Notes (Geography):​

-location​
-Topography​
-climate​
-Water resources​
-Forests​
-Minerals​
​
Location:​
Pakistan is located between latitudes 24 35’ north 37 05’ north and longitudes
61 east and 78 east. It borders the countries of Iran (SW) Afganistan (W) China
(NE) and India (E). Pakistan is located above the tropic of cancer (23.5 north). It
has a coast to the Arabian sea (S).​
​
Topic 1: Topography of Pakistan

1. Northern Mountains

●​ Ranges: The region comprises three main ranges: The Karakoram

(average height 6000m, runs SE to NW), The Himalayas (average height
4000m, runs SE to NW), and The Hindu Kush (average height 5000m,
runs NE to SW).
●​ Features:
○​ Peaks: Deep, steep-sided, snow-capped peaks (e.g., K2, Rakaposhi).
The height generally increases from South to North.
○​ Valleys & Gorges: Deep narrow valleys like Gilgit and Chitral are
present. Rivers have formed deep narrow gorges and alluvial fans.
○​ Glaciers: Known as the "3rd pole of the Earth" due to massive
glaciers like Siachen and Baltoro. Glacial erosion forms features like
moraines.
○​ Soil: Slopes have thin soil cover or bare rocks due to weathering
and lack of vegetation support.
●​ Drainage:
○​ Indus River: Drains the southern slopes of Karakoram and Hindu
Kush. Tributaries include the Gilgit River.
○​ Himalayas: Southern slopes drained by eastern tributaries: Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.

2. Western Mountains
 ●​ Ranges: Includes Waziristan Hills, Safed Koh (runs East-West), Sulaiman
Range, and Kirthar Range (run North-South).
●​ Features: mostly bare rocks due to low rainfall and high evaporation.
Safed Koh has some snow-capped peaks.
●​ Drainage:
○​ Safed Koh: Drained by River Kabul (joins Indus).
○​ Sulaiman Range: Drained by hill torrents and seasonal rivers (e.g.,
Bolan, Mula) which often dry up or form inland lakes.

3. Balochistan Plateau

●​ Features: Altitude varies (600m–3000m). Features parallel ranges (Chagai

Hills, Raskoh) and steep slopes with bare rocks. It has dry lakes called
Hamuns (e.g., Hamun-i-Mashkel), which are depressions formed by
seasonal rivers.
●​ Drainage: Inland drainage is common (water absorbed or evaporates).
Southern rivers (Dasht, Porali) flow into the Arabian Sea.

4. Potwar Plateau & Salt Range

●​ Potwar Plateau: Located between Margalla Hills (North) and Salt Range
(South). Height 305-610m. Known for badland topography: deeply
dissected land with ridges, ravines, and gullies formed by erosion of soft
rock.
●​ Salt Range: Parallel mountains (750-900m high). Northern slope is
gentle; southern slope is steep. Contains saline lakes like Kallar Kahar.

5. Indus Plain

●​ Upper Indus Plain (UIP): From Kashmir foothills to Mithankot. Features

Doabs (land between two rivers), Bars (alluvial terraces 7-12m high), and
active/old flood plains.
●​ Lower Indus Plain (LIP): From Mithankot to Indus Delta. Features include
Cuestas (limestone ridges like Rohri), oxbow lakes, and meanders. Lacks
doabs.
●​ Indus Delta: A low-lying triangular area where the river divides into
distributaries before entering the Arabian Sea.

6. Deserts

●​ Locations: Thal (Punjab), Tharparkar (Sindh/Punjab - subdivided into

Cholistan, Nara, Thar), Kharan (Balochistan).
 ●​ Topography: Rolling sand dunes (longitudinal and latitudinal), subjected
to wind erosion and desertification.

CAIE Structured Questions: Topography

Q1 (4 Marks): Describe the main physical features of the Potwar Plateau.

●​ Answer:
○​ Height ranges from 305 to 610 meters.
○​ It exhibits "badland topography" with badly dissected, faulted, and
folded hills.
○​ Contains residual hills left by retreating glaciers.
○​ The land is marked by ravines (steep-sided valleys) between ridges
and gullies formed by water erosion.

