Chapter 15: Longevity, Biological Aging, and Physical Development

LONGEVITY
Life span: The maximum number of years an individual can live. This has remained relatively
steady at approximately 120-125 years.
Life expectancy: The number of years that the average person born in a particular year will
probably live. This has increased significantly since 1900 due to improvements in medicine,
nutrition, exercise, and lifestyle.

Differences in Life Expectancy

Gender:
 Men are more likely than women to die from most leading causes of death (e.g.,
respiratory system cancer, motor vehicle accidents, cirrhosis of the liver, emphysema,
coronary heart disease).
 Women are more likely than men to die from some diseases, such as Alzheimer disease
and certain aspects of cardiovascular disease.
 Females generally outlive males due to stronger resistance to infections and degenerative
diseases.
 Estrogen production helps protect women from arteriosclerosis (hardening of the
arteries).
Ethnic Groups: Life expectancy varies among different ethnic groups within the U.S. (e.g.,
Black Americans have a shorter life expectancy than Asian Americans, Latinos, and non-Latino
Whites).
"Latino Health Paradox": Latinos live longer than non-Latino Whites despite lower
educational attainment and income levels, possibly due to migration patterns, strong family
connections, and lower smoking rates.

Centenarians
Centenarians: Individuals who live to be 100 years or older.
Supercentenarians: Individuals who live to be 110 years or older.
Compression of morbidity (Perls): The process of staving off high-mortality chronic diseases
until much later ages than is usually the case in the general population.
Factors associated with longevity: Longevity genes and the ability to cope effectively with
stress. Biomarkers like low IGF-1 and elevated HDL cholesterol are also noted.

Biological Theories of Aging

Evolutionary Theory of Aging: Suggests that natural selection has not eliminated harmful
conditions in older adults because reproductive fitness is primarily linked to earlier adulthood.
Criticisms: Difficult to empirically test due to the long time scales of evolution; fails to account
for cultural influences.
Cellular Clock Theory (Leonard Hayflick): Cells can divide a maximum of about 75-80 times.
As cells age, they become less capable of dividing.
Telomeres: DNA sequences at the tips of chromosomes that become shorter with each cell
division. Dramatically shortened telomeres can lead to cell reproduction cessation. Healthy
centenarians tend to have longer telomeres.
Free-Radical Theory: Aging occurs because by-products of cell metabolism include unstable
oxygen molecules (free radicals) that damage DNA and cellular structures. Overeating increases
free radicals; calorie restriction can reduce oxidative damage.
Mitochondrial Theory: Aging is caused by the decay of mitochondria, the cell's energy
suppliers, due to oxidative damage and loss of micronutrients.
Sirtuins: A family of proteins linked to longevity, mitochondrial function, calorie restriction
benefits, stress resistance, and reduced risk of certain diseases.
mTOR Pathway Theory: Involves the regulation of growth and metabolism and is linked to
longevity and successful outcomes of calorie restriction.
Rapamycin: A drug studied for its role in this pathway, but it has serious side effects and is not
approved as an anti-aging drug.
Hormonal Stress Theory: Aging affects the body's hormonal system, lowering resilience to
stress and increasing disease likelihood. Prolonged elevation of stress hormones is linked to
increased disease risk.
T cells: A type of white blood cell crucial for immunity; their percentage decreases with age,
contributing to immune system deficits.

Conclusions on Biological Theories

No single theory fully explains aging; it's likely a complex process involving multiple biological
factors.
Aging involves interacting cell- and organ-level communications and multiple degenerative
factors.

The Aging Brain

The Shrinking, Slowing Brain:
 Brain loses 5-10% of its weight between ages 20-90.
 Brain volume decreases, particularly in the frontal lobes and hippocampus.
 Shrinkage is mainly due to fewer synapses, reduced axon length/complexity, and less
branching in dendrites, not significant neuron loss.
Prefrontal cortex: Shrinks more than other areas, linked to decreased working memory.
Sensory regions of the brain: Less vulnerable to aging.
 Aging can lead to declines in neurotransmitter production (e.g., acetylcholine for
memory, dopamine for motor control).
 Demyelination (deterioration of the myelin sheath) occurs with aging.

The Adaptive Brain:

The brain retains remarkable repair capability and plasticity.
Neurogenesis: The generation of new neurons occurs in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb,
and can be influenced by exercise and enriched environments.
Lateralization: The specialization of brain hemispheres. Older adults may use both hemispheres
more to compensate for age-related declines, potentially improving cognitive functioning.
The Nun Study (David Snowdon): An ongoing study of nuns that highlights the brain's capacity
for change and growth, even in old age, influenced by intellectual stimulation and life
experiences.

