JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

uk MODULE 8
BASIC

engineering AERODYNAMICS

1. ATMOSPHERE.................................................................................1
1.1. nature.......................................................................................1
1.2. properties.................................................................................1
1.2.1. Pressure.....................................................................3
1.2.2. Air Temperature..........................................................3
1.2.3. Density........................................................................4
1.2.4. Humidity......................................................................4
AERODYNAMICS................................................................................1
1.3. Airflow Around a Body..............................................................1
1.3.1. The Aerofoil................................................................2
1.4. energy.......................................................................................3
2. AEROFOILS......................................................................................1
2.1. aerodynamic forces..................................................................1
2.2. definitions.................................................................................3
2.3. aerodynamic resultants............................................................4
2.4. lift & drag..................................................................................4
2.5. factors affecting forces.............................................................5
2.5.1. Lift & drag coefficient..................................................6
2.5.2. Angle of attack............................................................7
2.6. centre of pressure....................................................................9
2.6.1. Pitching moment coefficient.......................................9
2.7. aerodynamic centre..................................................................11
2.8. downwash................................................................................11
3. DRAG................................................................................................13
3.1. drag equation...........................................................................13
3.2. drag coefficient.........................................................................13
3.3. drag components......................................................................13
3.4. flow characteristics...................................................................13
3.5. form drag..................................................................................14
3.6. boundary layers........................................................................14
3.7. skin friction...............................................................................16
3.7.1. Transition point...........................................................16
3.7.2. Reynolds number.......................................................17
3.7.3. Adverse pressure gradient.........................................17
3.8. separation.................................................................................18
3.9. interference drag......................................................................19
3.10. induced drag...........................................................................20
3.10.1. Vortex drag...............................................................20
3.11. total drag................................................................................23

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engineering AERODYNAMICS

3.11.1. Drag polar.................................................................24

4. FORCES IN FLIGHT.........................................................................1
4.1. four forces................................................................................1
4.2. straight & level..........................................................................2
4.3. forces in climb .........................................................................3
4.4. forces in glide & descent.........................................................4
4.5. rate of climb (performance)......................................................5
4.5.1. Power curves..............................................................6
4.5.2. Effect of altitude..........................................................6
FORCES & MANOEUVRE...................................................................1
4.6. centripetal force........................................................................1
4.7. looping......................................................................................1
4.8. load factor.................................................................................3
4.9. level turns.................................................................................3
4.10. stalling ...................................................................................4
4.10.1. Stalling speed...........................................................5
4.10.2. Effect of weight / load factor.....................................5
4.10.3. Aerofoil Contamination.............................................5
4.11. flight envelopes......................................................................6
5. STABILITY........................................................................................1
5.1. basic concept & definition........................................................1
5.2. static stability............................................................................1
5.3. dynamic stability.......................................................................3
5.4. aircraft stability.........................................................................4
5.5. design features.........................................................................4
5.6. control.......................................................................................11
5.7. control about 3 axes.................................................................12
5.8. aerodynamic balancing............................................................12
5.9. balance of tabs.........................................................................14
5.10. fixed & trim tabs.....................................................................15
5.11. balance tabs...........................................................................17
5.12. lift augmentation.....................................................................18
5.13. use of high lift devices............................................................20
5.14. flaps, slots & slats...................................................................21
5.15. Drag devices.........................................................................23
6. HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS.....................................................1
6.1. cyclic & collective controls........................................................3
6.2. Anti-torque control....................................................................5

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6.3. effect of the tail rotor.................................................................6

6.4. main rotor head configuration & movement.............................6

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engineering AERODYNAMICS

1. ATMOSPHERE
Most civil aircraft operate between Sea Level (SL) and 45,000 feet. Our studies
of the atmosphere concentrate on this region.

1.1. NATURE
The air that surrounds the earth is a physical mixture of gases made up of 78%
Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.9% Argon, 0.03% Carbon Dioxide and a trace of
hydrogen, helium and neon. These percentages are volumetric. This ratio
remains constant regardless of the altitude but, as the air pressure is the weight
of the column of air above a fixed point, the highest pressure is at ground level
and this pressure decreases with altitude. Air also contains varying amounts of
water vapour. This presence is known as humidity. Most of this water vapour
exists between sea level and 25,000 feet. It is a fact that air is most dense when
it is perfectly dry, and vice versa.

1.2. PROPERTIES
Any gas will have the physical properties such as pressure, density and
temperature, which can vary. These properties vary within the atmosphere
depending on where you may be in the world. Because of these variations, the
performance of an aircraft will vary. If meaningful comparisons between
measured performance are to be made, we must have a reference for all of our
aerodynamic computations, the International Civil Aeronautics Organisation,
(ICAO), has agreed upon a “Standard Atmosphere”. This is known as the
International Standard Atmosphere or ISA. The pressures, temperatures and
densities in this atmosphere may not be typical of our location, but they do serve
as a reference. When all aerodynamic computations are related to this Standard,
we can compare flight test data and other information, relative to our aircraft and
its performance, regardless of where the readings were taken and the results will
be meaningful.
An ISA is based on the following Sea Level (SL) criteria.
• SL Pressure 101.3 kN/m2 (1013.2 millibars)
• SL Density 1.225 kg/m3
• SL Temperature 288 K (15ºC)
• SL Lapse rate 6.5K/Km (1.98ºC / 1000 feet)

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The ISA values vary with altitude as shown in the following table:

Height above Sea Pressure (kN/m2) Temperature (K) Density (kg/m3)

Level (km)
Sea Level 101.3 288 1.225
1 89.9 282 1.112
2 79.5 275 1.007
3 70.1 269 0.909
4 61.7 262 0.819
5 54.0 256 0.736
6 47.2 249 0.660
7 41.1 243 0.590
8 35.7 236 0.526
9 30.8 230 0.467
10 26.5 223 0.414
11 22.7 217 0.365
12 19.4 217 0.312
13 16.6 217 0.267
14 14.2 217 0.228
15 12.1 217 0.195
16 10.4 217 0.166
17 8.8 217 0.142
18 7.6 217 0.122
19 6.5 217 0.104
20 5.5 217 0.089
21 4.7 218 0.076
22 4.0 219 0.065
23 3.5 220 0.055
24 3.0 221 0.047
25 2.5 222 0.040

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1.2.1. PRESSURE
The force that the air exerts on a unit of area, is the measure of pressure, and
there are three systems commonly used in aviation for measuring pressure.
1. Pounds per Square Inch - This is perhaps the most common measure of
pressure and simply expresses the force in pounds that the air exerts on each
square inch of area. In our standard atmosphere at sea level, the air exerts a
pressure of 14.69 pounds per square inch (psi.). Approximately one half of
our atmosphere is below 18,000 feet (ft.) and at that altitude, the air pressure
has dropped to 7.34 psi. This measurement of pressure is sometimes
referred to as gauge pressure (psig.), as the pressure we are reading on the
face of the gauge is the pressure above the atmospheric pressure already
present.
2. Inches of Mercury - If we fill a tube with mercury and invert it in a bowl of
mercury, the liquid in the tube will drop and create a vacuum above it. It will
drop until the force exerted by the air on the surface of the mercury in the
bowl is exactly equal to the weight of mercury in the tube. The pressure of the
air under Standard Sea Level conditions will support a column of mercury to a
height of 29.92 inches.
Pressure that is referenced from zero pressure is called Absolute pressure and is
usually measured in inches of mercury (ins. Hg). The absolute pressure in the
induction system of a piston engine draws the fuel/air mixture into the cylinders
and this is read as manifold pressure.
The altimeter in an aircraft does not measure how high it is; rather, it measures
the absolute pressure caused by the weight of air above it. The scale, however,
is normally marked in feet rather than in units of pressure. By setting the
barometric scale to sea level pressure the altimeter shows the height above sea
level. This scale is either in inches of Mercury (American) or millibars.
3. Millibars

Weather forecasters use millibars (mb) as a measure of pressure, on weather

maps for example, The standard sea level pressure is 1013.25 mb., and most
altimeters have their barometric scale in millibars.

1.2.2. AIR TEMPERATURE

Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at approximately 1.980C for
each increase of 1000 ft. of altitude until 38,000 ft., when the temperature
reaches -56.5ºC and remains constant up to 65,600 feet. The ICAO Standard
Temperature at sea level is +150C.

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1.2.3. DENSITY
The density of the air is a property of great importance in aerodynamics. Density
has been basically covered previously and what follows, is that which is
applicable only to aerodynamics. Air is compressible and, although its
temperature and pressure may also rise, when compressed, its density rises also.

For the purposes of calculation, air density is defined as mass per unit volume
and is represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). This indicates density in grams
per cubic centimetre (gm/cm3) or kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3). From the
Physics module, Mass, is the weight of an object when acted upon by the force of
gravity.

