1.

INTRODUCTION:

With the birth of the concept “power-by-wire” the new generation of aircrafts has

move to “More electric aircrafts” which has become a milestone in the Aviation

History. “Power-by-wire” has lead to the elimination of long running control

cables, hydraulic tubing and heavy gear-boxes for power transmission. Instead

relies on electrical cables to transmit power in the form electrical signals. This

has not only reduced the overall weight factor but also reduce the risk factor of

hazardous inflammable liquids running through hydraulic tubing. The actuation of

primary and secondary control surfaces of the giant A380 relies on both

hydraulics and Electro-Hydrostatics actuators (E.M.A). This has improved its fail-

safe standards. E.M.A consists of built-in electric-motor that pressurizes a local

Hydraulic pump to actuate the flight controls. With the introduction of E.M.A, the

conventional centralize hydraulic systems are excluded. The huge weight spent on

these tubing could be moved to accommodate more passengers, fuel and

payloads. ([Link], 2001),

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 1

2. BRUSHLESS D.C MOTOR(BLDC):

2.1. Overview:

The motor works on the basic fundamentals of synchronous motor where the

magnetic field is made to rotate on the stator windings. Unlike synchronous

motor, the field rotation in BLDC motor is done by electronic commutation

with the use of hall position sensors connected via decoder circuit. The

decoder circuit ensures the commutation sequence across the stator windings

in a rotating pattern. The energized coils (stator) pull the permanent magnet

rotor to requisite position and de-energizes as soon permanent magnet aligns

with.( [Link], [Link])

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 2

 2.2. Synchronous Motor: The principle of operation

Phase A
Phase C

Phase B

Stator

Rotor

Fig. 1

(1998). “The rotating magnetic field of an AC motor”. Baldor Electric Company.

[Online] Available at< [Link] Accessed on
25th Dec 2009

This type of motor works on the A.C motor principle which uses the fact of the

rotating magnetic field on the stator. The commutation responsible for field

rotation is achieved by use of 3-phase electricity fed into the coils. Each coil of
Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 3
individual phase A, B & C (see fig 1), has 120⁰ phase shift. The rotor being

permanent magnet could be made to spin by locking on to a rotating magnetic

field of the stator (KLM Tech Notes, 2007). Winding of each pair of phase coil

is done to achieve opposite polarity on 2 opposite stator coils (ex A1 , A2).

This winding configuration helps to lock with opposite poles of the rotor

magnet and spins along in direction rotating field as seen in “TIME 1, TIME

2…” in the above figure. ([Link], 1998)

3. CONSTRUCTION OF BLDC MOTOR:

BDLC Motor has a construction similar to synchronous motor with essentially

a permanent magnet rotor. It primarily consists of a stator, rotor and Hall

Effect sensors.

3.1.1. Stator:

Fig. 2

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 4

Date n/k. “Disassembled view of a brushless dc motor”. T. Kenjo. Oxford. 1985. [Online] Available
at < [Link] Accessed on 27th Dec
2009.

The windings are placed on the axially cut inner periphery of a stator

(see fig 2). These windings are usually 2 or 3-phase windings distributed

between 4 and 6 stator poles respectively. Stator windings are interconnected

in star fashion. Apart from the windings, lies the Hall Effect sensors fixed to

the stator poles.

3.1.2. Rotor:

Fig. 3

(2007). “BLDC Basic construction”. ORIENTAL MOTOR USA CORP.[Online] Available at

< [Link] Accessed on 27th Dec

2009.

Essentially a permanent magnet varying from 1 to 4 pole pairs uses (fig 3)

Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the alloy of Neodymium,

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 5

Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB) has higher magnetic flux density compared to

conventional ferrite magnets.( [Link],2003)

Torque ripple is characterized by periodic variation of torque on to a load

caused by interaction between rotor magnetic field and stator field. Torque

ripple effect minimization is achieved by the use of increased number of poles.

([Link] 2005)

3.1.3. Hall Effect sensors:

A typical BLDC motor has 3 Hall sensors placed on the stator.

The precise position of these sensors on the stators are vital, they are mostly

set 120⁰ apart and play the role of determining the precise rotor position.

