Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

Module – 2: Solar Power Plants

Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyrometer, shading ring pyrheliometer, sunshine
recorder, schematic diagrams and principle of working. Solar Thermal Conversion:
Collection and storage, thermal collection devices.
Fundamentals of solar energy and photovoltaic (PV) technology, Types of solar power
plants: grid- tied, off-grid, and hybrid systems, Design considerations for solar power
plants: site selection, orientation, and shading analysis, PV system components and their
functionalities, Operation, maintenance, and performance monitoring of solar power
plants
Instruments used for measuring solar radiation:
Pyrometer
A pyrometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling on a
horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view. A sketch pyrometer is shown in the
following figure.

1. Black surface
2. Glass domes
3. Guard plate
4. Leveling screws
5. Mounting plate
6. Grouted bolts
7. Platform

A Pyranometer is an instrument used to measure the global solar radiation falling on a horizontal
surface. It has a blackened absorbing surface that heats up when exposed to sunlight. The hot
junctions of a thermopile are attached to this black surface, while the cold junctions are placed
beneath a guard plate so they are protected from direct radiation. When solar radiation strikes the
black surface, its temperature rises until the heat gained from radiation becomes equal to the heat
lost by convection, conduction, and re-radiation. This temperature difference between the hot and
cold junctions produces a small electromotive force (EMF), usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV. The
magnitude of this EMF is directly proportional to the intensity of the solar radiation, and it can be
read, recorded, or integrated over time to determine the amount of global radiation received.

The same pyranometer can also be used to measure diffuse solar radiation by using a semi-circular
shading ring. The shading ring is mounted in such a way that its plane remains parallel to the path
of the sun’s daily movement across the sky. This arrangement continuously blocks the direct beam
radiation from reaching the thermopile and the glass domes of the instrument. As a result, only the
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 1
 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
radiation scattered from the sky reaches the sensor, allowing the pyranometer to measure only the
diffuse component of solar radiation.

Fig. Pyranometer

Fig. Pyranometer shade ring

Pyrheliometer:
A Pyrheliometer is an instrument used to measure beam (direct) solar radiation falling on a surface
that is always kept normal to the sun’s rays. Unlike a pyranometer, the black absorbing plate with
the hot junctions of a thermopile is placed at the bottom of a long collimating tube. This tube allows
only the solar rays coming directly from the sun to reach the absorber while blocking most of the
diffuse sky radiation. The instrument is mounted on a two-axis tracking mechanism with an
alignment indicator so that the tube continuously points toward the sun as it moves across the sky.
As a result, the black plate receives mainly the direct beam radiation and only a very small portion
of diffuse radiation within the acceptance angle of the tube. The temperature difference created in
the thermopile generates an EMF proportional to the intensity of the beam radiation, which can be
measured and recorded. The Following figure shows a pyrheliometer.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 2

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

1. Tube blackened on inside surface,

2. Baffle

3. Alignment indicator,

4. Black absorber plate

5. thermopile junctions

6. two-axis tracking mechanism

Solar Radiation GeometryDefinitions:

(a) Solar altitude angle(α): Altitude Angle is the angle between the Sun‘s rays and projection
of the Sun’srays on the horizontal plane
(b) Zenith angle (θz): It is Complementary angle of Sun‘s Altitude angle. It is a vertical angle
between Sun‘s rays and line perpendicular to the horizontalplane through the point i.e. angle
between the beam and the vertical
Θz=π/2-α
(c) Solar Azimuth Angle(γs): It is the solar angle in degrees along the horizon east or west of
north
(d) Declination(δ): It is the angle between a line extending from the centre of the Sun and center
ofthe earth and projection of this on earth‘s equatorial plane.
 Declination is the direct consequence of earth‘s tilt and it
would varybetween 23.5o on June 22 to – 23.5o on
December 22. On equinoxes of March21 & Sept22 declination
is zero.
 The declination is given by the formula

Where n is the day of the year

(e) Meridian: Meridian is the imaginary line passing through a point or place onearth and
north and south poles of the earth‘.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 3
 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
(f) Hour angle(ω): Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring
meridianof the point directly in line with the sun‘s rays. Hour angle is equal to 15o per hour.
(g) Slope(β): Angle between the collector surface with the horizontal plane is called slope(β).
(h) surface azimuth angle(γ): Angle between the normal to the collector and south direction is
called surface azimuth angle(γ)
(i) Solar Incident angle(θ): It is the angle between an incident beam radiation falling on the
collector andnormal to the plane surface
Figures:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 4

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
Sunshine Recorder
A sunshine recorder is an instrument used to measure the duration of bright sunshine during the
day. It consists of a solid glass sphere mounted concentrically in a spherical metal bowl. A specially
prepared card strip is placed in a groove inside the bowl. When bright sunlight falls on the glass
sphere, the sun’s rays are focused to a sharp point on the card strip. If the sunlight is strong enough,
this focused image burns a small spot on the card.