Q2 (7 Marks): Explain how the topography of the Northern Mountains affects

the lives of the people living there.

●​ Answer:
○​ Agriculture: Farming is limited to summers due to cold winters
and thin/infertile soil on slopes. Terracing is required.
○​ Transhumance: People practice seasonal movement
(transhumance), moving livestock to high pastures in summer and
lower valleys in winter for food/fodder.
○​ Transport: Construction of roads/rail is difficult and expensive due
to steep slopes and narrow gorges. Landslides frequently block
roads.
○​ Tourism: In summer, the area attracts tourists, providing income
for locals through hotels and crafts.

Revision Sheet: Topography

●​ Mountains: Northern (High, Glaciated, Snow-capped); Western (Dry, Bare

rocks).
●​ Plateaus: Balochistan (Hamuns, inland drainage); Potwar (Badland
topography, Ridges, Ravines).
●​ Indus Plain: UIP (Doabs, Bars); LIP (Cuestas, Oxbow lakes, Delta).
●​ Deserts: Kharan (windy, dunes); Thar/Cholistan (rolling sand dunes).
 ●​ Doab: Land between two rivers (e.g., Bari Doab).
●​ Bar: Alluvial terrace 7-12m high (e.g., Neeli Bar).

Topic 2: Climate of Pakistan

1. Factors Affecting Climate

●​ Angle of Sun: Solar radiation intensity varies; areas closer to the equator
(south) are generally warmer than the north.
●​ Altitude: Temperature decreases with height (approx. 6.5°C per km). High
altitude areas like Northern Mountains are cold.
●​ Water Bodies: The Arabian Sea has a moderating effect (Maritime
Influence). Coastal areas have warm summers and mild winters with sea
breezes reducing summer heat. Inland areas have a Continental Climate
(hot summers, cold winters).
●​ Cloud Cover: Clouds block sun in day (cooling) but trap heat at night
(warming).

2. Sources of Rainfall

●​ Monsoon (July-Sept): Originate from Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.

Summer heating creates low pressure over Punjab/Sindh, drawing moist
winds. Brings heavy rain to Northern Punjab, KPK, and Kashmir.
○​ Note: Southern Sindh receives less rain from the Arabian Sea
branch due to a Temperature Inversion Layer preventing moist air
from rising.
●​ Western Depressions (Dec-March): Originate from Mediterranean Sea.
Travel east to bring winter rain to Quetta, Peshawar, and Northern
Punjab. Often falls as snow in high altitudes.
●​ Convectional Currents: Occur in early summer (May-June) and autumn.
Hot land heats air, causing it to rise and form thunderstorms.
●​ Relief Rainfall: Occurs in Northern mountains where moist air is forced
up slopes.

3. Climatic Zones

●​ Highland Zone (Cold Winters/Warm Summers): Northern

Mountains/Western Borders. Long cold winters (below freezing), short
warm summers. Rainfall varies.
 ●​ Lowland Zone (Arid/Semi-Arid): Indus Plain. Hot summers, mild winters.
Rainfall decreases South-West. Monsoon dominant.
●​ Coastal Zone (Maritime): Karachi/Makran. Moderate temperature, low
daily range due to sea breeze. High humidity.
●​ Arid Zone: Deserts. Extremes of temperature, very low rainfall (<125mm).

4. Climatic Hazards

●​ Floods: Caused by heavy monsoon + melting glaciers. Effects:

Destruction of crops/houses, spread of waterborne disease. Benefits:
Restores groundwater, fertile silt deposition.
●​ Drought: Deficiency in water supply. Types: Meteorological (low rain),
Agricultural (soil erosion/poor planning), Hydrological (reservoirs dry).
Effects: Crop failure, malnutrition, dust storms.

CAIE Structured Questions: Climate

Q1 (4 Marks): Describe the characteristics of the Winter rainfall in Pakistan.

