KEY PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY: An Overview Uniformitarianism “the present is the key to the past

geology”
Law of Superposition the doctrine suggesting that Earth’s geologic
For undisturbed rocks, processes acted in the same manner and with
the oldest layer is on essentially the same intensity in the past as they do
the bottom and the in the present and that such uniformity is sufficient
youngest is on top. to account for all geologic change

Law of Original Catastrophism

Horizontality The belief that Earth's
Rocks/Sediments features—including mountains,
form in horizontal valleys, and lakes—were created
layers parallel to suddenly as a result of great
Earth’s surface and catastrophes, such as floods or
will remain that earthquakes.
way unless
disturbed Gradualism
Refers most broadly to a theory
Law of Lateral that changes of the Earth itself
Continuity occur through gradual increments,
suggests that all rock and often that transitions between
layers are laterally different states are more or less
continuous and may continual and slow rather than
be broken up or periodic and rapid
displaced by later
events. Uniconformity
A type of geologic contact—a
boundary between rocks— caused
by a period of erosion or a pause in
sediment accumulation, followed by
Cross-cutting Relationship the deposition of sediments anew.
Intrusions that “cut across” or
enter other rocks are younger
than the rocks they cross

Faunal/fossil Succession
Fossils occur in a specific
order in the geologic
record. Any time period can
be recognized by the
fossils that appear in it.

Law of Inclusion
States that any
rock fragments that
are included in rock Landscapes Formed by Denudational Process
must be older than
the rock in which Definition of Terms
they are included. ➢​ Aggradation - is the term used in geology
for the increase in land elevation,typically in a river
system, due to the deposition of sediment.
➢​ Creep is a slow downslope movement of consolidated materials or rock layers moves a short
particles that occurs on every slope covered with distance down a slope.
loose, weathered material. ➢​ Talus is a slope formed by an accumulation
➢​ Debris Avalanche is formed when an of broken rock debris, as at the base of a cliff or
unstable slope collapses and debris is transported other high place.
away from the slope. ➢​ Terracette is a type of landform, a ridge on
➢​ Debris Slide is a mass of predominantly a hillside formed when saturated soil particles
unconsolidated and incoherent soil and rock expand, then contract as they dry, causing them to
fragments that has slid or rolled rapidly down a move slowly downhill forming step-like patterns
steep slope. along the slope.
➢​ Debris Fall is a relatively free downward or ➢​ Weathering is the breaking down of rocks,
forward falling of unconsolidated or poorly soil and minerals as well as artificial materials
consolidated earth or rocky debris from a cliff, cave, through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota
or an arch. and water and wind.
➢​ Earthflow is a downslope viscous flow of
fine-grained materials that have been saturated with
water, and moves under the pull of gravity What are Landscapes formed by Denudational
➢​ Erosion is the action of surface processes Processes?
(such as water or wind) that removes soil, rock, or landforms that have been created by denudation, a
dissolved material from one location to another. geological process that wears away the Earth's
➢​ Frost Heaving (or a frost heave) is an surface. Denudation is caused by wind, water, ice,
upward swelling of soil during freezing conditions and waves
caused by an increased presence of ice as it grows
towards the surface. Denudation
➢​ Gelifluction, is the seasonal freeze-thaw the long-term sum of processes that cause the
action upon water-logged topsoils which induces wearing away of the Earth’s surface, leading to a
downslope movement. reduction in elevation and relief of landforms and
➢​ Gully is a landform created by running landscapes.
water eroding sharply into soil,typically on a hillside. Relief: the differences in height from place to place
➢​ Inselberg is an isolated rock hill, knob, on the land's surface and it is greatly affected by the
ridge, or small mountain from a gently sloping or underlying geology. Relief relies on the hardness,
virtually level surrounding plain permeability and structure of a rock.
➢​ Landslide the downslope movement of a DENUDATION includes:
mass of rock, debris, earth,or soil. Landslides occur 1. Weathering
when gravitational and other types of shear 2. Erosion
stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength of 3. Mass Wasting
the materials that form the slope. 4. Transport
➢​ Mass wasting is the geomorphic process by
which soil, sand, regolith,and rock move downslope
typically as a mass, largely under the force of DEGRADATION vs AGGRADATION
gravity. DEGRADATION
➢​ Mudflow is a form of mass wasting • general lowering of the earth's surface by erosion
involving "very rapid to extremely rapid surging or weathering
flow" of debris that has become partially or fully • in geography and geology is the process of the
liquified by the addition of significant amounts of lowering of a fluvial surface, i.e. a riverbed, basin,
water to the source material. watershed, or floodplain, by means of erosion. An
➢​ Peneplain is a low-relief non-constructional example includes rivers becoming deeper
plain. bysediment being eroded awayfrom the bottom
➢​ Rockslide a usually rapid downward surface
movement of rock fragments that slide over an
inclined surface AGGRADATION
➢​ Rockfall is a fragment of rock (a block) • The opposite of degradation
detached by toppling, or falling, that drops along a • To build up a surface or soil through the addition of
vertical or sub-vertical cliff. organic and inorganic materials such as flood
➢​ Solifluction is a mass movement of soil and sediments, glacial deposits, or mass wasting
regolith affected by alternate freezing and thawing deposits.
➢​ Slump is a form of mass wasting that • Sediment deposition that raises the level of the
occurs when a coherent mass of loosely stream channel or landsurface
 the geological process in which earthen materials
Processes leading to aggradation are worn away and transported by natural forces
1.) accumulation of debris ex. Glacial/River such as wind or water.
deposition
2.) biological accumulation ex. Coral growth & Peat Physical/Mechanical Erosion
The particulate breakdown of rock or soil into clastic
1. Weathering sediments is referred to as physical or mechanical
The sum of slow processes which disintegrate erosion
rocks into debris and soil.
Rocks exposed at Earth’s surface are constantly Chemical Erosion
being altered by water, air, changing temperature Where soil or rock material is removed from an area
and other environmental factors. by dissolving into a solvent (typically water),
followed by the flow away of that solution
Three (3) Types of Weathering
1.) Physical/Mechanical Agents of Erosion
Takes place when rocks are broken down without • Air
any change in the chemical nature of the rocks. The • Water
rocks are essentially torn apart by physical force, • Human/Animals
rather than by chemical breakdown.
• Abrasion Two Common Types of Semi-Permament
• Sheeting/Unloading
• Freezing and Thawing
• Cavitation

