5

Mortality
1. MEANING OF MORTALITY it is a basic constituent of population growth
in any region. For the measurement of the
incidence of death or mortality, various indices
In demography, mortality means the have been used. Following are the significant
permanent disappearance of all evidence of life
at any time after birth has taken place. For the indices of mortality which are commonly
used:
purpose of mortality, any death before birth is
to be not included. It isexpressed as the number (1) Crude death rate,
of deaths or the death rate. Mortality is one of (2) Infant mortality rate,
the three basic components of population (3) Matrnal mortality rate,
growth,others being fertility and migration. (4) Age specific mortality rate,
Data related to mortality are collected (5) Age and sex specific mortality rate,
and compiled by the vital statistics registration (6) Cause specific mortality rate.
system. But unfortunately many countries
particularly in least developed countries of the (1) Crude Death Rate
world the registration of vital statistics is not
considered as a legal obligation. In suchaway, Crude death rate (CDR) is the simplest
in those countries the incidence of under and most commonly used index of mortality. It
reveals the average number of deaths per
registration of deaths may be considerably thousand of population in a particular year. It
higher than actual. This is the reason that the
comparative study of mortality on global level iscalculated as under: D
Crude Death Rate = -x1000
may be somewhat different from reality. In P
many developed and developing countries,
comprehensive death recording has been Where,
achieved in recernt years. D
=Nåmber of deaths in a year, and
2. MEASUREMENT OF MORTALITY P = Estimated mid-year population for
the year.
The interest of a population geographer This measure of mortality gives a crude
hes in the spatial analysis of mortality because figure and it suffers from many deficiencies.
86
Population Geography
separately for males and females.
Followings are major drawbacks of the crude
death rate :
These indices
separately can be calculated as under.
(1) Crude death rate expresses an average Male Infant Mortality Rate =Cdm
value which may be influenced by
extreme values of mortality. Lbm -*1000
(2) In the calculation of crude death rate, Where,
total population is taken into C£m = Number of male infant deathe
consideration while the degrees of under one year of age, and
deaths in different age-groups are quite Lbm = Number of male live births.
different. The maximum deaths are
recorded in the age-groups of 0-4 and
60 and above. Female Infant Mortality Rate Cdf
(3) Crude death rate expresses only Lbf -x1000
average condition and is most affected Where,
by extreme age-groups (0-4 and 60+) Cdf = Number of female infant deaths
and thus it may be many times more
than actual death rate of population in under one year of age, and
middle age-group. Thus, however, it Lbf = Number of female live births.
does not takes into account the age and
sex composition and gives only a (3) Maternal Mortality Rate
general idea about the mortality.
(2) Infant Mortality Rate Maternal mortality rate (MMR) refers to
the deaths of women due to causes related with
Infant mortality rate (IMR) provides pregnancy, delivery and other maternity
average mortality among children below one reasons. It is usually expressed as number of
year of age. It is calculated as under : female deaths due to maternity reasons per ten
thousand of live births. It is expressed as
under:
Infant Mortality Rate = Cd -x1000
Lb
Where, Maternal Mortality Rate = Md -x10,000
Cd= Number of deaths of Lb
children under
one year of age, and Where,
Lb = Number of live Md =Total number of female deaths due
births.
Since infant mortality rate is greatly to maternity causes, and
influenced by socio-economic Lb = Total number of live births.
conditionsofof the people, it is widelyandusedhealth Maternal of mother's mainly
indicator total health conditions and as an on the number mortality rate focuses
death which is
living
standards of a society. It is a fact that infant
mortality decreases with socio-cultural and directly related with general Ihealth conditions,
nutrition and status of women in the society.
economic growth of population. Infant Maternal
mortality rate in least developed mortalityrate is very highin
Africa and Asia are
in the developed very high
countries of
and it is economically and socially least developed
countries Africa and Asia. It has lower great
countries of the [Link] low
of
For any community, infant significance
steps
for societies
of social and which
economic stand at and
development
may be different for mortality rate
on the basis of sex, itmales and females. So that where the women of
can be further are engaged in the processs
calculated frequent childbearing. Like infant
mortality
rate, maternal mortality rate also tendsto
 87
Mortality
Where,
decrease with the socio-economic development Dm= Total number of male deaths in a
and improvement in health conditions.
