Indian Institute of Information Technology

Allahabad
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

CLASS NOTES
Data Communication And Networking

Course Code: EC3005

Semester: VI
Instructor: Dr. Kirtan Gopal Panda

“Read notes to revise; Read books to Grow - Choice is Yours”

Data Communication & Networking IIIT Allahabad

Contents
1 Chapter 1 2
1.1 Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Network Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Data Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Data Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Transmission Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Network Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Mesh Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Star Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Bus Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.4 Ring Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Categories of Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Important Network Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.1 Virtual LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.2 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.3 Statistical Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5.4 Network Connection Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Network Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Protocol Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.2 Scenarios for Protocol Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.3 Types of Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.4 Layers in OSI Model & Their Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7.1 Physical Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7.2 Logical Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.3 Port Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.4 Specific Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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1 Chapter 1
Introduction
Data communications and networking have changed the way we do business and the way
we live. Businesses rely on computer networks and inter-networks for fast and accu-
rate information exchange. Before studying networking technologies, it is important to
understand how networks operate and what types of designs best meet different needs.

1.1 Network
A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. Com-
puter network is a large number of separated but interconnected computers.

1.1.1 Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.
• Performance: Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: Through-
put and Delay.
• Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by
the frequency of failure and the time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access
and protecting data from damage.

1.2 Data Communication System

A data communication system has five components:

Figure 1: Data Communication System

• Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
• Sender: The device that sends the data message (computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, etc.).
• Receiver: The device that receives the message (computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, etc.).
• Transmission Medium: The physical path through which a message travels from
sender to receiver (twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, radio waves).
• Protocol: A set of rules that govern data communication between devices.

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1.2.1 Data Flow

Data flow between devices can be categorized into three types. These are: a) Simplex,
b) Half Duplex, c) Full Duplex.

Figure 2: Data Flow types in a network

• Simplex: Communication is unidirectional only (e.g., AM broadcasting).

• Half Duplex: Each station can transmit and receive but not at the same time.
• Full Duplex: Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (e.g., tele-
phone).

1.2.2 Transmission Technology

• Broadcast: Information is sent to all destination addresses and can be decoded
by all receivers.
• Multicast: Information is sent to a group of destination addresses.
• Unicast: Information is sent to one destination address (point-to-point communi-
cation).

1.3 Network Topology

Network topology refers to the physical layout of the network.

Figure 3: Types of Network Topology

1.3.1 Mesh Topology

• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
• Requires n(n−1)
2
physical links for duplex communication.

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Figure 4: Mesh Topology

• Advantages: Robust, secure, no traffic problem due to dedicated links.

• Disadvantages: Costly and requires (n − 1) I/O ports per device.
• Example: Telephone regional office backbone networks.

1.3.2 Star Topology

Figure 5: Star Topology

• Each device is connected to a central controller (hub).

• Devices communicate via the hub.
• Advantages: Less expensive, easy fault isolation, robust to single-link failure.
• Disadvantages: Entire network depends on the hub.
• Example: Local Area Networks (LANs).

1.3.3 Bus Topology

Figure 6: Bus Topology

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• A single backbone cable connects all devices using drop lines and taps.
• Signal strength decreases as it travels along the backbone.
• Advantages: Easy installation and less cabling.
• Disadvantages: Difficult fault isolation, signal degradation, entire network fails if
backbone breaks.
• Example: Early Ethernet LANs.

1.3.4 Ring Topology

Figure 7: Ring Topology

• Each device is connected to exactly two neighboring devices.

• Data travels in one direction around the ring.
• Advantages: Easy installation, reconfiguration, and fault identification.
• Disadvantages: Unidirectional traffic causes delay; break disables entire network.
• Example: IBM Token Ring.

1.4 Categories of Networks

Figure 8: Different types of networks.

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• PAN: Network meant for one person. Example: Bluetooth network used for con-
necting computer with its peripherals, keyboard mouse.
• LAN:A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices
in a single office, building, or campus. Example: Wi-Fi.
• MAN: Network that covers over a city. Example: Cable TV.
• WAN:Network that spans over a large geographical area. Example: ISP network
(BSNL, JIO Fiber wireless).
• The Internet: A Collection of interconnected networks. Example: Internet.

1.5 Important Network Terminology

1.5.1 Virtual LAN
Network in the same physical LAN but separated logically. Example: University network
with engineering and finance department are two virtual LAN network.

1.5.2 Standards
Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, governments and other service
providers.
• De Facto Standards: Standards that have not been approved by an organized
body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto
standards.
• De Jure Standards: Those standards that have been legislated by an officially
recognized body are de jure standards.