Physical Development
Physical Appearance and Movement:
 Wrinkles and age spots become more pronounced.
 Individuals become shorter due to bone loss in vertebrae.
 Weight usually drops after age 60 due to muscle loss.
  Older adults move more slowly; adequate mobility is crucial for independence.
 Regular walking can decrease the risk of physical disability.
Risk of falling: Increases with age, higher for women. Falls are a leading cause of injury deaths
among adults 65+. Balance training is effective in preventing falls.
Sensory Development: Sensory functioning declines with age.
Vision: Decline becomes more pronounced. Slower adjustment to darkness, increased glare
sensitivity, and smaller visual field. Night driving is more difficult.
 Visual decline is linked to cognitive decline, fewer social contacts, and less leisure
activity.
Disorders impairing vision:
Cataracts: Thickening of the lens, causing cloudy vision. Treatable with surgery.
Glaucoma: Damage to the optic nerve due to fluid pressure buildup.
Macular degeneration: Deterioration of the retina's macula, affecting central vision. Leading
cause of irreversible blindness in developed world.
Hearing: A national survey found 63% of adults 70+ have hearing loss. Hearing problems are
associated with increased falls, reduced cognitive functioning, loneliness, and dementia.
Dual Sensory Loss: Combined vision and hearing loss is linked to significant cognitive decline,
frailty, and increased risk of dementia.
Smell and Taste: Most older adults experience a loss of these senses, often starting around age
60. Decreased olfactory function is linked to lower sexual motivation and potential early
detection of Alzheimer disease.
Touch and Pain: A decline in touch sensitivity is common but usually not problematic. Chronic
pain is common, especially back pain and peripheral neuropathic pain. Women are more likely to
report pain. Decreased pain sensitivity can mask injuries; high pain levels can be linked to
memory impairment.
The Circulatory System and Lungs: Cardiovascular disorders increase with age. Maintaining
healthy blood pressure is crucial. Exercise, diet, and not smoking reduce risk. Lung capacity
drops significantly with age, but functioning can be improved with exercises.
Sleep: Older adults often experience sleep difficulties (insomnia, disrupted sleep), which can be
linked to health problems. Poor sleep is a risk factor for falls, obesity, dementia, and reduced
longevity. Getting 7-8 hours of sleep is recommended.
Sexuality: Sexuality can be lifelong, though sexual performance may change, especially in men.
More direct stimulation may be needed for arousal. Lack of a partner is a common reason for
inactivity. Older adults who enjoy and value their sexuality tend to live longer.

Health
Health Problems: The probability of disease and illness increases with age.
Chronic disorders: Arthritis and hypertension are common in late adulthood. Older women
have higher rates of arthritis, hypertension, and visual problems.
Causes of death: In older adults (75+), heart disease is the leading cause, followed by cancer.
Arthritis: Inflammation of the joints causing pain and stiffness. Exercise can help manage
symptoms.
Osteoporosis: Extensive bone tissue loss, leading to stooped posture. Women are especially
vulnerable. Related to calcium, vitamin D, and estrogen deficiencies, and lack of exercise.
Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight:
Exercise: Physically active adults tend to be healthier and happier. Regular exercise is linked to
increased longevity, prevention of chronic diseases, improvement in treatment of diseases, better
cellular functioning, and improved immune function. It also optimizes body composition and
reduces motor skill decline.
Nutrition and Weight: Calorie restriction (CR) in animals increases lifespan and slows RNA
decline. The effects of CR on human lifespan are unknown, but it may reduce oxidative stress.
Health Treatment: Nursing home use increases with age. Quality varies greatly; alternatives
like home health care and elder-care centers are preferred. Perceived control over one's
environment is crucial for health and survival in nursing homes.