As the sun moves across the sky from morning to evening, the focused spot also moves along the
length of the card strip. This produces a continuous burnt trace on the card. The length of the burnt
mark is directly proportional to the total duration of bright sunshine received during the day. By
examining the burnt trace on the card at the end of the day, the number of sunshine hours can be
determined.

Solar thermal conversion

Solar thermal conversion is the process of converting sunlight into useful heat energy. It works on
the principle that dark surfaces absorb solar radiation and convert it into heat. A solar collector with
an absorber plate, transparent cover, tubes, and insulation captures and retains this heat. The
absorbed heat is transferred to a working fluid such as water or air flowing through the tubes. This
heated fluid can be used directly for water heating, space heating, or drying applications. In
advanced systems, the heat is used to produce steam that drives turbines to generate electricity.
Devices like flat plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, and concentrating collectors are
commonly used. Proper insulation and glazing reduce heat losses and improve efficiency. Solar
thermal systems are simple, economical, and suitable for domestic as well as industrial heating
needs.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 5

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
Solar collectors
Solar collectors are devices that capture solar radiation and convert it into heat energy. They consist
mainly of an absorber surface, transparent cover (glazing), fluid tubes, and insulation to minimize
heat loss. The absorber plate heats up when exposed to sunlight and transfers this heat to a working
fluid such as water or air.
Collectors are broadly classified as flat plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, and concentrating
collectors. They are widely used for water heating, space heating, drying, and in solar thermal
power systems.

Liquid Flat-plate solar collector

A liquid flat-plate solar collector is a widely used device for converting solar radiation into useful
heat for water heating and low-temperature thermal applications. It consists of a flat absorber plate
coated with a black/selective surface to maximize absorption. One or more transparent glass covers
(glazing) are placed above the absorber to admit sunlight while reducing heat losses. Riser tubes or
channels are attached to the absorber plate, through which a liquid—commonly water—flows and
carries away the absorbed heat.
When sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the absorber, the plate heats up and transfers
this heat to the flowing liquid. This transferred heat is the useful heat gain. Some heat is lost from
the top by convection and re-radiation, and from the back and edges by conduction. To minimize
these losses, the collector is provided with thermal insulation at the back and sides, while the
glazing limits top losses.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 6
 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
The collector is mounted at a fixed tilt angle, generally facing south in the northern hemisphere, to
receive maximum solar radiation throughout the day. Liquid flat-plate collectors are simple in
construction, economical, require little maintenance, and are extensively used in solar water heaters,
space heating, and industrial process heating.

Fig.: Liquid flat-plate solar collector

Solar Air Heater (Flat-plate solar collector)

A solar air heater is a flat-plate solar collector designed to heat air instead of water. Its construction
is similar to a liquid flat-plate collector, consisting of an absorber plate, transparent glazing, and
insulation at the back and sides. The main difference is the presence of air passages through which
air flows and gets heated by contact with the hot absorber surface.
Sunlight passes through the glazing and heats the absorber plate. As air flows through the duct
(usually a parallel plate passage), it picks up heat from the absorber and carries it away for useful
applications. These air passages are made larger than liquid tubes to keep the pressure drop within
manageable limits. The glazing reduces heat losses from the top, while insulation minimizes losses
from the back and edges. Solar air heaters are commonly used for space heating, crop drying,
timber seasoning, and ventilation preheating due to their simple design and low maintenance.