1.2.4. HUMIDITY
The condition of moisture or dampness in the air is called Humidity. The
maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold depends on the
temperature of the air. The higher the temperature the more water vapour it can
absorb. Air with water vapour in it, is lighter than air containing no vapour, so that
on damp days the air density is lower than on dry days. Humidity is normally
stated as a percentage. If the humidity is specified as 60%, it means that the air is
holding 60% of the maximum vapour that can be held at that temperature.

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AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics is the study of air in motion, which includes changes in the
physical characteristics, such as pressure and density. Because the air is in
motion, changes in velocity and mass flow-rates are also important. We must also
consider the option when the air is stationary and an object moves through it as in
the case of an aircraft in flight. In reality it makes little difference if the air is
flowing around an object at a certain velocity, or the object is moving at the same
velocity in still air. Aerodynamics also involves the study of forces being
generated (e.g. the "lift" force on a wing), and so a brief mention must be made of
some basic principles.

1.3. AIRFLOW AROUND A BODY

We need to examine the aerodynamic forces of an aircraft, but before doing so
we will consider the forces of any object moving through the air. We will
eventually consider a specific aerodynamic shape or aerofoil and consider how lift
and drag are produced. Lift and drag are both forces, but how are they
produced?
If a random shaped object is placed in the path of a uniform airflow as shown, the
airflow will be undisturbed until it meets the object. The presence of the object will
seriously disturb or disrupt the airflow and in doing so create forces in all
directions. How is this force produced? Air, like all fluids possesses a property
called pressure. This pressure normally exerts a pushing force on any object it
contacts. This force always acts at right angles to the object. In simple terms, the
air will flow round the object, but produce a pressure at right angles to the
direction of flow. In the diagram the forces are shown as small vector arrows at
right angles to the surface of the object.

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At the moment we do not have one force, but instead a large number of small
forces, represented by the small vector arrows. If we produce a single force by
adding all of these vectors, we can produce a resultant force which we call the
total reaction.

This total reaction is shown in the diagram and acts at an angle θ to the direction
of the airflow. We can now convert this total reaction vector into two separate
vectors, one parallel to the airflow and one perpendicular to it.
By convention we define these two forces as:
Drag is the component of total reaction force acting parallel to the free
stream airflow
Lift is the component of total reaction force acting perpendicular to the free
stream airflow
We should also specify the meaning of the term free stream airflow.. The free
stream airflow is the airflow a long way from the object. This needs to be so
because if an object is placed in the path of an airflow, the airflow will begin to be
disturbed before it reaches the object.
It may be confusing to show the lift force acting downwards, but this force is
entirely dependent on the shape of the object. If this object is rotated 180º, the lift
force would also be rotated by 180º.

1.3.1. THE AEROFOIL

An aircraft designer has to produce shapes for the aircraft components that will
produce the best results in terms of lift and drag. Ideally we need to produce the
maximum value of lift, combined with the minimum value of drag. In producing the
maximum ratio of lift:drag we are effectively making the angle θ in the previous
diagram as large as possible. The object previously described would not be very
effective. We would normally call a shape that produces a perpendicular reaction
to an input airflow an "Aerofoil"

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1.4. ENERGY
This change in velocity implies a corresponding change in kinetic energy
(KE = ½ mv2). The principle known as Conservation of Energy suggests that
unless extra energy is introduced into a moving airstream (such as fuel) the
overall energy content must remain unchanged from one point to another.
Hence, if KE increases some other energy form decreases.
Bernoulli's equation highlights the relationship between pressure energy and
kinetic energy.
P + ½ρv2 = Constant
pressure kinetic total
(static) (dynamic) ("Pitot")
This can be expressed as p1 + ½ρv21 = p2 + ½ρv. This implies that if v2 is
greater than v1 (as in the throat of a venturi, then p2 is less than p1, i.e. there is
a drop in pressure).
This is of particular interest to students of aeronautics because the flow through a
venturi has similar characteristics to the flow over an aerofoil. )The aerofoils
cambered shaped is virtually the shape of a venturi). Bernoulli's equation
showing the relationship between changes of pressure and velocity is used to
explain the "lifting" effect of aerofoil (see diagram on the following page).

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2. AEROFOILS
There are several theories used to describe how a lifting force is generated by the
action of air in motion past an aerofoil. Whatever the theory, the lift force results
from a difference between the pressures acting in the upper and lower
surfaces.

2.1. AERODYNAMIC FORCES

The diagram shows a typical pressure distribution around an aerofoil. This can
be determined by the wind - tunnel experiment, where the pressures acting at
several points on the aerofoil can be measured using manometers. The
manometer will indicate the difference in the static pressure (p) acting at a
particular point and the free - stream static (po). This difference (p - po) at each
point is plotted to give the distribution shown. The length of the arrows represent
the pressure difference; the direction of the arrows represent the sense; towards
the surface indicates pressure greater than static, away from the surface
indicates less than static (i.e. a "suction"). Different distributions will result from
different angles of at tack.

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Aerodynamic forces result from the action of these aerodynamic pressures acting
on the areas of the aerofoil surfaces. It is possibly clearer to understand the
effect of these pressures by studying the diagram below. On this, the pressures
have been plotted, using the chord line as a datum. Note that negative (suction)
pressure has been plotted upwards. The difference (or area enclosed) between
the two curves is proportional to the overall lifting - effect of the aerofoil.

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2.2. DEFINITIONS
Aerofoil is the term used to describe the characteristic shape of the cross-section
of an aircraft wing, and whose purpose is to generate lift. Discussion of aerofoil
performance is the main purpose of this module, and so some descriptions and
definitions of this shape will be essential. (Note that the aerofoil section is
considered with its plane parallel to the relative airflow).

• Relative AirFlow (RAF) is the movement of the air relative to the aircraft (or
aerofoil). (In practice, it is the aircraft which moves relative to the air, but in
aerodynamic theory and wind - tunnel experiment, it is the air which is
considered to be in motion).
• Leading Edge is the foremost point on the aerofoil.
• Trailing Edge is the rear-most point on the aerofoil.
• Chord Line is the straight line joining leading and trailing edges.
• Chord Length (C) is the length of the chord line.
• Camber Line is the line drawn through points equidistant from the upper and
lower surfaces. (The camber line is usually a curved line; the greater the
curvature, the greater will be the aerodynamic forces generated).
• Thickness of an aerofoil is the greatest distance between the upper and
lower surfaces. (It is generally between and way back along the chord line).
Thickness / chord ratio = thickness ÷ chord, normally expressed as a
percentage.
• Angle of Attack (α) - the angle formed between the chord-line and relative
airflow.
• Span (b) is the distance from tip to tip, measured perpendicular to the chord
line.
• Aspect Ratio (AR) is Span ÷ chord .

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If the wing is tapered, i.e. it has a varying chord, then the AR may be
expressed as span2 ÷ wing area = .
• Wing Area (S) is the area projected onto a plane perpendicular to the normal
axis.
• Stagnation Point is a point on the surface of the aerofoil where the RAF has
been brought to rest.

2.3. AERODYNAMIC RESULTANTS

Whether the student studies pressures or forces depends largely on the depth of
his studies. It is simpler to consider forces and this will be sufficient for much of
this module.
It has been stated that pressure acting on area produces a force. The force (F)
resulting from air in motion, is termed 'an aerodynamic force'. The pressure
distribution is then replaced by an arrow representing this force in terms of
magnitude and direction.
The line of action of the force determines the centre of pressure; i.e. that point
(CP) on the chord line through which the aerodynamic force can be considered to
act.

2.4. LIFT & DRAG

It is of greater benefit to resolve the force F into 2 components which are defined
as:
Lift - the component of aerodynamic force resolved perpendicular to the
RAF.

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Drag - the component of force resolved parallel to the RAF.

This is so that variation of lift and drag (associated with variation in angle of
attack and camber) can be studied individually. It will be appreciated that the
purpose of the aerofoil is to generate lift so as to overcome the effect of weight -
the drag should be seen as an unavoidable obstacle to motion.

2.5. FACTORS AFFECTING FORCES

What factors affect the magnitude of these aerodynamic forces? Clearly, the
greater the area and the greater the pressure involved.
What effects the pressure force? The greater the suction, the greater the lift.
The suction (p-po) will be greatest when the static pressure (p) is least and this
will occur when the velocity (v) is greatest.
Summarising, it can be stated that (following on from Bernoulli).
Aerodynamic force is proportional to
fluid density × (fluid velocity)2 × (area of body surface)
F proportional to ½ρv2S
(similarly, Lift and Drag are proportional to ½ρv2S)
So density, velocity and area are all factors that affect Lift and Drag. (There are a
number of other factors but only two more will be considered at this stage.)
Note that we have made a statement of proportionality;
It is not an equation just yet. This will be derived by wind-tunnel the
experiment.