Cognitive Functioning
Multidimensionality and Multidirectionality: Cognition is multidimensional; some aspects
may decline with age, while others remain stable or improve.
Processing Speed: Slows down in late adulthood, with considerable individual variation. Faster
processing speed is linked to greater life satisfaction and better daily functioning. Decline is
likely due to changes in the brain and central nervous system. Exercise and cognitive training can
improve processing speed.
Attention:
Selective Attention: Focusing on relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant ones generally
decreases in older adults, linked to less competent driving.
Sustained Attention: The ability to focus for a prolonged period can be as good as or better than
in younger adults. Yoga and game-based training may improve attention.
Memory:
Explicit Memory: Memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know. Declines
with age.
Episodic Memory: Memory of the "where" and "when" of life's happenings. Younger adults
have better episodic memory.
Semantic Memory: Knowledge about the world. Older adults may take longer to retrieve
information, but it generally declines less than episodic memory.
Reminiscence Bump: A phenomenon where adults remember more events from their second
and third decades of life.
Implicit Memory: Memory without conscious recollection (skills, routine procedures). Less
likely to be adversely affected by aging.
Working Memory: Declines in late adulthood, possibly due to less efficient inhibition and
increased distractibility. Can be improved through training (e.g., strategy training, physical
exercise).
Executive Function: Higher-level cognitive processes linked to the prefrontal cortex. Declines
with age, making older adults less effective in tasks involving executive function and cognitive
control. There is variability, and moderate-to-vigorous aerobic training can increase prefrontal
cortex activity and executive functioning.
Wisdom: Expert knowledge about practical aspects of life, permitting excellent judgment. High
levels of wisdom are rare and not solely dependent on age; life experiences, practice, and
personality factors are critical.
Education, Work, and Health: These factors influence cognitive functioning in older adults and
are important for understanding cohort effects. Increased education is linked to improved
cognitive functioning. Cognitively oriented work tasks are associated with lower rates of age-
related cognitive decline. Good health (e.g., managing cardiovascular risk factors) is linked to
better cognitive function.
Use It or Lose It: This concept suggests that mental activities benefit the maintenance of
cognitive skills. Engaging in activities like reading, puzzles, and social interaction is linked to
better cognitive functioning and reduced risk of cognitive impairment.
Training Cognitive Skills: Research suggests cognitive skills can be restored to a degree
through training. Cognitive and fitness training, along with some dietary supplements (e.g., fish
oil), may offer benefits, but results can vary. Regular exercise is consistently linked to improved
cognitive functioning.

Cognitive Neuroscience and Aging

Cognitive Neuroscience: Studies the links between brain activity and cognitive functioning
using brain-imaging techniques.
Key Findings:
 Neural circuits in the prefrontal cortex decline, linked to poorer performance on tasks
involving reasoning, working memory, and episodic memory.
 Older adults are more likely to use both brain hemispheres to compensate for declines.
 Hippocampal functioning declines but to a lesser degree than frontal lobes.
 Neural decline is more noticeable for retrieval than encoding.
 Older adults show greater activity in frontal/parietal lobes on simple tasks, but less
effective functioning as attentional demands increase.
 Cortical thickness in the frontoparietal network predicts executive function.
 Younger adults have better connectivity between brain regions.
 Cognitive and fitness training studies using fMRI show potential for improving brain
function (e.g., increased volume in frontal/temporal lobes with walking).

Work and Retirement

Work: Labor force participation among older adults (65+) is increasing, driven partly by
financial needs. Gender and ethnicity influence working patterns. Older workers generally have
better profiles (health, education, job satisfaction) and can work longer.
Retirement: A late-twentieth-century phenomenon, influenced by Social Security. Today's
workers spend 10-15% of their lives in retirement. Adjustment to retirement is best for those who
are healthy, have adequate income, are active, educated, have a strong social network, and were
satisfied with their lives before retiring.

Mental Health
Dementia and Alzheimer Disease:
Dementia: A global term for neurological disorders causing irreversible mental function decline.
Alzheimer Disease: A progressive, irreversible brain disorder characterized by deterioration of
memory, reasoning, language, and physical function. It is the most frequent dementia.
Risk Factors: Age, genetics (ApoE4 allele), cardiovascular risk factors, depression, and possibly
lifestyle.
Pathology: Involves amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (tau protein) in the brain.
Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): A transitional state between normal aging and Alzheimer
disease; it is a risk factor for Alzheimer disease.
Drugs and Treatment: Several drugs (e.g., Aricept, Razadyne, Exelon, Namenda) can slow the
progression of Alzheimer disease but do not cure it. Aduhelm and Lequembi are newer drugs
targeting amyloid plaques.
Caring for Individuals with Alzheimer Disease: Family caregivers often face significant
emotional and physical strain. Respite care provides temporary relief.
Parkinson Disease: A chronic, progressive disorder causing muscle tremors, slowing of
movement, and facial paralysis, triggered by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons.
Treatments include dopamine agonists, L-dopa, deep brain stimulation (DBS), stem cell
transplantation, and gene therapy.