Fig: Solar Air Heater

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 7

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

Concentrating Solar Collectors

Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight either to a point (focal point)
or along a line (focal axis). Because the sunlight is concentrated, the absorber area is much smaller
than the total collector area. This reduces heat loss compared to flat-plate (non-concentrating)
collectors, where the absorber area is the same as the collector area.
When radiation is focused, its intensity becomes very high at the receiver. Due to this high intensity
and smaller absorber area, concentrating collectors achieve higher efficiency and higher
temperatures than flat-plate collectors. For this reason, they are mainly used in high-temperature
applications such as power generation and industrial process heating.
Classification of concentrating collectors:
1. Focusing type
a) Line focusing
 Parabolic trough collector
 cylindrical parabolic
 Mirror strip collector
 Fresnal lense collector
b) Point focusing
 Parabolidal collector
 Central tower concept
2. Non Focusing type
 Mirror boosting collector
 Compound parabolic concentrator
Cylindrical Parabolic (Line focusing)
The sketch shows a cylindrical parabolic (parabolic trough) concentrating collector used for high-
temperature solar heating. The long, curved mirror has a parabolic shape that reflects and focuses
incoming sunlight onto a receiver tube placed along its focal line.
This receiver is an absorber tube covered by a concentric glass envelope to reduce heat losses due to
convection and radiation. A working fluid (oil, water, or molten salt) flows through this tube and
gets heated to a high temperature.
The trough is mounted on pylons and a foundation for support. A pivoting receiver support and a
drive motor–gearbox assembly allow the collector to track the sun from east to west during the day,
Typical operating temperature reaches upto 550oC.
Thus, the system concentrates solar radiation along a line, heats the fluid efficiently, and is widely
used in solar thermal power plants and industrial process heating

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 8

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

Parabolidal collector (Point focusing)

The sketch shows a parabolic dish (paraboloid) concentrating collector that focuses sunlight to a
single focal point. The dish-shaped reflector (concentrator) reflects incoming parallel sun rays onto
a receiver placed at the focus, where very high temperatures are produced.
The dish is mounted on a structure with two tracking axes:
 The polar axis allows daily east–west tracking of the sun using a polar drive jackscrew.
 The declination axis adjusts the tilt seasonally using a declination drive jackscrew.
A supporting base holds the system firmly, while a counterweight balances the dish for smooth
movement. With continuous two-axis tracking, the dish always faces the sun directly, ensuring
maximum concentration of radiation at the receiver. Typical operating temperature reaches upto
1000oC. Because radiation is focused at a point, this collector achieves very high temperatures and
is used in solar thermal power generation, Stirling engines, and high-temperature research
applications.

Fig.: Parabolidal collector

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 9

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

Non-focusing collector:
(a) Modified Flat plate collector or Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors:
A modified flat plate collector is a normal flat plate collector fitted with plane mirrors at its edges to
increase the amount of sunlight reaching the absorber plate. These mirrors, called booster mirrors,
are fixed on the north and south sides of the collector, which faces south. When the mirrors are set
at proper angles, they reflect extra solar radiation onto the absorber plate. As a result, the absorber
receives both direct sunlight and reflected sunlight, increasing the heat [Link] arrangement can
achieve a maximum concentration ratio of about 4. A common design is the V-trough, aligned in
the east–west direction, which needs periodic tilt adjustments for best performance.

b) Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

A CPC uses two parabolic mirror segments attached to a receiver to concentrate sunlight with a
large acceptance angle. It can collect both direct and diffuse radiation and needs only
occasional/seasonal adjustment for sun tracking.
Rays near the center reach the absorber directly, while edge rays reach it after one or more
reflections. It provides a moderate concentration ratio (~10) and works well in an east–west
orientation. With a tubular absorber (preferably evacuated), CPCs can achieve 100–200 °C, suitable
for medium-temperature heating.

Fig. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 10

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

1. Thermal Storage
Thermal storage means storing energy in a material by heating, melting, or vaporizing it, and
releasing the energy again as heat when the process is reversed.
Sensible heat storage: Energy is stored by increasing the temperature of a material (no change in
phase). Example: heating water or rocks.
Latent heat storage: Energy is stored during a phase change such as solid to liquid or liquid to
vapor, and released when the material returns to its original phase.
Sensible Heat Storage
Sensible heat storage means storing thermal energy by increasing or decreasing the temperature of a
material without any change in phase (no melting or boiling).
The heat stored depends on mass (m), specific heat (Cp), and temperature difference (T₁ – T₂).
Greater temperature change gives more stored energy.
Equation: Qs = m Cp (T₁ – T₂)
Where, Qs = heat stored, m = mass, Cp = specific heat, T₁ and T₂ = temperature limits.
Common materials: Water, rocks, gravel, iron, concrete, and refractory materials such as
magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, and silicon oxide.
(i) Water Storage
Water storage is the most commonly used sensible heat storage method in solar energy systems.
Thermal energy is stored by heating water and keeping it in a well-insulated tank, where energy is
added through the solar collector and removed through the load. Water is widely preferred because
it is inexpensive, easily available, and has high heat storage capacity. Since the same water acts as
both the heat transfer and storage medium, temperature losses are minimal and pumping costs are
low. The typical optimum tank size for a flat-plate collector system is about 70 kg/m².
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 11
 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