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2.5.1. LIFT & DRAG COEFFICIENT

If an aerofoil is placed in a wind tunnel, tests may be conducted to establish
pressure distributions, or to measure forces. Suppose the aerofoil (area S) is
placed in the tunnel and air (density ρ) is drawn across the aerofoil at a constant
velocity (v). Then Lift and Drag forces will be generated. These forces may be
measured on a force - balance rig. Because it has been stated that forces
change as angle of attack (α) changes, α will be measured as well.
Remember that L proportional to ½ρv2S.
An equation may be formed L = C½ρv2S by including some number (or
coefficient) c.
Now from the experiment, L is measured, ρ, v, S are known (measured) and so
C = .
The coefficient used to form the equation has been deduced from the results of
the experiment (it is worth noting that the term ½ρv2 is often replaced by q;
therefore C = ).
The same can be done for the drag case.
C = but we must clearly differentiate between the different cases and
values of C.
= CL (the lift coefficient).
= CD (the drag coefficient).
The two other factors, which affect the aerodynamic forces, can now be
included. It will be found by experiment that CL and CD will vary (or change) when
either angle of attack (α) or aerofoil camber (shape) is changed.

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2.5.2. ANGLE OF ATTACK

The factors affecting Lift and Drag have just been outlined. All can be determined
by experiment but changes in the force are generally deduced from the
relationship between CL (or CD) and α. These relationships are best shown
graphically. (The general shape of these graphs must be memorised by any
aeronautical student!).

Note how CL increases steadily (and linearly) as α increases, up to a maximum,

after which it decreases rapidly.
Note how CD is a curve that increases steadily, but that the rate of increase
becomes greater.
If the experiment were repeated with aerofoil of different camber or shape, the
general shape of the graphs would be similar, but the curves would be displaced
vertically and/or horizontally.
A final but important point to consider is this section is the Lift to Drag ratio.
= =
Lift is what is required - it should be maximised.
Drag is not required - It should be minimised.
So for maximum aerodynamic efficiency, the ratio should be as great as possible.
This ratio cannot be deduced directly by experiment, but CL and CD can be
derives as stated, and the ratio derived by division (CL ÷ CD). This ratio is then
plotted against α.

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This graph clearly indicates that the best (maximum) ratio generally occurs at a
relatively small angle of attack (typically 3º - 5º). Designers and operators
endeavour to operate any aerofoil at an angle of attack in this range as much as
possible.
Finally, a word is introduced that is of great significance - the Stall.
Looking at the diagrams, there is an angle of attack beyond which CL has
reduced substantially, CD has increased markedly and has reduced.
This means that there has been a sudden loss of lift and a rapid increase in drag.
The aerofoil (wing) is said to have stalled, and is a potentially dangerous
scenario if it occurs in flight.

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2.6. CENTRE OF PRESSURE

The two components, Lift and Drag, have been shown to vary as Angle of Attack
varies. But not only does the magnitude of the force vary, but the line of action
(and hence the centre of pressure) changes.
As the angle of attack increases, the pressure distribution changes shape, with
proportionately greater suction generated towards the forward portion of the wing.
This causes a forward movement of the Cp. This forward movement continues
until the CL values start to reduce. At this point the Cp now reverses its
movement (it moves backwards), as the stall condition is approached.
So now it can be understood that both force and Cp vary as α varies.

2.6.1. PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT

Consider the diagram, which shows an aerofoil which can be considered to be
pivoted at either A or B. The lift L would cause rotation about the pivot;
anticlockwise or nose down about A and clockwise or nose up about B.

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Rotation is caused by application of a moment M which itself is dependent on lift

L magnitude, multiplied by the distance of the CP from the pivot.
From this, it can be deduced that the strength and sense of the rotation depends
on angle of attack and position of the pivot.
Again, we rely on this to be illustrated graphically. Nose-up is considered a
positive pitching moment, nose-down is negative.
Just as before, coefficients were introduced to create the Lift and Drag equations,
so a pitching moment coefficient CM is introduced.
M = qSc CM
Pitching moment where c = chord length
CM = moment coefficient
As with CL and CD, it is usual to draw graphs using CM rather than M (see diagram
below).

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2.7. AERODYNAMIC CENTRE

Another interesting feature emerges. There must be some point lying between A
and B, such that if the aerofoil was pivoted at that point, the pitching moment
(coefficient) would be constant regardless of the angle of attack.
This point is known as the Aerodynamic centre;
i.e. the point on the chord-line about which the pitching moment is constant.

2.8. DOWNWASH

The flow of air around the aerofoil causes variation in speeds and pressures that
result in the creation of lift. Lift is the resultant force applied to the airframe,
considered perpendicular to the RAF. From Newton’s 3rd Law, there must be an
opposite force applied to the air. This ‘reaction’ causes deflection of the airflow
as it leaves the trailing-edge, termed ‘downwash’. (There may well be an
‘upwash’ effect ahead of the leading-edge).

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3. DRAG

3.1. DRAG EQUATION

The drag equation so far has been written as:
D = ρv2S CD (qSCD)

3.2. DRAG COEFFICIENT

It is now appropriate to analyse the drag coefficient CD in order to more fully
understand the factors affecting total drag, so that designer and maintenance
engineers alike can take whatever steps to minimise drag, which ultimately will
allow operation at higher speeds or reduce fuel consumption. Both of these are
significant to the economic success of air transport.

3.3. DRAG COMPONENTS

The total drag is considered as the sum of the zero-lift drag and the lift dependent
drag. (This means that some drag is always present, even though lift may not be
generated, and some drag will be proportional to the lift generated).

3.4. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

Before considering drag, reconsider streamline flow. So far, the streamlines have
been shown as a series of parallel or converging / diverging lines showing the
direction of flow at any point. Because of the "layered" appearance, such flow is
termed laminar flow and a characteristic is that unless a change is deliberately
introduced, it will be unchanged from one instant to another. It is therefore
considered as steady flow.
Although streamlines are in concept imaginary, they can be artificially created
(e.g. using smoke) and then the observer will notice an extremely important
feature. At some point, the laminar flow will cease and be replaced by a mixture
of both translational and rotational pattern of flow, whose pattern changes
continuously. This unsteady pattern is termed turbulent flow.
The fact that the fluid (air) is now being caused to rotate (stirred) and that this is
continuously changing implies that forces are present. This in turn means that
energy is expended in creating turbulence. But the only source of energy
present must ultimately be the chemical energy in the fuel. So, we can deduce
that fuel is used when turbulence is created. The student must appreciate that
the creation of turbulence results in the creation of drag.

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3.5. FORM DRAG

The change from laminar to turbulent flow is basically a function of the viscosity
of the fluid. (Theoretically, a fluid with no viscosity would result in zero drag).
How much turbulence occurs is usually dependent on the shape or form of the
body being considered. Some shapes produce considerable turbulence; others
minimise it. These shapes are obviously to be preferred and are often described
as "streamlined". Some recognisable shapes are shown below, and a
comparison made of the resulting turbulence. To allow comparison, it is assumed
that the shapes present an identical cross-section to the airflow i.e. circular.
Note also the approximate value of the form drag associated with each shape,
assuming the flat plate (disc) as representing 100%.

3.6. BOUNDARY LAYERS

Laminar, turbulent and viscosity have just entered our vocabulary. The region of
flow where these have greatest significance is the boundary layer, so - called
because it is the layer between the body and the free-stream. (It is called free -
stream because it is considered virtually free from the effects of viscosity).

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The boundary layer, however, exists because of viscosity. To assist our

understanding, imagine a river flowing between two banks. To an observer, the
flow rate (velocity) will be greater in the centre of the river. At the bank, the water
is very slow - moving, maybe virtually stationary and maybe forming eddies.
Between the centre and banks, the flow - velocity reduces. This is comparable to
the situation that exists between the free-stream and the body surface.
On the diagram, the length of the arrows indicates the flow velocity at that point.
The (parabolic) pattern is termed the velocity distribution or profile.

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3.7. SKIN FRICTION

What is significant about this profile? It implies that each layer of fluid molecules
is moving at a different velocity relative to its neighbours. In turn, this means that
a frictional force is generated in such a direction to oppose this relative motion.
(This is what viscosity creates; it is a resistance to flow). So throughout the
boundary layer, there is a frictional force, and this layer exists because of the
presence of the (stationary) body and the interaction between its surface (skin)
and the fluid. Hence, the introduction of the term skin - friction and its inclusion
as a type of drag.
Skin - friction drag depends on :
• The surface area.
• The viscosity
• The rate of change of the velocity (shown by the profile).