Usually a semi-conductor made from silicon which produces greater hall

voltage across the conductor. The commutation purely depends on digital

inputs of the hall sensors. Hall sensors are accompanied with amplifiers to

counter weak signals induced. ([Link], 2003)

3.2. Theory of operation

BLDC motor works on the basic principle of A.C motors. Unlike A.C motors,

rotation of the magnetic field on the stator windings is governed by electronic

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 6

commutation which uses the inputs of Hall Effect sensors to detect precise

position on the rotor. As the stator fields rotate, the rotor tries to align itself

with the stator field which gives the physical torque to spin the rotor. The

motor does not directly operate off a dc voltage source. Winding could have

phase currents supplied in 3 modes: Hi (current in one direction), Low

(opposite direction) and off mode (no current). “Six-step commutation”

defines the energizing field pattern in the stator windings.

([Link],n/k)

3.3. “Six-step Commutation Sequence”

Fig 4.

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 7

(2009). “Six-step commutation”. Brushless DC Motors Roll On. Jon Titus. September 10, 2009
[Online] Available at< [Link]
accessed on 30th Dec 2009.

With reference to the fig 4, two of the 3-phase windings are energized in

concurrently and the remaining phase unpowered. The 2-phases energized

each time have different DC voltages ([Link], 2006). When one of

the 2 live coils has positive voltage stroke, the other runs on a negative

voltage. The energized coil acts as temporary electromagnets which attract or

repel the permanent magnet rotor, thus providing the torque for the rotor to

spin. ([Link], 2009)

[Link]: Working Principle

For example during 1st step of the six steps sequence (see fig 4), the phase A

coil is magnetized which gives characteristic of a north pole magnet, hence

attracting the north pole of the rotor. While the B phase coil energizes to give

the properties of a south pole repelling the south pole of the rotor. The

opposite forces on the rotor give its torque. Next step the B phase coil de-

energizes as South Pole rotor aligns with coil, preventing the rotor locking

with stator field while energizing the C phase coil to repel the south pole of

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 8

 the rotor. The switching sequence of these winding are controlled by decoder

circuit based on the inputs hall effect sensors. ([Link]

2009)

3.4. Hall Effect Theory:

When a current carrying

conductor comes under the

influence of magnetic field the

moving electrons experiences a

force known as Lorentz force. It’s

a force on a point charge due to a

magnetic field. This causes the

electrons to drift relatively

Fig 5

(2005). “Hall Effect”. Wikipedia. [Online] Available at

more to one side of the
< [Link]
Accessed on 01 Jan 2010
conductor. Thus, creating a

potential difference across the conductor perpendicular to the motion of

electrons (see fig 5). This is known as Hall Voltage. ([Link] )

[Link] of Hall Effect and Commutation.

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 9

These sensors are normally mounted on the stator with 60⁰ or 120⁰ apart.

Clear-cut positioning of the sensors on the stator is vital to determine precise

position of the rotor. Any misalignment with its positioning on the stator will

give false reading of the rotor position ([Link], 2003). This effect

the input signals into the electronic circuit and hence the interaction between

the stator and rotor magnetic flux. Hall Effect sensors H1, H2, H3 as shown in

fig 6 are accompanied with amplifiers in order to amplify the hall voltages

induced to drive a proper current through the phase windings.

([Link], n/k)

Fig 6

(n/k). “Hall effect sensors commutate 3-φ brushless DC motor”. Michael Stutz.[Online]

Available at < [Link] Accessed on 02 Jan 2010.

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 10

The each of 3 code binary input from hall sensors modulate through an

electronic circuit gives a 6 (see fig 7) unique energizing pattern to the 3 phase
Hall sensor inputs
coils. The sum of the two fluxes generated through the 2 coils gives the

resultant vector flux of the stator at particular instant of time. Hall Effect

sensors ensures angle between rotor and stator flux generated as close as to

Step 5 Step 6

Fig 7.

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 11

 (2008), “Commutation steps and rotating field”. ATMEL Corp. [Online] Available at

<[Link] Accessed on 01
Jan 2010

90⁰ to get a maximum torque possible.