(ii) Packed Bed Exchanger Storage

Packed bed exchanger storage uses rock, gravel, or crushed stones as the storage material, with air
acting as the heat transfer fluid. Air is circulated through the packed bed to add or remove heat, and
the rocks themselves act as a heat exchanger, reducing system cost. Although its heat capacity is
lower than water and requires a larger storage volume, it is suitable for high-temperature
applications where water storage is not practical. The system consists of a container, porous support
structure, and air distributors, and heat addition and removal occur in opposite flow directions, but
not simultaneously.

(b) Latent Heat Storage (Phase Change Energy Storage)

Latent heat storage is a method of storing thermal energy during the phase change of a material,
such as melting and freezing. In this system, heat is absorbed when the material melts and released
when it solidifies, allowing large amounts of energy to be stored at nearly constant temperature. For
effective phase change storage, the material should have high latent heat capacity, reversible phase
change over many cycles, low supercooling, safe handling properties, small volume change, and

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 12

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
good thermal conductivity. It should also be economical, easily available, and simple to prepare.
When these conditions are satisfied, latent heat storage systems provide high energy storage
capacity compared to sensible heat storage. Common phase change materials include water,
Glauber’s salt (Na₂SO₄·10H₂O), Fe(NO₃)₂·6H₂O, and salt eutectics. Glauber’s salt, for example,
changes from solid to liquid around 32°C with a high heat of fusion, making it suitable for domestic
heat storage applications.

2. Electrical Storage
(a) Capacitor Storage
Capacitors store electrical energy in the form of an electric field within a dielectric material. The
amount of energy stored depends on the electric field strength, dielectric constant, and volume of
the material. However, the storage capacity is limited by the dielectric breakdown strength and
leakage losses. Capacitor storage is mainly suitable for short-duration energy storage, and mica is
considered one of the best dielectric materials.
(b) Inductor Storage
Inductor storage keeps energy in the form of a magnetic field. The stored energy depends on the
permeability of the material and the magnetic flux density, so strong magnetic fields are required
for higher storage. This creates large mechanical forces that need strong structural support, and
discharging the energy safely is challenging because it involves interrupting high currents. Inductor
storage is useful for longer storage times compared to capacitors.
(c) Battery Storage
Battery storage is based on electrochemical energy conversion, where electrical energy is stored and
later released through chemical reactions. A battery consists of cells with anode and cathode
electrodes immersed in an electrolyte, allowing electrons to flow through an external circuit and
ions through the electrolyte. Batteries can be primary (non-rechargeable) or secondary
(rechargeable), such as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, and sodium-sulphur batteries. Battery

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 13

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
performance is measured by efficiency and cycle life, which depends on charging conditions and
depth of discharge.

3. Chemical Storage:
Thermo-chemical energy storage (Reversible chemical reactions):
Thermo-chemical energy storage (TCES) is a method of storing thermal energy through reversible
chemical reactions. In this process, heat energy is absorbed during an endothermic reaction to break
a compound into simpler substances, and the energy is stored in the form of chemical potential.
These reaction products can be stored for long periods with very little energy loss. When heat is
required, the reverse exothermic reaction takes place, where the products recombine and release the
stored energy. This system offers high energy density and efficient long-term storage compared to
sensible and latent heat storage methods. Thermo-chemical storage is widely used in applications
such as solar thermal energy systems, waste heat recovery, and industrial thermal management, with
common examples including metal oxide reactions and salt hydration–dehydration processes.

4. Mechanical Energy Storage

(a) Pumped Hydroelectric Storage:
Extra electricity is used to pump water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir. When electricity
demand increases, the stored water flows back down through a turbine to generate power. The
efficiency is about 70%. Water mainly acts as a working fluid, and only small amounts are needed
to replace losses due to evaporation.