●​ Answer:
○​ Occurs mainly from December to March.
○​ Brought by Western Depressions originating from the
Mediterranean Sea.
○​ Affects western and northern areas primarily (e.g., Quetta,
Peshawar).
○​ Often falls as snow in high altitude areas.
○​ Amount of rainfall decreases from West to East as the system loses
moisture.

Q2 (7 Marks): Explain why the coastal areas of Pakistan have a different

climate from the inland areas.

●​ Answer:
○​ Moderating Influence: Coastal areas experience the moderating
effect of the Arabian Sea. Water heats and cools slower than land.
○​ Sea Breezes: In summer, cool sea breezes blow inland, lowering
maximum temperatures compared to inland areas (Maritime
climate).
○​ Winter Warmth: In winter, the sea retains heat, preventing coastal
temperatures from dropping as low as inland areas.
 ○​ Humidity: Coastal areas have higher humidity throughout the year
due to proximity to the sea, whereas inland areas are drier.
○​ Rainfall: Coastal areas (especially Makran) may receive winter rain
from Western Depressions but miss some Monsoon rain due to
temperature inversion, unlike Punjab which gets heavy Monsoon
rain.

Revision Sheet: Climate

●​ Western Depressions: Winter rain (Dec-Mar), from Mediterranean,

affects West/North.
●​ Monsoon: Summer rain (Jul-Sept), from Bay of Bengal/Arabian Sea,
affects Punjab/Indus Plain.
●​ Continental Climate: Inland (Hot summer, Cold winter).
●​ Maritime Climate: Coastal (Mild summer/winter, humid).
●​ Temperature Inversion: Layer of cool air over warm air preventing rising
currents; limits rain in Southern Sindh.

Topic 3: Water Resources of Pakistan

1. Irrigation Systems

●​ Necessity: Rainfall is variable in timing, amount, distribution, and

intensity. Evapotranspiration is high. Agriculture needs a reliable supply.
●​ Traditional Methods:
○​ Karez: Underground canals in Balochistan connecting wells to tap
groundwater/runoff. Reduces evaporation. Sustainable but hard to
maintain.
○​ Shadoof: Pole and bucket system. Labor-intensive, small scale.
○​ Noria (Persian Wheel): Animal-turned wheel with buckets. Uses
shallow wells.
●​ Modern Methods:
○​ Canals: Perennial (linked to dams/barrages, flow all year) and
Inundation (flow only during floods).
○​ Tubewells: Electric/diesel pumps for groundwater. Used by
commercial farmers to supplement canals.
○​ Dams: Store water (reservoirs). Tarbela and Mangla are large
multipurpose dams (Irrigation + HEP).
 ○​ Barrages: Structures on flat terrain to divert river water into canals
(e.g., Sukkur Barrage).

2. Indus Water Treaty (1960)

●​ Agreement between Pakistan and India mediated by World Bank.

●​ Division: Pakistan got rights to 3 Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab).
India got 3 Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej).
●​ Developments: Pakistan built 2 dams (Tarbela, Mangla), 5 barrages, and 8
link canals to transfer water from western to eastern rivers.

3. Waterlogging and Salinity

●​ Causes: Unlined perennial canals cause continuous seepage. Water table

rises to 5-10 feet from surface. Evaporation leaves salt crust on surface
(Salinity).
●​ Effects: Roots rot, plants die due to salt, land becomes uncultivable (30%
land affected).
●​ Solutions:
○​ Tubewells: Pump out water to lower water table (SCARP projects).
○​ Canal Lining: Concrete lining to prevent seepage.
○​ Flushing: Washing salt away with extra water (requires drainage).
○​ Eucalyptus Trees: Planted to absorb groundwater.

CAIE Structured Questions: Water Resources

Q1 (4 Marks): Distinguish between Inundation canals and Perennial canals.

●​ Answer:
○​ Inundation Canals: Fill only when the river level rises (floods/rainy
season). They do not have barrages to control flow. Supply is
seasonal/unreliable.
○​ Perennial Canals: Linked to dams or barrages. Supply water
throughout the year. They have gates to regulate flow. They allow
for double cropping.