The diagram conveys some idea of the layer thickness (it is fairly thin!) The layer
is considered to be the region where the velocity relative to the surface (skin)
varies from zero to 99% of the free-stream.

3.7.1. TRANSITION POINT

Note that the flow is initially laminar, but changes to turbulence at the transition
point. Comparing the velocity profiles reveals that the turbulent layer has a
greater rate of change of velocity near the surface. This will cause greater
friction, which introduces a random (unsteady) element into the flow resulting in a
greater degree of mixing with the free-stream. This thickens the turbulent layer
and introduces greater kinetic energy. Note the laminar sub-layer whose
presence is important, but detailed study is beyond the scope of this module.

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The transition point depends on:

• Surface condition
• Speed of flow
• Size of object
• Adverse pressure gradient

3.7.2. REYNOLDS NUMBER

The effect of surface condition, speed of flow and size of object basically affect a
phenomena termed Reynolds Number (named after the physicist). Reynolds
number is very significant in the study of fluid dynamics, particularly when
attempting to 'model' full-size situations, but again, a more detailed study is
beyond our requirements. It might, however be useful to express Reynolds
Number as:
Re =
ρ = density, v = velocity, d = size, µ = viscosity.
As Reynolds Number becomes greater, the earlier will be the transition point.

3.7.3. ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT

The adverse pressure gradient (APG) refers to the point in the flow where the
static pressure begins to increase. In nature, fluid flows from high to low
pressure; it does not flow from low to high. So if the static pressure now
increases (due to shape of the body), a pressure gradient now exists to impede
flow. It is not assisting flow - it is an adverse gradient. The student can visualise
that this will occur beyond the point of least pressure, i.e. the point on the body
where thickness is greatest.

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3.8. SEPARATION
The overall effect of friction is to reduce the velocity and energy of the air-flow
within the boundary layer. This reduction is further exacerbated by introducing an
APG, as with a curved or cambered body. This effect can be shown at several
successive points within the boundary-layer. As shown on the following diagram,
the boundary-layer is brought to rest and separates, forming a turbulent wake.
Beyond the separation point, flow reversal may occur.

When the boundary layer separates and forms a turbulent wake, much energy
has been lost in creating rotational flow and consequently the static pressure
within this flow is reduced (this will be restated when vortex flow is considered).
This means that there is less static pressure acting on the rear of the body,
compared to the front. In turn, this means that a net (pressure) force acts
rearwards (= drag). Hence, separated, turbulent flow should be avoided /
delayed whenever possible. This is achieved by streamlining and maintaining as
smooth a surface as possible.

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3.9. INTERFERENCE DRAG

Another element of drag that can be mentioned is Interference drag.
Experiments shows that the total drag of the aircraft exceeds the sum of the
drags resulting from the component parts. The increase in drag is caused by the
individual flow patterns interacting or "interfering" with their neighbours. This is
generally reduced by the addition of fairings at the functions of the aircraft
components.

In summary, zero-lift drag is a combination of form and skin-friction drag, with the
probable addition of interference drag. It is related to the separation of the airflow
into a turbulent wake. This will be linked to the separation point, itself a function
of Reynolds Number. Increased velocity leads to increased Reynolds Number
and earlier separation. In fact, zero-lift drag is directly proportional to speed2.

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3.10. INDUCED DRAG

Lift dependent drag is commonly referred to a (lift) Induced drag, although
another term, Vortex drag might be more descriptive. Consider the diagram
below.

3.10.1. VORTEX DRAG

The presence of regions of different pressure (as happens when lift is generated)
will cause a flow to develop from high to low pressure. This results in a
spanwise component forming in addition to the chordwise component. It will
be, root to tip on lower surfaces and vice-versa on the upper surface.
At the tip, the flow will rotate as shown. The greater the pressure differences, the
greater will be the rotation. Now flow rotations are sometimes weak (eddies) or
sometimes form extremely strong vortices (as in hurricanes) and a feature is the
high kinetic energy (or rotation), but a low (static) core pressure. At the trailing-
edge the chordwise plus spanwise components on the upper and lower surfaces
meet to create a series of vortices, termed a vortex sheet. These also drift
towards and combine at the tip.

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The net effect of these vortices is to induce a downwash additional to that

resulting from lift generation. The creation of the vortices, the creation of a
downwash component, must imply an expenditure of energy; an increase in
(induced) drag. Vortex drag arises from introducing wings of finite span.

The factors affecting induced drag are:

• Lift (weight)
• Aspect ratio
• Wing planform
• Speed
Obviously the greater the weight, the more lift must be created which is the
result of greater pressure difference. Greater pressure differences create more
downwash / stronger vortices.
A high aspect ratio means that the strength of the spanwise flow component is
reduced. Hence, the vortex strengths are reduced.
The vortices tend to combine towards the wing-tip and so an ideal wing-planform
will create a lift distribution that minimises these vortices. This ideal is the so-
called elliptical distribution or loading, which was attempted on the Spitfire by
using an elliptical wing. In practice, the ideal is impossible to achieve totally.
The factors all influence the equation for induced drag coefficient.

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CDI =
k = a coefficient introduced to take account of the deviation from the ideal
elliptical lift distribution.

It can be deduced that induced drag is directly proportional to weight2, and

inversely proportional to the speed2.

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3.11. TOTAL DRAG

The effect of speed on zero-lift and induced drag can be shown on a single
graph, and clearly the total drag is the sum of the two.
The total drag, is a minimum at the point at which the two curves intersect.

Here, ZLD = ID and this point gives the minimum - drag speed.

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3.11.1. DRAG POLAR

The overall or total drag coefficient CD = CDO + CDI,

Total drag coefficient CD = CDO +

The CD Total can be plotted against CL to give a curve known as the Drag Polar.
The second diagram compares two different aerofoils, curve (a) is a conventional
section, curve (b) is a low-drag section. Note that this aerofoil has a significant
reduction in profile-drag between the CL range of CL1, and CL2. This shape is
commonly termed the drag ‘bucket’ and is a characteristic of an aerofoil designed
to maintain laminar flow. For efficient cruise performance, such a section must
obviously be operated within these parameters.

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4. FORCES IN FLIGHT
The Lift and Drag forces resulting from the passage of air past a body
have now been studied in isolation. It is now appropriate to consider them
acting on an aircraft in flight.

4.1. FOUR FORCES

The first (and most common) case of an aircraft in flight is when the
aircraft is considered to be straight and level (i.e. no change in heading or
altitude), and at constant speed. Immediately it can be stated to be in an
unaccelerated condition and hence any forces present must be in
equilibrium.

From the diagram, we can deduce that L = W, T = D.

(This is simplified here as much as possible - all four forces pass through
the same point and no other forces are considered e.g. tailplane forces).
If the equilibrium of the forces is upset, e.g. Thrust (T) is increased, the
aircraft will accelerate (until the increase in drag balances the increases in
thrust). If the Lift is increased, the aircraft will change direction or altitude.

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4.2. STRAIGHT & LEVEL

In reality, of course, the lift and weight do not act through the same point.
The CP moves as the angle of attack changes, and the CG depends on
the weight distribution. This means that although L = W, their different
lines of action means that they create a couple. The different thrust and
drag lines are also likely to create a couple. Ideally, the two couples
should cancel each other. What is desirable is that a reduction in the
thrust / drag couple should lead to a nose-down pitching tendency - this
requires that the CG should be forward of the CP. (This arrangement will
also improve longitudinal stability).

Given that the two couples are most likely unequal, a further moment must
be created to restore equilibrium. This is provided by the tailplane.
Because the distance from the CG is comparatively large, the size (area)
of the tailplane can be small. With a conventional tailplane, it is usual to
find that it produces a downward force.

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4.3. FORCES IN CLIMB

When analysing forces in the climb, it is first necessary to draw the forces
according to the previous definitions (see diagram below).

Again, it is assumed that the forces are in equilibrium. The analysis then
begins by resolving the weight force into two components,
perpendicular and parallel to the flight path. The forces in these
directions can now be equated.
L = W cosθ
T = W sinθ + D
Two interesting and important facts emerge. If the aircraft is climbing, θ >
O and cosθ < 1
therefore Lift is less than Weight.
Similarly, sinθ > O and Thrust is greater than Drag.
We can therefore deduce that aircraft climb because of increased thrust,
and not increased lift. (Theoretically, this makes sense, because the
aircraft gains height and therefore potential energy. The energy input is
through the increase in thrust, itself resulting from the 'burning' or
expenditure of fuel (chemical energy).

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4.4. FORCES IN GLIDE & DESCENT

The arrangement of forces in the descent (or glide) is similar but not
identical to the climb. The diagram below clarifies the situation. The
weight has again been resolved into two components.