Fig.: Storage of solar energy by pumping water behind a dam

(b) Compressed Air Storage:
Energy is stored by compressing air and keeping it in a high-pressure tank. When energy is
required, the compressed air is released to run an air turbine connected to a generator. This method
can be used with wind or solar power systems.
(c) Flywheel Storage: A flywheel stores energy as kinetic energy by rotating at high speed using an
electric motor during low demand periods. When power is needed, the spinning flywheel drives a
generator to produce electricity. The efficiency can reach about 90%.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 14

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B

Fundamentals of Solar Energy and PV Technology

Basic Concept:
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight directly into electrical energy using the
photovoltaic effect, which is the generation of an electromotive force when solar radiation is
absorbed by a semiconductor material. A single energy conversion device is called a solar cell or
photovoltaic cell, and several cells connected together form a solar module or solar array to increase
power output. These systems provide clean, reliable, and renewable energy without any moving
parts.

Working Principle:
Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials such as silicon that generate electricity when
exposed to light. When sunlight (photons) strikes the surface of a solar cell, it excites electrons and
creates free electrical charges. These charges are collected by metal contacts on the cell surface,
producing a flow of current and a potential difference. Typically, a solar cell produces about 0.5 V
and operates with an efficiency of around 10–20%, depending on the intensity of solar radiation.

Applications of Solar PV Systems

 Space satellites
 Remote communication stations
 Marine warning lights
 Home and street lighting
 Water pumping systems
 Medical refrigeration in remote areas
 Solar vehicles
 Battery charging systems
Advantages of Solar PV Systems
 Direct conversion of solar energy into electricity (no thermal stage).
 No moving parts → low maintenance.
 Reliable, modular, and durable.
 Silent operation and eco-friendly.
 Lifespan around 20 years or more.
 Can be installed near the load → reduces transmission losses.
Disadvantages of Solar PV Systems
 High initial cost (solar cells form ~60% of system cost).

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 15

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
 Low efficiency (10–20%).
 Large installation area required.
 Energy storage (batteries) needed due to intermittent sunlight, increasing cost.
Solar Cell, Module and Array Construction
Solar Cell:
A solar cell is the basic unit that converts sunlight into electrical energy. It is generally made of P-
type silicon with a thin N-type layer formed on the top surface, creating a PN junction. The top
surface has a metallic grid contact that collects the electric current while allowing maximum
sunlight to enter, and the bottom surface has a full metallic contact acting as the second terminal. To
improve performance, features such as anti-reflective coating, textured surfaces, and reflective rear
layers are added to increase light absorption and efficiency.

Fig: Construction of a silicon cell

Solar PV Module:
A single solar cell produces very small power, so several cells are connected together to form a
solar PV module. Cells from the same manufacturing batch are used to reduce mismatch losses. The
interconnected cells are encapsulated using Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA) sheets for insulation and
protection against dust and moisture. A glass sheet is placed on the front side for strength, and a
polymer layer such as Poly Vinyl Fluoride (Tedlar) is used at the rear. These layers are sealed to

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 16

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
make the module durable for outdoor use for about 20–30 years, and most commercial modules
contain 32 or 36 cells suitable for charging a 12 V battery.

Fig : PV Module
Solar PV Panel:
A solar PV panel is formed by connecting multiple modules in series or parallel to increase voltage
and current ratings. Blocking diodes are used in series with module strings to prevent power loss if
one string fails, while bypass diodes are connected across modules to allow current to flow around a
faulty module. Many modern modules include built-in bypass diodes to improve reliability.

Fig : PV cell, Module and Panel

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 17

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
Solar PV Array:
A solar PV array consists of many interconnected panels installed together to generate large
amounts of electricity. Panels can be fixed in position or equipped with sun-tracking systems to
improve energy capture. Proper design of the array, including tilt angle, spacing, and height, is
important to avoid shading between panels and to ensure maximum performance, considering local
climatic conditions and ease of maintenance.