Q2 (14 Marks - Essay Style): Evaluate the effectiveness of large-scale irrigation

schemes in the economic development of Pakistan.

●​ Answer Structure:
○​ Positive Impacts (Pros):
 ■​ Cultivation: Allows farming in arid/semi-arid areas (e.g.,
Thal desert, Southern Punjab), transforming barren land
into productive farmland.
■​ Food Security: Increases yields of staple crops (Wheat, Rice)
to feed growing population.
■​ Economic Growth: Supports cash crops (Cotton, Sugarcane)
which are raw materials for industry (Textiles, Sugar mills),
boosting exports and GDP.
■​ Power: Multipurpose dams (Tarbela) provide HEP for
industry.
○​ Negative Impacts (Cons):
■​ Waterlogging/Salinity: Perennial unlined canals have
caused water tables to rise, destroying 30% of cultivable
land.
■​ Cost: High capital cost for construction and maintenance
(siltation removal).
■​ Inequality: Tail-end farmers often get less water due to
siltation and theft.
■​ Ecological Damage: Reduced flow downstream affects
mangroves in the Indus Delta.
○​ Conclusion: While they cause environmental damage that requires
costly management (SCARP), large-scale irrigation is essential for
Pakistan's survival as an agro-based economy, turning a desert
region into a food basket.

Revision Sheet: Water Resources

●​ Karez: Underground, Balochistan, minimizes evaporation.

●​ Perennial Canal: All year water, leads to waterlogging if unlined.
●​ Inundation Canal: Flood season only.
●​ Waterlogging: Water table rises -> roots drown.
●​ Salinity: Water evaporates -> salt crust remains -> soil infertile.
●​ Indus Water Treaty: Pak gets Indus, Jhelum, Chenab.

Topic 4: Forests of Pakistan

1. Types of Forests
 ●​ Alpine: High altitude (4000m+). Stunted growth/dwarf trees (e.g., Silver
Fir). Used for fuel wood.
●​ Coniferous: Northern mountains (1000-4000m). Evergreen, needle
leaves (reduce transpiration), conical shape (shed snow). Valuable timber
source (Chitral, Swat).
●​ Mangroves: Coastal deltas (Indus/Hab). Salt-tolerant, broad leathery
leaves, prop roots (absorb oxygen). Protect coast from erosion/tsunami,
breeding ground for fish.
●​ Riverine (Bela): Along river banks (Indus). Linear plantations. Prevent
erosion, tolerate floods.
●​ Irrigated Plantations: Man-made (e.g., Changa Manga). Trees planted in
blocks/lines. Commercial timber (Shishum, Babul).
●​ Thorn/Scrub: Desert areas (Rangeland). Thorny, deep roots, small leaves.
Used for grazing/firewood.

2. Deforestation

●​ Causes: Urbanization, demand for timber/firewood (especially in north

with no gas), clearing for farming, overgrazing, road construction.
●​ Effects:
○​ Soil Erosion: Roots no longer bind soil; topsoil washes away.
○​ Flooding: Reduced interception causes flash floods.
○​ Siltation: Eroded soil fills dams (reducing capacity/HEP).
○​ Climate Change: Less CO2 absorption.

3. Sustainable Forestry

●​ Methods: Selective logging (cutting only mature trees), Re-afforestation

(planting new trees), Terracing (prevent erosion), Contour ploughing.

CAIE Structured Questions: Forests

Q1 (4 Marks): Describe the physical characteristics of Mangrove forests.

●​ Answer:
○​ Have prop roots (pneumatophores) that stick out of water to
breathe oxygen.
○​ Roots are highly impermeable to filter out salt.
○​ Leaves are thick and leathery to control water loss.
○​ Can tolerate saline water and tidal flooding.
Q2 (7 Marks): Explain the causes and effects of deforestation in the Northern
Areas of Pakistan.