specific age-group,
(4) Age Specific Mortality Rate Pm = Total male population in the same
age-group,
Age-specific mortality rate (ASMR)is an Df= Total number of female deaths in
improved form of crude mortality rate. It is a specific age-group, and
calculated separately for different age-groups. Pf= Total female population in the
The mortality rate per 10,000 calculated for a same age-group.
particular age-group is known as age-specific
mortality rate. It expresses the ratio of total It is a more refined and useful measure of
deaths to total population in aspecific age mortality than that of age specific mortality
group. It can be calculated as under : rate, but is rarely used at national or
international levels mainly due to not
Td availability of data on national level. Moreover,
Age Specific Mortality Rate -. -x 10, 000
Tp it expresses the crude death rate according to
age-groups and sex (males and females).
Where,
Td =Total number of deaths in a specific (6) Cause Specific Mortality Rate
age-group, and
Tp= Total population in that age-group. Cause specific mortality rate (CMR)
The death rate in initial age-group (04) expresses the mortality rate according to
is found highest which mnay be maximum in concerned cause. It indicates the ratio between
first year of the life. It tends to decrease in second total number of deaths due to any specific cause
age-group (5-9) and becomes about stable of in a definite period (generally one year) and total
lowest rate till 40 years of age. After 40 years of population in that year. The number of deaths
age, death rate begins to increase again slowly caused by a desease or any other causes is very
and becomes much frequent after 60 years of low in comparison to total population, so that
age. If successive age-specific mortality rates are the ratio calculated between the two is
plotted on the graph paper by a curve it forms multiplied by 10,000 or 1,00,000.
the shape of U letter. Thus, however, cause specific mortality
rate is expressed per 10,000 or per
(5) Age and Sex Specific Mortality Rate 1,00,000 population. It may be calculated as
under :
Age and sex specific mortality rate is
calculated for males and females separately in M
Cause Specific Mortality Rate = P x1, 00, 000
different age-groups. It is expressed as number
of male deaths or female deaths per 1000 male
or female population in the same age-group. For Where,
males and females separately it may be M -Number of deaths due to specific
calculated as under: cause in ayear, and
P=Average population of that year.
Age and Sex Specific Mortality Rate = Dm x 1000 The cause specific death rate may also be
Pm
calculated according to age and sex separately.
Or
In a particular age-group, death rate for males
Df or females caused by specific reasons may be
x1000
Pf calculated separately as under :
 88 Population Geography
Cause Specific Male Mortality Rate housing and sanitation,
education, religious beliefs [Link] of
Mm -x1,00,000 (c) Economic determinants :
Per
Pm
Cause Specific Female Mortality Rate
income standard
economy etc.
of
living, typecapitaof
(d) Environmental conditions
ME
-x1,00, 000 disasters, epidemics,
etc.
:Natural
droughts, wars
Pf
Various factors that affect
Where, the mortality rate in different partsconsiderably
of the wold
Mm= Number of male deaths due to
are to be discussed here in brief.
specific cause in a year,
Pm = Average male population of that
Following
the significant factors determining [Link]
year, (1) Age Structure
Mf= Number of female deaths due to
specific cause in a year, Age structure of a population is
Pf= Average female population of considered as the most significant denographic
that year. factor determining the incidence of mortality
in acommunity. The highest mortality rate is
3. DETERMINANTS OF found within one year of age and
MORTALITY
decline as age increases. It begins to tends
to
There are a number of increase
generally after 40 years of age. It is commonly
socio-cultural and economicdemographic,
factors that agreed that the mortality risk increases
determine the mortality pattern in the world. considerably in old ages (after 60 years). It is
The causes of human death or also noted that certain diseases
mortality are
closely related with socio-cultural, are associated
economic with different age-groups. For
and technological like heart stroke, cancer etc. example, diseases
factors responsible development, so that the
for mortality vary are generally
considerably from one portion of the world to associated with late mature and old age-groups.
another. With the In developed countries where the
age
of a region, the socio-economic advancement structures are relatively old, such diseases have
causes of
undergo a change due to mortality definitely become dominant causes of death. On the
advancement and
improvement in medicine and health contrary, the develping countries that have
conditions, above 30 percent population in
in nutritionspread of education,
and sanitation. improvement -14 age-grou
display high mortality (child mortality)
(decline) in mortality rates has The
been changing rate.