Types of Solar Power Plants: Grid-Tied, Off-Grid and Hybrid Systems

Grid-Tied (Grid-Interactive) Systems:

A grid-tied solar power system is directly connected to the utility grid through a two-way metering
arrangement. It can be a small rooftop installation for a house or a larger system supplying a
community or village. The system mainly meets daytime electricity demand, and any excess energy
produced is exported to the grid. During peak demand or at night, the required power is drawn back
from the grid, which acts as an unlimited source or sink of energy. Generally, grid-connected PV
systems use two stages of power conditioning: the first stage tracks the maximum solar power using
MPPT, and the second stage converts the DC output into high-quality AC power suitable for grid
supply. Since the grid provides backup, battery storage is usually not required.

Fig: A typical grid connected solar PV system

Off-Grid or Standalone Systems:

Off-grid systems operate independently without any connection to the utility grid and are installed
near the load centre to supply all electrical needs of a specific area or application. Energy storage
using batteries is generally essential, especially in remote and rural regions where grid power is
unavailable, with system capacities typically ranging from 10 W to 100 kW. In the simplest
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 18
 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
configuration, a DC load is directly connected to the PV panel and operates only during sunshine
hours without storage. In more advanced arrangements, a DC-DC converter with MPPT is used to
supply regulated power and extract maximum energy from the panel. For applications such as
lighting, batteries and charge controllers are included to ensure safe charging and uninterrupted
supply. When AC loads are required, an inverter is added, making the system suitable for most
domestic and commercial uses.

Fig : Various off-grid or standalone system configurations

Hybrid Systems:

Hybrid solar power systems combine solar PV with another energy source such as a diesel
generator, wind turbine, or fuel cell to improve reliability and reduce costs. These systems ensure
that no generated solar energy is wasted and typically require smaller battery storage compared to
standalone systems. In a series configuration, the PV array connects to a DC bus through a charge
controller and DC-DC converter, while power from the diesel generator is rectified to DC and then
inverted back to AC to supply the load; the inverter handles the total AC load current. In a parallel
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 19
 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
configuration, the inverter and diesel generator supply the AC load simultaneously, resulting in
higher efficiency and a lower inverter rating, although proper synchronization between sources is
necessary. Hybrid systems provide auxiliary support, better reliability, and continuous power supply
even under varying energy conditions.

Fig : Solar PV hybrid configurations

Site Selection:
Selecting a suitable location is important to achieve maximum solar power generation and to reduce
installation and maintenance issues. The main factors to consider are:
Solar Irradiance:
• Locations with high solar radiation (kWh/m²/day) are ideal for better energy production.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 20

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
• Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) and Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) data are used to
evaluate sunlight availability.
Climate Conditions:
• Very high temperatures can reduce panel efficiency.
• Dust and humidity may cause panel degradation and require regular cleaning.
• Areas with strong winds need strong and reliable mounting structures.
Land Availability and Terrain:
• Flat or slightly sloped land helps reduce construction and installation costs.
• Firm and stable soil ensures safe panel mounting.
• Flood-prone or landslide-prone locations should be avoided.
Accessibility and Infrastructure:
• Sites near substations and transmission lines help reduce transmission losses.
• Good road access supports easy transport, installation, and maintenance.
• Availability of water is important for cleaning panels in dusty areas.
Environmental and Regulatory Constraints:
• Avoid environmentally sensitive or protected regions.
• Follow environmental regulations and obtain required approvals from local authorities
before installation.
Orientation:
Proper orientation and tilt angle of solar panels are important to maximize energy output by
capturing maximum sunlight. In fixed-tilt systems, the tilt angle is generally chosen close to the
latitude of the installation location. Seasonal adjustments can further improve performance, with
steeper angles during winter and shallower angles during summer. In the Northern Hemisphere,
south-facing panels receive the most sunlight, while north-facing panels are suitable for the
Southern Hemisphere. Near the equator, minimal tilt with an east–west alignment may be effective.
Tracking systems can also be used to improve performance: single-axis trackers follow the sun from
east to west and can increase efficiency by about 15–25%, while dual-axis trackers provide
maximum solar capture but involve higher costs.
Shading Analysis:
Shading significantly reduces the efficiency of solar panels, so identifying potential obstacles is
important during the design stage. Natural obstructions such as trees, hills, and mountains, as well
as man-made structures like buildings and poles, must be evaluated. Tools such as solar pathfinders
and simulation software (PVsyst, Helioscope, SAM) help analyze shading effects throughout the
year, while sun-path diagrams predict seasonal shadow patterns. Proper spacing between panel rows

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 21

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
is necessary to avoid inter-row shading, especially during winter when shadows are longer.
Technologies like bypass diodes reduce power loss from shaded cells, and microinverters or power
optimizers help maintain maximum energy production from each panel even when partial shading
occurs.