The equations becomes:

L = W cosθ
T + W sinθ = D (the W sinθ component has changed in direction)
In the glide, T is assumed to be zero, and W sinθ = D. The weight
component now balances drag 'gap' - potential energy is now traded in
order to maintain kinetic energy or flying speed.
In both climb and descent, the greatest angle of climb, or minimum angle
of glide (giving greatest gliding range) is when the aircraft is flown at
minimum drag speed, coincident with best L/D ratio.

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4.5. RATE OF CLIMB (PERFORMANCE)

Climb performance, or rate of climb (ROC), is theoretically a little more
complicated. In the previous discussion, climb performance was
considered in terms of angle of climb and by equating forces. Rates of
climb (usually expressed in feet per minute) involve lifting the aircraft
(weight) at a certain rate (speed). Hence, rate of climb implies lifting a
weight (force); i.e. doing work. But rate of doing work is power, power is
force x speed.
We have seen that when work is done, energy is expended (or converted).
When climbing, extra fuel (energy) is expended, potential energy is
gained. But the fuel energy is expended in two areas; in maintaining
speed whilst overcoming drag, and in increasing altitude. But how much is
used in each area?

The left-hand diagram shows that sinθ =

The right-hand diagram restates that sinθ =

Combining these two equations, ROC = =

But, TV = Power Available (from engine), and

DV = Power Required (by airframe)
TV - DV therefore equals the excess of power available to increase
the altitude.
It should be noted that the kinematics of bodies in motion requires that
True Air Speed (TAS) is employed.

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4.5.1. POWER CURVES

Another graph becomes of fundamental importance to analysis of climb
performance; the plot of power required and power available, against
TAS.

Clearly, the excess of power available for climbing is equal to the vertical
distance (difference) between the power available and power required
curves. Study of the diagram shows that this difference is dependent on
the aircraft speed. So to achieve the best rate of climb, a particular speed
must be selected, i.e. the best climb speed.
To the maintenance engineer, Rate of Climb represents a useful measure
of aircraft performance (and therefore of aircraft condition). Reduced
thrust or increased drag will both have the effect of reducing the vertical
distance which represents excess power. If an aircraft on test fails to
achieve the scheduled ROC, then an investigation as to the possible
cause should be made. Note the importance of operating at the best
climb speed.

4.5.2. EFFECT OF ALTITUDE

Of interest, but of less importance, to the maintenance engineer is the
effect of altitude on ROC.
The curves move to the upward and to the right, but the net effect is to
offer a reduced ROC.

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FORCES & MANOEUVRE

4.6. CENTRIPETAL FORCE

The word "manoeuvre" is introduced here so as to imply a change of
direction or flight path. (The speed may also change but this will not be
considered here. A change in direction must imply a change in velocity
(velocity is a vector quantity) and by definition, an acceleration must be
present. If an acceleration is present, a resultant force must exist to cause
it. (The forces present are not in equilibrium). Change of direction
therefore requires a resultant force, termed the centripetal force (CPF);
the force that must be present in order for a body to change its
direction of motion.
But the only forces available to act on an aircraft are aerodynamic forces,
(thrust vectoring - forces will not be considered here), and changes to
these forces are dependent on changes in CL (itself dependent on α and
shape changes). Fundamentally, therefore, manoeuvre will depend on the
changes in CL applied to the main aerofoil (wing). Manoeuvres can be
accomplished in the vertical (looping) plane or in the horizontal (banking)
plane, (the combination of both forms is often present, but not considered
here for reasons of clarity and simplicity).

4.7. LOOPING
Consider an aircraft diving towards the ground. At some point, the pilot

wishes to stop the descent and position the aircraft to climb away from the
ground.

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At A, he pulls back on the control column, which raises the elevator so as

to increase the download on the tailplane. The resulting moment pitches
the aircraft so as to increase the angle of attack of the mainplane , this
increases CL. The effect is to increase the mainplane Lift, perhaps
considerably. The excess of lift, over and above that required to
overcome weight, provides a CPF in the looping plane and the aircraft
now follows a curved flight path towards B. At B, the aircraft is now in the
desired attitude, back pressure on the column is reduced, mainplane ∝
and CL regain their original values and the flight path again follows a
straight line.
Throughout that portion of the flight-path AB, the increased lift puts
additional force or stress on the airframe and occupants. They experience
the reaction to the CPF, the centrifugal force (CFF). The excess of force
is often termed the 'g' force.

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4.8. LOAD FACTOR

The 'g' force can be considered as a comparison between the lift
generated and the weight of the aircraft.
g = , this is often termed the Load Factor.

Note that if the flight path is as shown, the lift force (and CPF) is
considered as negative and hence the Load Factor is also negative.
Because of the increased stresses, aircraft are designed with 'g' limits.
Because violent manoeuvres could result in over-stressing, aircraft are
operated within 'g' limits, both positive and negative. Combat aircraft
are designed to be more manoeuvrable and therefore have higher 'g' limits
than transport aircraft. Similarly, pilots are provided with 'g' suits to
increase their personal 'g' thresholds.

4.9. LEVEL TURNS

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A similar situation is found in the horizontal plane when the aircraft

changes heading. The pilot must bank the aircraft so that the horizontal
component of lift provides a CPF. But to maintain the vertical component
equal and opposite to weight, he must apply back-pressure on the control
column in order to increase lift. Hence, the load factor increases beyond

1 in a horizontal turn as well.

It is worth recalling that CPF is equal to:

CPF =

where v = speed, r = radius of turn and w = weight.

Also, it can be proved that tanθ = where θ = angle of bank.

So increased weight, high speed and "tight" radius of turn all impose high
load factors on aircraft.

It should also be appreciated that increased angle of attack leads to

increased drag coefficient and increased drag. Therefore, manoeuvres
involving high 'g' forces require considerable increase in thrust.

4.10. STALLING
Recalling the graphs showing variation of CL and CD which accompany
changes in α, it was stated that the wing stalled beyond a certain α. This
is known as the stalling angle.
If an aircraft is flown straight and level and the thrust is reduced, the
aircraft will reduce speed (drag is exceeding thrust). The pilot can
maintain lift, by raising the nose to achieve a higher CL. At some point
(speed), however, the aircraft will reach the stalling angle, the CL reduces
and the aircraft stalls, suddenly losing altitude.

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L (=W) = ½ρv2S CL

To maintain equality, as v2 decreases, CL must increase. When CL

reaches its maximum value, v reaches its minimum value of flying speed
- the basic stall speed.
The stall has occurred because the separation point has now moved so
far forward that the bulk of the airflow over the upper surface has
separated or become detached. (On many of the relevant graphs, a
dotted line indicates theoretical behaviour of an airflow, a full line shows
actual behaviour because of separation).
A pilot is introduced to the stall and stalling speed, at an early stage of his
training. He learns to recognise and recover from it, and is encouraged
to avoid it!

4.10.1. STALLING SPEED

But it is important to appreciate that the stall is primarily dependent on
angle of attack (α), not speed (v). An aircraft can in fact stall at any
speed, if the critical stalling angle is exceeded. This may happen during a
manoeuvre when the maximum CL is exceeded. The new (higher) stalling
speed can be deduced from;
Manoeuvre stall speed = basic stall speed

4.10.2. EFFECT OF WEIGHT / LOAD FACTOR

Increase in weight will require increase in lift, and so affect in turn the
basic stall speed.
Stall speed = basic stall speed
The stall speeds at higher load factors, the positive and negative 'g' limits
and the maximum (diving) speed form the boundaries of the aircraft's flight
envelope.

4.10.3. AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION

Aerofoil performance is fundamentally influenced by shape and surface
characteristics, which determine flow-pattern and degree of separation.
Any surface irregularity can cause a marked change, which may include
changes in stall behaviour. Such irregularities may result from
contamination by ice and snow accretion. Several accidents have been
the result, and for this reason, careful inspection and rectification is
essential before aircraft operation in adverse weather conditions.

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4.11. FLIGHT ENVELOPES

The so-called flight envelope encloses an area in which the aircraft may
operate, without either stalling, exceeding 'g' limits, or exceeding speed
limits.
An example is shown below.

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5. STABILITY

5.1. BASIC CONCEPT & DEFINITION

The aircraft has now been considered in both the steady flight path
condition and during changes of direction (manoeuvre). It is now
necessary to investigate how the designer includes features in order to
maintain or encourage either condition.
For example, it will be presumed that a steady flight path is to be
maintained. If the aircraft deviates from this flight path, the aircraft should
be able to regain it, without control input from the pilot.
In any dynamic system, the ability of the system to regain the desired
(set) condition is termed stability.
A pendulum is a classic example. It (the weight) normally hangs vertically.
If it is displaced and released, it immediately moves back towards the
original position. (In fact, of course, it swings past that position - the
restoring force of gravity reverses its effect and it swings back again. It
will swing to and fro (oscillate) many times before the oscillations
(displacements) die away). Such a system is a stable system.
But a system can be unstable. Consider the 'bowl and ball' analogy.