Standards Creation Committees:

1. International Standards Organization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
6. Telecommunications Standards Development Society, India (TSDSI) - An Indian
Body

1.5.3 Statistical Multiplexing

Assigning resources (ex: BW, power) depending on the statistics of demand is known as
statistical multiplexing.

1.5.4 Network Connection Types

There are two types of Network Connection:
i) Connection-Oriented Service: In connection-oriented services, user first establishes a
connection, use the connections and then releases connection. Ex: Earlier Telephone
system, File transfer. Here, the order of the file is preserved (means receiver receive in
orders)

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ii) Connectionless Service: Like the postal system, each message carries full destination
address and each one is routed through the intermediate node inside the system. Ex:
Packet routing. Here, file order may not be preserved.

1.6 Network Models

This section introduces the concept of protocol layering and explains two important
network models: the TCP/IP protocol suite and the OSI model. These models help us
understand how data communication functions are divided into layers.

1.6.1 Protocol Layering

In data communications, a protocol defines the rules that sender, receiver, and interme-
diate devices follow to communicate effectively. When communication is complex, tasks
are divided into layers, each governed by its own protocol.

1.6.2 Scenarios for Protocol Layering

Simple Communication Scenario: Maria and Ann are neighbours with a lot of com-
mon ideas. Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face,
in the same language.

Figure 9: Simple communication without protocol layering

Set of rules needed: First, greet each other; talk in the same language; refrain from speak-
ing when the other party is speaking; conversation should be a dialogue, not a monologue.
Note: if it is between the professor and the students, then the set of rules is almost the
same, except that conversation is mostly monologue.

Complex Communication Scenario: Now assume Maria and Ann are two top secret
agents, and when they share information, it will be secure from others. So, they both use
encryption/decryption to secure their message transfer over the postal. Example: Maria
talked to the layer 3 machine, which converts it to text, the layer 2 machine encrypted
it, and then sent it to layer 1, where sender and receiver address is attached and posted.
Here, the complex communication task is divided into protocol layering.
Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler
tasks. In the above example, the communication task at the sender and receiver is divided
into three layers.
Advantages of Protocol Layering:
• Modularity: Protocol layering offers independent layers, which allow for replacing
only the malfunctioning layer instead of changing the whole communication system.
• Independent of Layer Implementation: protocol layering allows us to separate the
services from the implementation. A layer needs to be able to receive a set of services

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Figure 10: Complex communication using protocol layering

from the lower layer and to give the services to the upper layer; we don’t care about
how the layer is implemented. Example: The layer 3 job can be implemented by
Maria herself (writing the cipher text on a letter card) or she may hire a machine
(robot) to complete the first layer job (print the cipher text). As long as the first
layer job is done (irrespective of the way of job implementation), in both directions,
the communication system works.
• Easy to Implement Intermediate System: Apart from the two end systems, commu-
nication needs intermediate systems (switch, router), which consist of some layers,
but not all layers. If we did not use protocol layering, we would have to make each
intermediate system as complex as the end systems, which makes the whole system
more expensive.

Principles of Protocol Layering

1. First principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need

to make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each
direction. Example: Layer 2 must perform encryption/decryption; Layer 3 needs
to send and receive emails.
2. Second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects
under each layer at both sites should be identical. Example: The object under layer
2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter.

1.6.3 Types of Network Model

There are two types of Network Model: a) TCP/IP Model Suite (1970) and b) OSI 7
Layer Model Suite (1984)

a) TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP model is a hierarchical protocol suite used in the Internet. It consists of
five layers, each with specific responsibilities.
➤ The TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a founda-
tional framework for modern networking. TCP/IP Protocol suite (a set of protocols
organized in different layers) used in the Internet today.

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➤ It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides

a specific functionality. The term hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol
is supported by the services provided by one or more lower-level protocols.
➤ The TCP/IP model is composed of four software layers build upon the hardware
known as Physical Layer, each with specific responsibilities:
1. Physical Layer: The Physical Layer is dealing with bits received in a frame
from the data-link layer. It Converts bits into electrical, optical, or radio
signals. Note: There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.
2. Data Link Layer/ Link Layer: Data link layer also interpreted as link layer.
It is responsible for Framing of data packets, Physical (MAC) addressing, Error
detection (CRC), Media access control (who can transmit data).
3. Network Layer/ Internet Layer: Manages IP addressing, routing and
packet forwarding using protocols like Internet Protocol (IP), Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP) and Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable end-to-end communication with protocols
like TCP (reliable) and UDP (faster, less reliable).
5. Application Layer: Supports user-facing services like web browsing and
email, with protocols such as HTTP, FTP and DNS.
Note: There is direct doted link in between Application layer of Source to Application
Layer of Destination. It is called as logical link as if Application layer of source only talks
with Application layer of destination. Similar case for Transport.

