has brought
more harm than good.
5. Town life and life in the countryside: Which is better according to you?
6. With the Internet and portable phones, our world is nowadays considered a small village.
7. What’s your position about sex equality policy?
8. Polygamy: should it be legalized in a country like Rwanda?
9. Urban children have more educational advantages over rural children.

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10. Is money the source of happiness?
11. What’s your position about family planning policy in Rwanda?
12. The productive effort in a country like Rwanda should be focused more on Agricultural
production than on industrial production.
13. School children should be impeded from watching television.
14. Should children be educated about sexuality in family?
15. Pros and cons of social networking websites.
16. Pros and cons of peer pressure ( Is peer pressure beneficial or harmful?)
17. Money motivates people more than any factor at workplace.
18. Population growth: pros and cons
19. Should cell phones be allowed in secondary schools?
20. Are single-sex schools more effective than their co-ed counterparts?
21. Pros and cons of online education
22. Internet: pros and cons
23. The integration of Rwanda into the EAC: advantages and disadvantages
24. It is better for a man to get married when he is old enough.

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