2.) Chemical Weathering

is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of
rock by chemical reactions.
• Oxidation and Reaction
• Carbonation
• Chelation
• Hydrolysis
• Hydration​

3.) Biologic/Organic Weathering

The weakening and subsequent disintegration of
rock by plants, animals and microbes
Simple breaking of particles, as by eating or
burrowing of animals, or by pressure exerted by
growing roots.
Gully/Gullies
trench cut into land by the erosion of an
accelerated stream of water.

How are they formed?

• Gullies develop when enough surface water
concentrates in a flow line with inadequate
groundcover, resulting in scouring of soil until a
deeper channel is formed.
• The starting point for gully development could be
*In warm, humid climates : chemical and biologic disturbed soil,a livestock or vehicle track, orexisting
weathering are predominant. erosion.
*In cold and warm dry climatic conditions: physical • Severe gully erosion is worsened by extreme
weathering is prevalent. rainfall from storms and typhoons.
*In climatic zones where temperature and humidity
are capable of sustaining organic life:biologic TWO (2) KINDS OF GULLIES
weathering does occur. Gullies according to Depth
1.) Shallow Gullies:0.5-1.5m
2.) Deep Gullies:1.5–5m
1. Erosion
3.) Ravines:>5m
Gullies according to Soil Type
a.) axial–occurs frequently in gravelly deposits
b.) digitate – characteristic of clay loams
c.) frontal– is found particularly on loamy sands with
columnar structure

• CREEP
Mass Wasting
• Creep is a slow downslope movement of
The general term for a variety of processes by
particles that occurs on every slope covered with
which (large)mass of earth material is moved by
loose, weathered material
gravity, either slowly or quickly, from one place to
• Occurs due to the expansion and contraction of
another.
slope material
• Rates of movement are often only a few
Mass Movement
centimeters per year
• Particle Movement/Movement in Solution
movement in which particles move as individuals
partially to completely independent of their
neighbors
• Mass Movement
movements in which neighboring particles remain
close together as they move so that the debris
moves coherent whole

FOUR (4) TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT

• SLIDE
• A slide happens when a section of soil or rock
suddenly moves down a slope.
• Resistance to movement drops sharply once an
initial failure has occurred along a well-defined
surface
• The mass above the slide surface moves as a
block.

• FLOW
• Sheet or stream of soil and rock material
saturated with water that flows downslope under the
pull of gravity.
• Movement may stop on reduced gradients or until
the driving forces are reduced
• Movement of a fluid corresponds closely to pure
flow
• FALL
• Fall is a type of fast-moving mass movement that
happens when rock or earth falls, bounces, or rolls
from a cliff or down a very steep slope.
• Rockfall starts from outcrops of hard,
erosion-resistant rock that become unstable fora
variety of reasons.
• The size of the falling depends on the source
area, geology, weathering, position,and steepness
of the slope
 • From German Insel, “island,” andBerg, “mountain”,
an isolated hill that stands
above well-developed
plains and appears not
unlike an island rising
from the sea.
• The early German
explorers of southern
Africa were impressed by
such features, and they
dubbed the domed or
castle like highlands inselbergs.

PENEPLAIN
• Gently undulating, almost
featureless plain that, in
principle, would be produced
by fluvial erosion that would,in
the course of geologic time,
reduce the land almost to
baselevel (sealevel), leaving
SOLIFLUCTION
so little gradient that
• Solifluction is a special type of creep that occurs in
essentially no more erosion
areas of permafrost. Permafrost refers to the layer
could occur.
of groundwater that fills in the pore spaces of soil
• The peneplain concept was
and rock that permanently froze
named in1889 by William M.
Davis, who believed it to be
the final stage of his
geomorphic cycle of landform
evolution.

RIVER TERRACE
• A river terrace is a
step-like landform that
extends along the side of
a river valley.
• Terraces form when a
river abandons a
floodplain and cuts into
SHEETWASH/ SHEET EROSION bedrock.
• Is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers by the
forces of raindrops and overland flow. FANS
• It involves the falling of raindrops and their • is a triangle-shaped
merging to form a near-continuous sheet,which deposit of gravel, sand,
moves down hillslopes,gathering momentum and and even smaller pieces
representing an erosive force of high potential of sediment,such as silt.•
Example:• Scree fan and Alluvial fan
SLUMP/ ROTATIONAL SLIDE
• A type of slide wherein downward rotation of rock INFILLED VALLEY
or regolith occurs along a concave upward curved • Debris accumulates and fills up the valley.
surface(rotational slides).
• The upper surface of each slump block remains DELTA
relatively undisturbed, as do the individual blocks. • Deltas are wetlands that form when rivers empty
Slumps leave arcuate scars or depressions on the into a larger body of water, like a lake or ocean
hillslope.
,

INSELBERGS