significant aspect of demographic the mostin (2) Sex Composition

of transition
the world. The
conveniently bedeterminants mortality. may
basic categories: grouped into following four It has been
universally accepted that the
resistance power of males and females varies
(a)
Demographic
structure, sex determinants: age
considerably. It is
observed that the life
urbanization [Link], level of expectancy
that
of
females
of the males is generally
because higher than
the mortality rates
(b) for females are found lower for all ages. Itis a
Socio-cultural
systems and determinants : Social global phenomena that the male mortality rate
infanticide, traditions, incidence of is higher than that of females. In many
availability of
facilities, general condition of medical developing
exibit countries of child
the womenrate. bearing
nutrition, age high mortality In various
 Mortality 89
developing countries incuding Indiathe female (4) Social Systems and
mortality rate is higher than that of the male Traditions
mortality rate at about all ages due to a number
of reasons including neglect of female children, In a traditional society, the
is influenced by the mortality rate
Subordinate status to women in family and prevalence
the society. A number of
of infanticide in
society, high maternal mortality rate due to poor societies in
parts of the world in the past dífferent
medical and health conditions, malnutrition etc.
The degree of female superiority in infanticide as a common technique toadopted control
population. For example, the
survival varies by the level of development, in Japan in the past practised traditional
group
society
being low to modest in the less developed as an infanticide
important measure of controlling
countries and appreciable in advanced population. In various societies of India also,
countries (Preston, 1976). The developed female infanticide had been practised mainly
countries of Europe, Anglo America, Australia, due to second status provided to
New Zealand and Japan display a considerable women. In
Indian traditional society a daughter
female superiority in life expectancy at birth. is
By contrast many developing
considered liability while a son is considered
as
countries as an asset. In various parts and societies which
including India showa slight male superiority practised infanticide in the past in one way or
in life expectancy. the other had a high rate of mortality. In
Indian
(3) Level of Urbanization
Hindu society there have been practices like Sati
system whereby the wife used to sacrifice her
life by burning herself with the pyre of her
The pattern of mortality in any deceased husband. Such practices also
is considerably influenced by the level country
of contributed to high mortality rate in the
urbanization. Generally in less
countries, the mortality rate in townsdeveloped
country.
and cities
is found considerably below the (5) Literacy and Education
of the rural areas because limited mortality rate
medical
facilities are usually concentrated mainly in The level of literacy and education in a
urban areas. "Moreover, the urban society governs people's knowledge of diseases,
in the less developed countries havepopulations,
high per epidemics and health hazards. Thus, however,
capita income, high literacy rates, greater the mortality rate is seem to be
awareness of health hazards in comparison to inversely
associated with literacy. The illiterate and
their rural counterparts, all of which arrest the backward societies are characterized by high
mortality in the urban areas" (Chandna, 2006, rates of mortality because they suffer a common
153). In advanced countries of the West
are less variations between rural there indifference and absence of knowledge and
mortality exitement to health hazards and insanitation.
rates and urban mortality rates.
In highly industrialized urbanized (6) Social Inhibitions
communities the
mortality becomes
comparatively high because of various factors. In traditional societies a number of social
Ihe large towns and cities are more affected by and religious inhibitions and taboos have been
infection diseases because of over-congestion of found to be influencing mortality rates.
Population particularly in slum areas. The Relatively closed societies such as tribal societies
urban environment is generally less condusive and even some religious groups have been
than that of contryside to good health mainly inhibiting the people from accepting the modern
due to environmental poolluton and lack of medicines and health care methods. For this
physical activity. reason the mortality rate for scheduled tribes
 Population Geography
90
to time in affected areas. These factors
in India is higher than the average of general effective in the historic past while atwere more
population. Similarly, different religiousgroups
worlpredsentare
sometimes time mnost of the countries of the
living in the same environment have trying to control the abnormal deaths
varying rate of mortality. by such natural phenomena. causedin
(7) Hygienic Conditions However,
different parts of the world, the role of
factors in determining mortality rates areSucho
Nutrition, housing and sanitation
much significance.