3.4.2. Working of Hall Effect sensors:

Hall sensors are integrated with number of transistors that helps to magnify the

current through the electromagnet coils. Transistors help in periodic switching of

Figure 8

(2007). “Hall Effect switching”. [Online] Available at

< [Link] Accessed on
2nd Jan 2010.
the electromagnet which works in synchronous with the spinning rotor. As in fig

8, when Hall IC comes under magnetic field of

pole #1, a Hall voltage is induced which is

amplified through the transistor and energizes

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 12 Fig 9

(2007). “Hall Effect switching”. [Online] Available at

< [Link]
Accessed on 2nd Jan 2010.
the coil. At this instant of time the coil behaves as an electromagnet and repels

the pole (#3) next to it in the clockwise direction

The rotary drive away the adjacent pole next to Hall IC and cuts off the magnetic

field (fig 9) that induces the hall voltage. Hence no current to the transistor and

de-energizes coil. Now inertia of the rotor gained spins the rotor till its kick by the

next torque on aligning of #2 magnet with the Hall IC. This intermittent switching

gives the rotor an uninterrupted rotation. ([Link], 2007)

4. CHARACTERISTICS:

The specialty of BLDC motor is revealed by its capability to operate wide range

of speeds for a constant torque. However, this phenomenon is true up to a rated

torque above which torque/speed characteristics become inversely proportional

to each other. ([Link],2003)

The BLDC Motor wins a preferable position over D.C Brushed motors and A.C

Motor due to large number factors discussed below.

The name “brushless” itself signifies it outstanding feature from the rest. They

have not only extended the life time of the motor but also eliminated the
Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 13
limitation to achieve high RPM. Brushless commutation has cut out the effects of

reactive sparking leading to mechanical noises. ([Link], 2004)

The permanent magnet rotor made from lightweight alloys and in the absence of

rotor windings gives its properties of low-inertia. Thus improves acceleration and

deceleration characteristics of the rotor which makes easier to start or stop.

( [Link], 2003)

BLDC motors generally have good starting torque owing to low-inertia of the

rotor. And full running torque backed by precise positioning of the rotor by hall

sensors. Electronic commutation through the feedback of hall sensors ensures to

keep the rotor and stator flux angle as close to 90⁰.( [Link], n/k)

Since the rotor involves only permanent magnet and no coils. They have no

inductive losses and hence power factor nears to unity

([Link]). With no current induced in the rotor, problems of

hysteresis and eddy current losses are eliminated; thereby heat transfer from

shaft of the motor to the work piece is at minimum. ([Link], 2007).Last

but not the least; flexible design is apparent by the D.C power supply it requires

to run the motor. Therefore, the motor could be powered by an ordinary battery

cell. Energizing sequence of the stator windings solely depends on the on/off
Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 14
switching of the coils electronically. Therefore, any number of phase stators could

be designed irrespective of its power source. ([Link], 2004)

However, BLDC motors do have certain areas where technology comes short. The

use of hall sensors imposes certain limitation on BLDC motor. Hall sensors made

from semi-conductive materials are susceptible to temperature variation.

Operating of these motors for long hours under constant voltage will eventually

heats up the device and may exceed the temperature rating of these sensors. This

could result in malfunctioning of the sensors. Another factor is the high cost

penalty involved in the production of the BLDC motor. ([Link])

5. APPLICATIONS: FLIGHT CONTROLS IN MODERN AIRCRAFTS

With the evolution of the concept “power-by-wire” electro-mechanical (E.M.A)

and electro-hydrostatic actuators (E.H.A) have been used to drive the control

surfaces of an aircraft. Most of the said actuators uses D.C brushless motors to

drive local reduction gears and hydraulic pistons in Electro-mechanical and

electro-hydrostatic actuators respectively. ([Link], 2009)

The modern A380 uses electro-hydrostatic actuators to maneuvers the primary

flight controls such as elevators, rudders and ailerons (fig 10). The actuator with a

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 15

typical BLDC motor pressurizes the fixed hydraulic piston which causes the

associated control surfaces to move. ([Link], 2001)

On the other hand, Electro-mechanical actuators use no hydraulics for

intermediate power transmission. Instead uses reduction gears and screw jacks to

transmit the torque produced from BLDC Motor. The rotary movement of the

motor is converted to a linear motion with the help of a Ball Screw jack to extend

or retract the slats or flaps on the wing.( [Link])

5.1. Example: A380 EHA aileron

Electronic
module

Fig 10.