Figure 11: Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite

b) OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is a theoretical framework developed

by the International Standards Organisation (ISO) in 1984 for understanding and im-
plementing network protocols required for communication between all types of computer
systems.
under Open System a set of protocols allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
OSI Model consists of 7 layers:
1. Physical Layer: Deals with bit transmission over physical media.
2. Data Link Layer: Manages frame creation, error detection and medium access.
3. Network Layer: Handles routing and forwarding of packets (e.g., IP).

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4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer using TCP (reliable) and UDP
(faster, less reliable).
5. Session Layer: Manages sessions between devices including dialog control (keep-
ing track of whose turn it is to transmit), token management and synchronisation
(checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up from where they left
the event of a crash and subsequent recovery).
6. Presentation Layer: Handles data formatting, encryption and compression.
7. Application Layer: Provides end-user services (e.g., HTTP, FTP).
*The intermediate nodes (router, switch) usually involved only first three layers of OSI
Model.
** Each Layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it.
***At Each Layer a Header and a possibly Trailer can be added to the data unit as shown
in Fig. 13.

Figure 12: Seven layers of the OSI model

Figure 13: Addition of Header and Trailer to Data

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1.6.4 Layers in OSI Model & Their Functionalities

Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movement of individual bits from one hop to next
node. It concerns transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The design issues
concern ensuring that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by the other side as a 1
bit, not as a 0 bit.

Figure 14: Physical Layer

• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a
physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and trans-
mission medium.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces
have to perform for transmission to occur.

The physical layer has the following responsibility:

1. Define Physical characteristics of interfaces and Medium: The physical
layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the trans-
mission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
2. Representation of Bits :The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (either
0 or 1). The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0 and 1 convert to
signals).
3. Define Data Rate: The Physical layer also defines the number of bits has to sent
in each second, which is alternatively known as transmission rate.
4. Synchronization of Bits : The sender and receiver not only must use the same
bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender
and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
5. Physical topology : Define how devices are connected to make a network. Devices
can be connected by using a mesh, star, bus or ring topology.
6. Transmission mode : The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Data Link Layer

The data link is responsible for moving frames from one hop to next hop. The task of the
data link layer is to break up the input data into data frames (typically a few hundred
or a few thousand bytes) and transmits the frames sequentially. If the service is reliable,
the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an acknowledgement

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frame.
Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well)
is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic
regulation mechanism is handled by data link layer
• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer. Thus it add Trailer
part as shown in Fig. 15. The Header Part is the physical address (MAC) address.
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the
next
• Hop to Hop delivery: It is also called as Node to Node delivery. As in Fig. 16, to
send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made. First, the data link layer
at A sends a frame to the data link layer at B, then B to E followed by E to F hop
delivery.

Figure 15: Adding Header and Trailer to Data received from upper layer.

Figure 16: Hop to Hop delivery by Data Link Layer

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

1. Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical Addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
same network, the data link layer adds MAC address (physical address) to header
of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender’s network,

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the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to the
next one.
3. Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes
a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
4. Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses
a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
5. Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks (links).If two systems are connected to the same link, there is
usually no need for a network layer.
Network Layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery. Other responsibilities of the network
layer:
• Logical Addressing: The network layer adds a header to the packet coming
from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses (IP
Address) of the sender and receiver.
• Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create inter-
networks (network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called
routers) route or switch the packets to their final destination. Defining the best
route is called routing.

Figure 17: Source to Destination delivery by Network Layer

As the figure 17 shows, now we need a source-to-destination delivery. The network layer
at A sends the packet to the network layer at B. When the packet arrives at router B,
the router makes a decision based on the final destination (F) of the packet. As we will
see in later chapters, router B uses its routing table to find that the next hop is router
E. The network layer at B, therefore, sends the packet to the network layer at E. The

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network layer at E, sends the packet to the network layer at F.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message
(Fig. 18). A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network
layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize
any relationship between those packets.
The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact
and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination
level.

Figure 18: Process to Process delivery by Transport Layer

Figure 19: Transport Layer

Other responsibilities of the transport layer:

• Service-point addressing: Computers often run several programs at the same
time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from
one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on
one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other. The transport
layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point address
(or port address).
• Segmentation and Reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable seg-
ments (Fig. 19), with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers
enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
• Connection Control: The transport layer can be either connection less or con-
nection oriented. A connection less transport layer treats each segment as an inde-
pendent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A

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connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at
the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
• Flow Control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than
across a single link.
• Error Control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-toprocess rather
than across a single link.