5.2. STATIC STABILITY

If the ball is displaced and released, its initial reaction will describe its
stability.

In the first diagram, it will move back towards the initial position, it has
positive stability.
In the second diagram, it will not move, it remains in the new position and
is described as having neutral stability.

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In the third diagram, it will move further away from the initial position, it
has negative stability, or is unstable.
Note that the above is the initial part of considering stability, the
immediate reaction or tendency to movement following initial
displacement is used to determine the static stability of the system.

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5.3. DYNAMIC STABILITY

So, following initial displacements the system may oscillate about the
neutral position if the system is statically stable. The manner of the
oscillations (meaning the change in amplitude) is used to describe the
system dynamic stability.
The diagram considers the oscillation of an aircraft in the pitching plane,
above and below the desired horizontal flight path. The oscillation
resembles a sinusoidal function. (This is characteristic of many
oscillations or vibrations). In theory, such oscillations continue
indefinitely. In practice, the oscillations steadily reduce and die away.

The first diagram is unusual and represents 'dead-beat' stability.

If the amplitude decreases, the aircraft is dynamically stable, if it
increases it is dynamically unstable.
When the amplitude remains constant, it is neutrally stable in the
dynamic sense.
Most systems are designed to be statically and dynamically stable.

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5.4. AIRCRAFT STABILITY

Considering the stability of an aircraft, we might ask two questions. Can it
oscillate, and if so, what are the neutral or zero displacement positions?
The first answer is 'yes', where the oscillations are related to angular
displacements about any of the three axes. The zero displacements are
considered to be those associated with straight and level flight.

Rotation about the lateral axis is termed pitch;

Rotation about the longitudinal axis is termed roll;
Rotation about the normal axis is termed yaw.
A stable aircraft will dampen oscillations that may occur about any axis,
following some initial (probably random) displacement.

5.5. DESIGN FEATURES

If an aircraft is to be stable, it is obvious from the previous paragraphs that
if the aircraft has been momentarily displaced relative to its flight path,
there must be a restoring force or moment to return it to its original
altitude. Recalling that a moment is the product of force and distance,
we then deduce that an aerodynamic force must be generated at some
distance from the aircraft's centre of gravity (about which the aircraft has
been displaced / rotated).
Displacements about all three axes must be considered.

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The easiest one to consider is displacement (yaw) about the normal axis.
The diagram shows that this will cause an angle of attack to be created
between the fin (vertical stabiliser) and the relative airflow, such that an
aerodynamic force / moment will be created that restores the aircraft
towards its original heading / direction. (As the displacement reduces, the
moment reduces and the aircraft will again 'heads' towards the relative
airflow - just like a weathercock heads into wind).
The fin gives an aircraft directional stability (about the normal axis).
The manner in which the tailplane (horizontal stabiliser) acts is similar in
principle but somewhat more complicated in detail. The diagram below
shows the aircraft displaced in the pitching plane. Now two aerofoils are
involved, the mainplane and tailplane.

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The mainplane angle of attack increases, and as drawn, this creates more
lift and a forward movement of the centre of pressure. This creates an
upsetting moment tending to destabilise the aircraft. (A tail-less aircraft
is therefore inherently unstable).
The tailplane also generates lift so as to create a restoring moment. For
the aircraft to be statically stable, clearly the restoring moment must be
greater than the upsetting moment. By comparing these moments, it
becomes clear how important the position of the centre of gravity
becomes.
As the centre of gravity moves aft, the aircraft becomes less stable, due
to the changing distances and the effect on the moments.
As the centre of gravity moves forward, the aircraft becomes more stable.
The tailplane gives an aircraft longitudinal stability (about the lateral
axis).
Lateral stability considers aircraft movement / displacement in the rolling
plane.

If an aircraft has 'dropped' a wing, it should be obvious from the preceding

paragraphs that a moment to raise that wing is required. But how is this to
be achieved?
Consider the first diagram. An aircraft that has 'dropped' a wing will side-
slip towards that wing because of the imbalance of the two forces which
has resulted. It is the change in aerodynamic forces resulting from this
side-slipping motion which will create a restoring moment.

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The most common design feature employed to promote lateral stability is

the introduction of dihedral.

The diagram indicates the angle concerned. Dihedral results in the

'dropped' wing meeting the revised relative airflow (due to side-slip) at a
greater angle of attack than the upper wing. The net effect is therefore to
create a restoring moment which is tending to roll the aircraft back
towards straight and level (at which point the side-slip stops and the
restoring moment becomes zero).

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The next diagram shows the effect of the 'keel' area above the centre of
gravity. This will also 'right' the aircraft (similar to a yacht-keel). Note that
if the keel-area is mostly aft of the centre of gravity, then an additional
effect is to yaw the aircraft towards the dropped-wing.

In later studies, it will be appreciated that designers employ swept-wings

to allow flight at high speeds. But an added bonus is that swept-wings
encourage lateral stability. Consider the diagrams. In the first, the aircraft
is flying straight and level.

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The relative airflow meets both left and right leading edges at the same
angle. (The RAF is then shown as two components - one normal and
one parallel to the leading edges).

In the second diagram, the aircraft has dropped the left wing and is side-
slipping. Due to the angle of sweep-back, the RAF now meets the
leading-edges at different angles, and now has different components in
respect of each wing. It will be recalled that it is the chordwise (or
normal) component that creates lift and reference to the diagram shows
that greater chordwise component occurring over the dropped-wing will
therefore generate more lift, so as to create a rolling moment that restores
the aircraft to (straight) and level flight.

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Another feature which results in enhanced lateral stability is that of a high-

(mounted) wing. The designer has probably employed a high-wing
because of the intended role for the aircraft but with the centre of pressure
above the centre of gravity, there is an inherent 'righting' effect, in the
manner of a pendulum.

Several design features have been considered which result in lateral

stability. But an aircraft that is very stable will be unresponsive to
control movements. Stability requirements have to complement control
requirements. An aircraft that has excessive stability is as undesirable as
one that lacks stability. The right 'balance' between stability and control is
often dictated by the intended role of the aircraft. An aircraft that
possessed all the features described would probably be too stable. So a
swept-wing, high-wing aircraft might incorporate anhedral (the opposite
to dihedral) in order to reduce the degree of stability.
The above paragraphs have analysed features which create a moment so
as to restore the aircraft towards its undisturbed or original position. They
contribute static stability. Dynamic stability in the manner in which the
aircraft moves or oscillates towards / about that position. This will depend
on the variation of the forces in respect of displacement / time and is too
complex for this module.

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5.6. CONTROL
The previous section has considered stability, where design features
have been included in order to maintain or regain a desired flight path.
If the aircraft is to be manoeuvred, (i.e. the flight path is to be changed) it
will be necessary to de-stabilise the aircraft. So it appears that stability
and manoeuvrability are conflicting requirements - increasing one
characteristic decreases the other.

To de-stabilise the aircraft, aerodynamic forces must be created for as

long as is necessary to cause a rotation about one or more of the axes.
These forces are created simply by modifying the shape and angle of
attack of the appropriate aerofoil. This is done generally by hinging the
trailing-edge, thus allowing it to respond to control inputs from the pilot or
autopilot.
Elevators are hinged to the tailplane and cause the aircraft to pitch, up
or down. (It should be clear that the control surface movement will create
a force in the opposite direction).
The Rudder is hinged to the fin and causes the aircraft to yaw, left or
right.
Ailerons are hinged to the out-board trailing edge of the mainplanes.
They must move so as to create a difference in the forces on the left and
right wings. In so doing, they cause the aircraft to Roll. They must,
therefore, move in opposite directions, one goes up, the other goes down.
A problem that arises with the operation of the ailerons is that of adverse
yaw. What is this? It will be assumed that a pilot wishes to make a
change of heading (direction), and that he must first bank or roll the
aircraft towards the "inside" of the turn. The aircraft will then follow a
curved path, yawing as it does so in the same direction as the turn.
However, the rising (upward) wing in generating more lift also generates
more (induced) drag than the descending wing. This unbalance in the
drag forces results in a moment which causes a rotation (yaw) in the
opposite direction to that first intended, hence, it is termed adverse yaw.

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It can be alleviated by the use of rudder, but subtle aerodynamic features

can produce the same effect.
• Frise ailerons - where the leading-edge of the aileron is designed to
protrude into the airstream when the aileron is raised, thus causing
extra (and equalising) drag.