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 16

Xavier Le Tron AIRBUS(2007). “A380 EHA aileron”. A380 Flight Controls overview. AIRBUS. [Online] Available at <
[Link] Accessed on
01 Jan 2010

6. Conclusion:

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 17

7. REFERENCES

 Author n/k (1998). The rotating magnetic field of an AC motor. Baldor

Electric Company.[Online] Available at
<[Link] [Accessed on 25th
Dec 2009]

 Adams. C (2001) A380: 'More Electric' Aircraft.[Online] Available at <

[Link] [Accessed
on 26th Dec 2009]

 Author n/k (n/k). POWERTEC Brushless DC Motors.[Online] Available at

<[Link] [Accessed on 3rd Jan
2010]

 Author n/k (n/k). Hall Effect Sensors and Magneto resistance. [Online]
Available at
[Link]
[Accessed on 28th Dec 2009]

 Author n/k (n/k). Hall Effect sensors commutate 3-φ brushless DC motor.
Michael Stutz. [Online] Available at <
[Link] Accessed on 02
Jan 2010.

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 18

  Author n/k (n/k). Disassembled view of a brushless dc motor. [Online]
Available at
<[Link]
pdf> [Accessed on 27th Dec 2009].
 Author N/k (2005) Hall Effect. Wikipedia. [Online] Available at
[Link] [Accessed on 31st Dec 2009]
 Author n/k (2007) Hall Effect Switching.[Online] Available at
<[Link] [Accessed on 28th Dec
2009]

 Author n/k (2007) BLDC Basic motor construction. Oriental Motor

[Online] Available at
<[Link]
[Accessed on 26th Dec 2009]

 Author n/k (2008) AVR194: Brushless DC Motor Control using

ATmega32M1. ATMEL. [Online] Available at
<[Link] >
[Accessed on 02nd Jan 2010]

 Breji. M Et Al (2006) BLDC Motor with Hall Sensors and

Speed Closed Loop (Rev 1).[Online] Available
at<[Link]
fsrch=1&WT_TYPE=Application
Notes&WT_VENDOR=FREESCALE&WT_FILE_FORMAT=pdf&WT_ASSET=D
ocumentation >[Accessed on 21st Dec 2009]

 Dan.M et al (2005) Torque ripple Characteristics. [Online] Available at

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 < [Link]
[Accessed on 31th Dec 2009]

 Four. R (2007) OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BRUSHLESS DC

MOTORS. [Online] Available at
<[Link]
al%20Characteristice%20of%20BLDCM_OA_WebPg.pdf> [Accessed on
03rd Jan 2010]
 Guckelberger. D (2004) Brushless DC motors: Setting a new standard for
efficiency. TRANE. [Online] Available at
<[Link]
[Link]> [Accessed on 6th Jan 2010]
 Ian Moir and Allan Seabridge (2008). Aircraft Systems: Mechanical,
Electrical and Avionics Subsystems Integration(3rd Ed.). Google books.
[Online] Available at <[Link]
id=2PBa68zWggEC&pg=PT73&lpg=PT73&dq=EHA+787+BOEING&source=
bl&ots=ytyRTRKzF0&sig=VVzC8F-YuL-i-
qC0eZrMgh9CZfk&hl=en&ei=unhFS8z1O4ugkQWIgO3yAg&sa=X&oi=book
_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CAoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=EHA
%20787%20BOEING&f=false> [Accessed on 7th Jan 2010]

 Pera. B (n/k) Brushless DC Motor Animation. [Online] Available at

<[Link]
[Accessed on 30th Dec 2009]

 Sureshkumar. U (2009) Power-by-wire systems. [Online] Available at

<[Link]
technologies-in-electrical-drives-and-power-distribution-systems-in-
[Link]>. [Accessed on 05th Jan 2010]
 Yedamale. P (2003). Brushless DC Motor Fundamentals
(AN885).Microchip [Online]. Available at
<[Link]
[Accessed on 29th Dec 2009]

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  Titus. J (2009) Six step Commutation. [Online] Available at
<[Link]
On/> [Accessed on 30th Dec 2009].
 Titus. J (2009) Brushless D.C Roll [Link] [Online] Available at
<[Link]
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 Xavier Le Tron AIRBUS(2007). A380 EHA aileron. A380 Flight Controls

overview. AIRBUS. Hamburg University of Applied Science.[Online]
Available at <
[Link]
_A380_Flight_Controls.pdf> [Accessed on 01 Jan 2010]

8. GLOSSARY

 BLDC- Brushless D.C Motor

 E.M.A- Electro-mechanical Actuator

 E.H.A-Electro-hydrostatic actuator

 I.C – Intregated circuit

 R.P.M- Rotation Per Minute

Tissara Nalin -K0827514 Page 21