Session Layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchro-
nizes the interaction among communicating systems.

Figure 20: Session Layer

Specific responsibilities of the session layer:

• Dialog Control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It
allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex
(one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
• Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or syn-
chronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file
of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure
that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case,
if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to
be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need
not be resent.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
• Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually ex-
changing information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The
infonnation must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because dif-
ferent computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsi-

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Figure 21: Presentation Layer

ble for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation
layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into
a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.
• Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure
privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption
reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
• Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the net-
work. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote
file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services.

Figure 22: Application Layer

Fig. 22 shows the relationship of the application layer to the user and the presentation
layer. Of the many application services available, the figure shows only three: SMTP,
Telnet, and HTTP.

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Specific services provided by the application layer:

• Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software version
of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so,
the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The
user’s computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host,
and vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own
terminals and allows the user to log on.
• File transfer, Access, and Management: This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from
a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in
a remote computer locally.
• Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.

1.7 Addressing
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols (Fig.
23): 1) Physical (link) addresses, 2) Logical (IP) addresses, 3) Port addresses, and 4)
Specific addresses .

Figure 23: Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

1.7.1 Physical Addresses

The physical address, also known as the link address (MAC Address), is the address of
a node as defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link
layer. It is the lowest-level address.

The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network. For example,
Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network inter-
face card (NIC). It is A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) such as: 07:01:02:01 :2C:4B .

In Fig. 24 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address
87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). At the data link layer,

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Figure 24: Physical Addressing

this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These are the only addresses
needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level. The
trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection. As the figure shows, the
computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address
87 is the receiver. The data link layer at the sender receives data from an upper layer.
It encapsulates the data in a frame, adding a header and a trailer. The header, among
other pieces of information, carries the receiver and the sender physical (link) addresses.
Note that in most data link protocols, the destination address, 87 in this case, comes
before the source address (10 in this case). We have shown a bus topology for an isolated
LAN. In a bus topology, the frame is propagated in both directions (left and right). The
frame propagated to the left dies when it reaches the end of the cable if the cable end is
terminated appropriately. The frame propagated to the right is sent to every station on
the network. Each station with a physical addresses other than 87 drops the frame be-
cause the destination address in the frame does not match its own physical address. The
intended destination computer, however, finds a match between the destination address
in the frame and its own physical address. The frame is checked, the header and trailer
are dropped, and the data part is de-capsulated and delivered to the upper layer.

1.7.2 Logical Addresses

Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of
underlying physical networks. Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork
environment where different networks can have different address formats. A universal
addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of
the underlying physical network.

The logical addresses are designed for this purpose. A logical address in the Internet is
currently a 32-bit (IPV4) address (example of Public IP: [Link]) that can uniquely
define a host connected to the Internet. No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on
the Internet can have the same Public IP address.

1.7.3 Port Addresses

The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from
a source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final
objective of data communications on the Internet. A system that sends nothing but data

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Data Communication & Networking IIIT Allahabad

from one computer to another is not complete. Today, computers are devices that can run
multiple processes at the same time. The end objective of Internet communication is a
process communicating with another process. For example, computer A can communicate
with computer C by using TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with
computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive
data simultaneously, we need a method to label the different processes. In other words,
they need addresses. In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called
a port address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length ( 216 port address).

Figure 25: Port Addressing

Fig. 25 shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer
is running three processes at this time with port addresses i, j and k. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port addresses a and b. Process i in
the sending computer needs to communicate with process a in the receiving computer.
Note that although both computers are using the same application, FTP, for example,
the port addresses are different because one is a client program and the other is a server
program. To show that data from process a need to be delivered to process a, and not
b, the transport layer encapsulates data from the application layer in a packet and adds
two port addresses (i and a), source and destination. The packet from the transport
layer is then encapsulated in another packet at the network layer with logical source and
destination addresses (A and P). Finally, this packet is encapsulated in a frame with
the physical source and destination addresses of the next hop. We have not shown the
physical addresses because they change from hop to hop inside the cloud designated as
the Internet. Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical and
port addresses remain the same from the source to destination.

1.7.4 Specific Addresses

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.
Examples include the e-mail address (for example, forouzan@[Link]) and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL) (for example, [Link]). The first defines the recipient
of an e-mail; the second is used to find a document on the World Wide Web .

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