• Differential ailerons - where the geometry of the control system is

such as will cause the down-going aileron to move through a smaller
angle than the up-going aileron. This results in greater drag on the up-
going aileron.
• Control coupling - where the rudder may be geared to the aileron
control system, so as to link same rudder movement to aileron
movement.
• Spoilers - spoilers are often found on more sophisticated aircraft and
may be used for a variety if purposes. Basically, they reduce lift and
increase drag, and so their operation can reproduce what is required
from the aileron system.

5.7. CONTROL ABOUT 3 AXES

To the maintenance engineer, the effect of the controls is very simple - as
movement of the control column produces a control-surface movement
which creates a force which causes a rotation about one of the three axes.
In practice, and from the pilots viewpoint, it is less simple as there is
usually some cross-coupling response. This is sometimes termed as the
secondary effect of control, meaning that movement of the control-column
produces the desired primary effect, but may be accompanied by a
secondary effect, involving rotation about another axis.

5.8. AERODYNAMIC BALANCING

The purpose of control surfaces has now been defined and the basic
operation has been established. But what factors contribute to their
effectiveness? Obviously, as they are aerodynamic devices, the same
factors that govern aerodynamic forces - speed, size and shape. In this
case, shape is related to the deflection angle.

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It must not be overlooked that in deliberately creating an aerodynamic

force by moving a control-surface, this force is trying to move the surface
back towards the streamlined or neutral position. The surface will only
deflect or remain deflected as long as there is an input (force) from the
control system. This input force will vary in proportion to the force
output by the control-surface.
The input (force) is in fact a moment which must be applied at the hinge
and which must always be large enough to produce the required control
deflection. Due to increases in speed and size, it is quite possible that this
hinge moment will require unacceptably large forces to be exerted by the
pilot. This can be overcome by power assistance but aerodynamic
methods have been developed as an alternative. This balancing of the
forces required has led to the term aerodynamic balance.
Aerodynamic balancing, designed to reduce the physical effort of moving
the controls can include:
• Horn balance
• Inset hinge
• Internal balance (sealed hinge)
• Balance tabs
In each case, the aim is to reduce the pilots contribution to the hinge
moment necessary to cause deflection.

The effect of the air-flow acting on the horn is to produce a moment

assisting control movement.

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The inset-hinge moves the hinge rearwards, thus moving closer to the
Centre of Pressure of the control. Again, the hinge-moment reduces.

The sealed-hinge maintains a pressure difference between the upper

and lower surfaces. This results in a net pressure force acting forward of
the hinge, creating a moment assisting deflection.

5.9. BALANCE OF TABS

The action of Tabs need some explanation. A tab is a small hinged
surface forming part of the trailing-edge of the control surface itself.
Consider that an aircraft is tail heavy (aft CG). The pilot must apply a
steady push force to maintain straight and level flight. He must maintain a
hinge moment. It a tab is added, and deflected in the opposite direction
to the control surface deflection, it will create a hinge moment to assist the
pilot. When the tab deflection is large enough, the effect of the tab exactly
balances the effect of the control. The pilot could then take his 'hands-off'
the control, the aircraft would be in equilibrium; it is said to be "trimmed".

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Several types of tab exist, their operation is the same in terms of the
aerodynamic principle.
Examples include:
Fixed tabs,
Trim tabs,
Balance tabs e.g. geared, servo and spring tabs.

5.10. FIXED & TRIM TABS

Fixed and Trim tabs are used to maintain a control deflection, so as to
trim the aircraft.
A fixed tab can only be adjusted on the ground, by an engineer following
consultation with the pilot. It is only truly effective therefore for a given set
of conditions, e.g. a particular weight and CG position, a particular thrust
setting, and at a particular speed. (This would typically be a cruise
configuration).

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The fixed tab is obviously simple, but its effect has been shown to be
limited. A trim tab can be adjustable, operated by the pilot in the cockpit.
The classic method of operation is by a handwheel, positioned and
operated instinctively, ie. Movement of the elevator trimwheel is similar to
the response required by the aircraft. (Note however that the pilot should
move his control column, and then trim-out the load).
On light aircraft, it is usual to find an adjustable trim-tab only fitted to the
elevators. Larger aircraft will generally have such tabs fitted to all three
controls. For example, a multi-engined aircraft with (one) engine failure
would develop a strong yawing tendency, which would be opposed by a
large rudder deflection, maintained by rudder trim.

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5.11. BALANCE TABS

Whereas trim tabs maintain control deflection, balance tabs assist
deflection. Aerodynamic balance tabs are then further categorised
according to the mechanical principle of their operation.
The geared tab is connected by a link to some part of the fixed structure.
Movement of the control surface by the pilot will cause a deflection of the
tab, dependent on the geometry or gearing.

If the tab is operated directly by the pilot, the tab is termed a servo tab.
A servo tab is considered to lack effectiveness at low speeds. The main
control surface is not connected to the control system, it "floats". If a large
deflection is required, the servo tab must be able to generate a sufficient
moment to cause this. At low speed this is difficult.

The spring tab is an effective compromise. In effect, a tab is created

when needed, and deleted when not required.

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At low speeds, no assistance is needed and the pilot moves the control
surface without tab deflection. If the speed rises, the increasing air
resistance requires the pilot to apply an increasing hinge moment via the
control system. At some stage, the forces in the control system overcome
the spring forces, which allows the link to pivot and create a movement of
the tab. The greater the force, the more the link and tab will move, the
greater will be the assistance to the pilot.

5.12. LIFT AUGMENTATION

One of the greatest attractions of air transport is its relatively high speed
and consequent ability to travel great distances in minimum time. This is
important to operator and passenger alike. This has resulted in the
development of aerofoils which have low drag but also low lift
coefficient. (This means that the lift is derived largely as a result of the V2
term, rather than CL).
In turn, this means that as the aircraft slows down, the pilot tries to
compensate for the reducing V2 term, by increasing the CL term towards a
maximum. But there is a limit to this CL maximum (i.e. the stalling speed
angle) and so the stalling speed will be relatively high for a modern
aerofoil. This has a profound disadvantage as far as airfield performance
is concerned, as it means that take-off and landing distances are
lengthened considerably.
What is needed is the ability to change the shape of the aerofoil (giving
higher CL values) and/or the ability to delay separation (giving higher
stalling angles, and consequent higher CL values). These are the features
of Lift Augmentation.
The devices which are commonly incorporated in order to increase CL are
flaps (generally on the trailing-edge, but increasingly common on the
leading-edge as well), slats and slots (typically on the leading-edge), and
systems which allow some control of the boundary-layer behaviour.
Flaps are used change the shape of the wing. They generally consist of a
hinged trailing-edge to the mainplane, extending from just inboard of the
ailerons, to the wing-root. They range from the simple plain flap to the
multi-section Fowler flap, which moves rearwards at the same time as
hinging downwards. (Hence, the area increases as well as the CL value).
The different types and their individual characteristics are shown in a later
diagram.
In order to delay separation which is a feature of high angles of attack, it
is usual to modify the leading-edge in order to present the wing at a more
favourable angle.

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This can be achieved by leading-edge flaps or by slats (and maybe

slots). The airflow does not encounter such a strong adverse pressure
gradient, and so separation is delayed. The addition of a slot allows air
from beneath the aerofoil to accelerate into the airflow above the aerofoil
thus adding to its energy, so delaying separation. Again, characteristics
are shown in the diagram. Boundary Layer Control in where high-energy
air is bled from a source (e.g. the engine) and added to the boundary
layer.
The above characteristics of these devices are shown on the diagram on
the following page, with CL plotted against α. The graphs confirm the
information given on the diagram listing the devices in detail.

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5.13. USE OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES

A modern airliner may have several different flap-settings (often
designated by a setting in degrees e.g. 10º, 22º, 27º and 30º) which will be
selected at different stages during the flight. These setting are essentially
related to particular aircraft types, and it is more appropriate to consider
the settings as simply Up (for the Cruise), Intermediate (for Take-off and
climb) and Full (for Landing). This is because use of the flaps increases
lift and drag, but in varying amounts, as shown in the table.

Effect on:-
Flap Setting Lift Coefficient Drag Lift / drag
Coefficient
Up (cruise) - - Maximum
Intermediate (t/ Large Increase Small Increase Decrease
o)
(e.g. 10 and 22)
Full (landing) Small Increase Large Increase Large Decrease
(e.g. 27 and 30)

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5.14. FLAPS, SLOTS & SLATS

Angle of
Increase of basic
High-Lift Devices maximum aerofoil Remarks
lift at max.
lift

Effects of all high-lift

-- 15° devices depend on shape
of basic aerofoil.
Basic Aerofoil

Increase camber.
Much drag when fully
50% 12°
lowered. Nose-down
Plain or Camber Flap pitching moment.

Increase camber. Even

more drag than plain flap.
60% 14°
Nose-down pitching
Split Flap moment.