●​ Answer:
○​ Causes (3-4 marks): High demand for firewood due to lack of
natural gas infrastructure. Illegal logging and corruption for
timber profits. Clearing land for farming (terrace farming) and
overgrazing by livestock.
○​ Effects (3-4 marks): Leads to soil erosion as roots no longer bind
the soil. This causes landslides which block roads (KKH). Eroded
soil flows into rivers causing siltation in dams (Tarbela/Mangla),
reducing electricity generation capacity. Increases surface runoff,
causing flash floods.

Revision Sheet: Forests

●​ Coniferous: Construction timber, needle leaves, Northern areas.

●​ Mangroves: Coastal protection, fish breeding, firewood, salt-tolerant.
●​ Riverine (Bela): Along rivers, prevent bank erosion.
●​ Irrigated: Man-made (Changa Manga), commercial use.
●​ Deforestation: Soil erosion -> Siltation in dams -> Floods.

Topic 6: Minerals of Pakistan

1. Extraction Methods

●​ Adit Mining: Horizontal tunnel into a hillside to reach mineral layer.

Explosives used. Economical for exposed seams.
●​ Shaft Mining: Vertical shaft dug to deep deposits, then horizontal
tunnels. Requires ventilation and lifts. Expensive/Dangerous.
●​ Open Cast Mining: Removing topsoil to expose mineral near surface.
Uses excavators/trucks. Leaves large holes/scars (e.g., Copper at Saindak).

2. Key Minerals

●​ Coal: Reserves 185 billion tonnes (Thar). Low quality

(Lignite/Sub-bituminous) with high ash/sulphur. Used mainly in brick
kilns (80%) and some power generation.
 ●​ Natural Gas: Reserves 27 trillion cubic feet (Sui, Mari). Used for power
generation, fertilizer industry (raw material), domestic fuel (CNG).
Transported via pipelines.
●​ Mineral Oil: Lower Sindh (Badin) and Potwar Plateau. Imported heavily.
Refined for transport/power.
●​ Limestone: Abundant. Used for Cement, bleaching powder, glass, treating
saline soil. Extracted by quarrying.
●​ Gypsum: Found in Salt Range. Used for Fertilizer, cement, plaster of
Paris.
●​ Rock Salt: Salt Range (Khewra). Used for cooking, chemical industry
(soda ash), preservatives.
●​ Copper/Gold: Saindak and Reko Diq (Balochistan). Massive reserves but
require large investment.

3. Problems

●​ Lack of Capital: Modern machinery is expensive.

●​ Infrastructure: Poor roads/rail in Balochistan make transport of minerals
(like Iron ore/Copper) difficult.
●​ Security: Issues in Balochistan discourage foreign investment.
●​ Low Quality: Local coal is high in sulphur, unsuitable for steel making.

CAIE Structured Questions: Minerals

Q1 (4 Marks): State two uses of Limestone and two uses of Gypsum.

●​ Answer:
○​ Limestone: Making Cement (main raw material). Treating saline
soil (Soil conditioner).
○​ Gypsum: Making Plaster of Paris. Used in Fertilizers.

Q2 (7 Marks): Explain why the extraction of coal in Pakistan has not been fully
developed despite large reserves.

●​ Answer:
○​ Quality: Most coal (Thar) is Lignite/Sub-bituminous, which has
low heating value and high ash/sulphur content. It is unsuitable for
the steel industry.
○​ Location: Major reserves are in remote areas (Thar, Balochistan)
with poor infrastructure (roads/rail) to transport it to industries.
 ○​ Technology: Mining seams are often thin and faulted, making
mechanized mining difficult and expensive. Pakistan lacks
advanced technology and capital for deep mining.
○​ Combustion: High sulphur content causes pollution (acid rain),
requiring expensive treatment plants.

Revision Sheet: Minerals

●​ Limestone: Cement, widespread availability.

●​ Gypsum: Fertilizer, Cement, Plaster.
●​ Rock Salt: Khewra, chemical industry/cooking.
●​ Coal: Thar (Lignite), Brick kilns, Power (Thar Coal project).
●​ Gas: Sui, Fertilizer/Power/Cars (CNG).
●​ Extraction: Adit (Hillside), Shaft (Deep), Open Cast (Surface).

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