PV System Components and their Functionalities

1. Photovoltaic Cell: Small semiconductor devices (squares or thin films) that produce electricity
when exposed to sunlight.
2. Solar Panels (PV Modules): Solar panels are made by connecting multiple photovoltaic cells
and protecting them with glass and backing material. They convert sunlight into direct current (DC)
electricity, and their output is measured in watts (W). PV modules are mainly of three types:
monocrystalline (high efficiency and long life), polycrystalline (lower cost with moderate
efficiency), and thin-film (lightweight but lower efficiency)..
3. Array: A collection of multiple PV modules connected together with mounting and wiring to
achieve the required voltage and power output.
4. Solar Inverter: Function: Converts DC power from panels into AC power for household or
industrial use.
Types of Inverters:
 String Inverter: One inverter for several panels; economical but affected by shading.
 Microinverter: One inverter per panel; better performance under partial shading.
 Hybrid Inverter: Works with batteries and grid systems.
 Central Inverter: Used in large solar power plants.
5. Mounting Structures: Support structures that hold panels at the best tilt and direction for
sunlight.
Types:
 Fixed Tilt: Panels remain at a constant angle.
 Adjustable Tilt: Angle can be changed seasonally.
 Tracking Systems: Follow the sun (single-axis or dual-axis) to increase energy output.
6. Charge Controller (Off-Grid/Hybrid Systems): Controls voltage and current to protect
batteries from overcharging and deep discharge.
7. Battery Storage: Stores excess solar energy for use when sunlight is not available.
Types of Batteries:
 Lead-Acid: Low cost but shorter lifespan.
 Lithium-Ion: High efficiency, lightweight, and long life.
 Flow Batteries: Suitable for large-scale energy storage.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 22
 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
8. Balance of System (BOS) Components: Additional parts required for safe and proper operation.
Main Components:
 DC/AC Disconnects: Safety switches for maintenance.
 Wiring & Connectors: Transfer electrical energy between components.
 Fuses & Circuit Breakers: Protection against faults and overcurrent.
 Grounding System: Improves electrical safety.
9. Monitoring System: Monitors performance and detects faults in real time.
Types:
 On-Site Monitoring: Displays system output locally.
 Cloud-Based Monitoring: Remote monitoring through apps or web platforms.
10. Grid Connection (Grid-Tied Systems): Allows export of extra electricity to the grid and
supports net metering.
Key Components:
 Net Meter: Measures power import and export.
 Grid-Tie Inverter: Synchronizes solar power with grid voltage and frequency.
11. DC Loads: Devices and equipment that operate directly on DC power.
12. AC Loads: Appliances and machines that require AC power.

Operation, Maintenance and Performance Monitoring of Solar Power Plants

Operation of Solar Power Plants:
Solar power plants generate electricity when solar panels convert sunlight into DC power, which is
then converted into AC power by inverters for grid supply or local use. Energy is distributed
through grid connection or battery storage systems. Important operational activities include load
management to balance power generation and demand, power conditioning to maintain stable
voltage and frequency, and proper grid synchronization for safe power transfer.
Maintenance of Solar Power Plants:
Regular maintenance is necessary to maintain efficiency and reliability. Preventive maintenance
includes periodic cleaning of panels to remove dust and dirt, inspection of electrical components
such as inverters, cables, and fuses, checking mounting structures for corrosion or misalignment,
and ensuring proper grounding and safety systems. Corrective maintenance involves repairing
inverter faults, replacing damaged modules, and fixing cable or connector problems. Predictive
maintenance uses advanced methods such as thermal imaging drones and AI-based monitoring
systems to detect issues early and prevent failures.
Performance Monitoring of Solar Power Plants:

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 23

 Renewable Energy Power Plants – BME654B
Plant performance is evaluated using key indicators like energy yield (kWh/kWp), performance
ratio (PR), capacity utilization factor (CUF), inverter efficiency, and module degradation rate.
Monitoring systems such as SCADA provide real-time operational data, while IoT-based platforms
enable remote monitoring through cloud dashboards and mobile apps. Weather stations are also
used to measure solar irradiance, temperature, wind speed, and humidity for accurate performance
analysis.

Dept. of Mechanical Engg., RIT-Hassan. Page 24