Increase camber and wing

90% 13° area. Much drag. Nose-
down pitching moment.
Zap Flap

Control of boundary layer.

Increase camber. Stalling
65% 16°
delayed. Not so much
Slotted Flap drag.

Same as single-slotted
70% 18 flap only more so. Treble
slots sometimes used.
Double-slotted Flap

Increase camber and wing

area. Best flaps for lift.
90% 15° Complicated mechanism.
Fowler Flap Nose-down pitching
moment.

Same as Fowler flap only

100% 20° more so. Treble
slots sometimes used.
Double-Slotted Flower Flap

table continue….

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table continued….

Angle of
Increase of basic
maximum aerofoil Remarks
lift at max.
High-Lift Devices lift

Nose-flap hinging about

leading edge. Reduces lift
50% 20°
at small deflections.
Krueger Flap Nose-up pitching moment.

Controls boundary layer.

40% 20° Slight extra drag at high
speeds.
Slotted Wing

Controls boundary layer.

Increases camber and
50% 20°
area. Nose-up pitching
Fixed Slat moment.

Controls boundary layer.

Increases camber and
60% 22° area. Greater angles of
attack. Nose-up pitching
Movable Slat moment.
More control of boundary
layer. Increased camber
75% 25° and area. Pitching
moment can be
Slat and Slotted Flap neutralised.
Complicated mechanisms.
The best combination for
120% 28° lift; treble slots may be
Slat and Double-Slotted used. Pitching moment
Fowler Flap can be neutralised.

Effect depends very much

80% 16°
on details of arrangement.
Blown Flap

Depends even more on

60% ?
angle and velocity of jet.
Jet Flap

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5.15. DRAG DEVICES

In the preceding section, mention was made of aerofoils with low drag
coefficients which result in reduced fuel consumption.
But how do these aircraft with low drag / 'slippery' shapes slow down
quickly or descent at steep angles without accelerating to dangerously
high speeds?
The design will normally include devices whose purpose is the provision of
extra-drag, such spoilers and airbrakes. They are designed to produced
high-drag (whilst possibly maintaining lift) and to avoid variation in
pitching-moment or trim.
They may vary considerably in appearance and location, and may have

varying degrees of movement, depending on the flight-phase. An example

is shown in the diagram below.
Conventional low-speed ailerons have certain disadvantages, which can
be eliminated by the use of flight spoiler. When raised differentially,
they will create a rolling moment, and also a tendency to yaw. They will
be activated in this sense by normal inputs from the manual flight control
system or the autopilot.
Spoilers may also be raised symmetrically in order to create high-drag or
to destroy lift (when they are often termed lift-'dumpers') during the
landing-runs (hence the common-term 'ground' spoilers).
Airbrakes are fitted to bring about a large increase in drag, thus allowing
the aircraft to lose speed or descend steeply and quickly. Careful
positioning by design should avoid any significant change in balance or
trim.

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6. HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS
The Aerodynamics Module has so far considered heavier - than - air vehicles that
are able to fly by depending on fixed wings (relative to the fuselage), moving
relative to the surrounding air. The lift force is proportional to this movement
(speed) and to the angle of attack.
The same principle applies equally to the helicopter. It is often described as a
rotary wing aircraft, because the wings or blades rotate relative to the fuselage
and to the air. This of course gives the helicopter its main feature - the fuselage
does not need to move relative to the air so it can ascend vertically or hover. (It
is useful to differentiate between the helicopter and autogyro. The autogyro has
rotary wings (blades) but as these are not powered, the ability to climb vertically
or hover is absent).
Helicopters may have more than one rotor, each rotor may have 2 or more
blades. Like a fixed-wing aircraft, the larger the helicopter, the greater the power
required and the greater the number of blades. Many helicopters have a tail-
rotor, this is simply to overcome the torque-reaction of the main-rotor, but also
provides yaw control. They must also have some form of device to allow the rotor
to rotate, following the possible failure of the engine.
When considering aerofoil performance, a critical parameter is the angle of
attack, the angle between chord line relative airflow. A helicopter blade can move
in a somewhat complicated manner for reasons which will become clear, but it
requires the introduction of several terms or definitions at this stage.
Definitions - refer to diagrams.

• Shaft axis - the axis of the main rotor shaft.

• Axis of rotation - the axis of rotation of the rotor head and blade assembly.
(It is not necessarily the same as the shaft axis).
• Plane of rotation - the plane of rotation of the rotor head / blade assembly,
which is at right-angles to the axis of rotation.

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• Tip path plane - the path of the rotor tips, parallel to the plane of rotation.
• Blade pitch - similar to the angle of incidence in fixed-wing terminology, it is
the angle between the chord-line and the plane of rotation.

• Rotor thrust and drag - equivalent to Lift and Drag and expressed relative
to the plane of rotation.

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• Coning angle - rise of blade due to thrust, thus the blade forms an angle
with the plane of rotation.

6.1. CYCLIC & COLLECTIVE CONTROLS

A helicopter is able to move vertically or horizontally, and its path can be a
combination of both. Whatever the movement, it is the result of the rotor blade
forces being altered, in both magnitude and direction.
Vertical movement is achieved by increasing the pitch (blade angle) of all the
rotating blades, thus increasing the angle of attack and the lift. A lever, usually
found lying horizontally to the left of the pilot, is raised in a vertical sense. It is
known as the collective pitch lever. Just as drag increases when lift increases,
the rotor drag increase necessitates an increase in power, in order to maintain
rotor RPM, see diagram. (This is often achieved automatically by governor and

computer).

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Horizontal movement is achieved by 'tilting' the rotor disc in the direction of the
required movement. This tilting of the disc provides a horizontal component in
addition to the vertical force. Tilting is achieved by increasing the blade pitch on
one side whilst decreasing the pitch on the opposite side. This requires each
blade to alternately increase then decrease its pitch during 360º of disc rotation.
This represents a cyclical change in pitch and therefore leads to the term cyclic
pitch being applied to the lever which corresponds to the control column found on
fixed wing aircraft.

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6.2. ANTI-TORQUE CONTROL

The torque applied by the power unit to the rotor (and in turn to the airflow)
results in an equal and opposite reaction being applied to the fuselage. Given
that the shaft axis is vertical, this means that the fuselage will yaw. Use of a fin

and rudder is not possible (when hovering, there is no relative airflow) and so a
horizontal force creating a corrective moment must be generated. This is done
by a tail-rotor, replacing a fin and rudder, and driven by the power-unit. Because
a variation in main rotor torque requires a corresponding variation in tail-rotor
force, the tail-rotor blade pitch is variable and is controlled by rudder-pedals. This
allows the tail-rotor to both balance the torque, but also to deliberately yaw the
aircraft.
The previous paragraphs have introduced the basic concept of rotary-wing
aerodynamics, and have highlighted the cyclical nature of the aerodynamic
forces. The torque reaction required a second rotor to oppose it, in the absence
of fixed aerodynamic control surfaces. These factors introduce their own
problems which necessitate solutions that lead to added complexity.

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6.3. EFFECT OF THE TAIL ROTOR

The torque reaction of the main rotor is overcome by moment provided by the tail
rotor. Recalling basic physics, a torque is being balanced by a torque, but here
the balancing torque is not itself a couple, but a force multiplied by a distance.
Considering forces, the tail-rotor force is unbalanced, and acts as though trying
to move the helicopter sideways. This is termed tail-rotor drift. It could be
reduced by placing the tail-rotor as far as possible from the main rotor, but this is
not practical. The usual solution is to tilt the main disc to produce a sideways
force in the opposite direction, either automatically or manually.
If the tail-rotor force is below the sideways force of the main rotor, as outlined
above, another couple will be created which tends to roll the helicopter. Hence it
is termed tail-rotor roll. It can be alleviated by raising the line of action of the tail
rotor force to the same level as the corrective force of the main rotor.

6.4. MAIN ROTOR HEAD CONFIGURATION & MOVEMENT

A blade has to be able to rotate about its chord axis, i.e. to alter its pitch, either
cyclically or collectively.

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As a result of these changes, the blades will also tend to rise or fall (remember
the tip path is not the same as the plane of rotation, but creates a coning angle).
To reduce bending stresses, blades are often allowed to 'flap' upwards or
downwards by a flapping-hinge.

Similarly, variation in dragging-forces is accommodated by a drag-hinge. The

effect of drag varies cyclically for several reasons and so the instantaneous
position of the blade may lead or lag about its main position. The drag-hinge
allows movement backwards and forward but this movement is restricted by
some form of drag-damper.
Following a cycle pitch input, the variation in blade angle during rotation of the
rotor disc is theoretically complicated but practically less-so, as the blade
movements about the hinges leads to the so-called 'flapping to equality'.

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