constitute the general hygienic conditionsof an 4, WORLD PATTERNS OF MORTALIY
area. The mortality rate is closely related with
these elements. The mortality rates of different The global patterns of mortality can
regions or societies are closely associated with be expressed on the basis of mortality
their hygienic conditions. The least developed indices for which countrywise data are
countries of the world which suffer from available. For this purpose mortality indices of
unhygienic conditions (malnutrition, poor (A)crude death rate, (B) life expectancy at birth,
housing and insanitation etc.) show generally and (C) infant mortality rate are commonl
high mortality rates. In such countries infant used.
mortality rate and maternal mortality rate is
amazingly high due to malnutrition and (A) Crude Death Rate
insanitation problems.
Table 5.1 reveals the crude death rates for
(8) Economic Determinants selected countries of the world. On average,
crude birth rate for the world as a whole was7
Per capita income, standard of living, type
of economy etc. are much important among per thousand in 2018. This figure for developed
economic determinants of mortality rate of a countries and developing countries was 10 and
society. The per capita income determines the 7per thousand respectively. Among the
standard of living and both are positively continents, the highest mortality rate (11 per
correlated. The richness of diet and capacity to thousand) isregistered in Europe followed by
avail of medical facilities by a person is Africa (10), North America (8), Asia (7),Oceanta
generally determíned by his/her income. It is (7) and South America (6). Since in a larg
number of developing countries, the vital
well known fact that the better income of a
person can help in providing him medical registration system is not very reliable,
facilities. There is a negative correlation these figures, perhaps are not presentingin
between mortality rate and per capita income variation
their actual position. There is little
or standard of living. This is the reason that the the average crude mortality rates of the
less developed countries in general shows high developed and developing countries of the
average mortality rate (crude birth rate 24 per world.
thousand) while this figure for more developed The highest death rate in the worldis
countries comes to be very low (11 per
registered by Ukraine (14 per 1000) followed
thousand). by Georgia (13). In Africa, most of countries
have a mortality rate above 10 per thousand.
(9) Environmental Conditions Death rates of Russia (12), Nigeria (12) and
Natural disasters, calamities, epidemics, Germany (11) etc.
high. In most African be considered very
may countries (except
drought, flood, volcanic eruption, earthquake,
wars etc. may cause large scale death from time Egypt), the crude death rate between 10
and 24 per ranges
thousand.
 91
Mortality
Table 5.1 Although most of countries in Europe
show crude death rate between 8 and 12 per
Crude Death Rates of Selected Countries of
the World (1990-95 and 2018) thousand, yet some East European countries
2018
like Russian Federation (12), Ukraine (14) and
Countries/Regions 1990-95
Czech Republic (11) display comparatively
Angola 19 10 higher death rates.
22 7
Afghanistan The highest crude death rate in Asia is
18 7
Ethiopia 15 12 registered by Georgia (13 per thousand). Most
Russia
15 14 of the Asian countries have death rate 8
Ukarine per thousand or below.
12 6
Kenya 12
Nigeria 15 China (7) and India (6), the most
South Africa 9
11 11
populous countries of the world have fairly low
Czech Republic
9 13 death rates comparable with developed
Georgia 11 11 countries of the world. In South-West Asia,
Germany 11 9 United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) shows the lowest
United Kingdom 11 crude death rate (1 per thousand) which
10
Italy world.
Sweden 11 perhaps may be lowest death rate in the
Pakistan 8 7 Japan, Indonesia, Israel and Sri Lanka are the
Yemen 21 6 other Asian countries with low crude death
France 9 rates.
11 5
Bangladesh
US.A. In Anglo America, U.S.A. (9) and Canada
Argentina (8) display moderate death rates. Countries in
India 9 6 Latin America have crude death rates below 8
Japan
7 11
per thousand : Argentina, Brazil, Suriname,
Canada 7
6
Colombia, Mexico and Paraguay. Australia and
7
Brazil
6 7 New Zealand also experienced low crude death
Suriname rates (7 per thousand).
Australia 7 7
New Zealand 8 7
7 6
Egypt (B) Life Expectancy at Birth
Colombia 6 6
7 7
China Table 5.2 reveals that the average life
Indonesia 8
Israel 6 5 expectancy rate in 1970 was 58 years which
Sri Lanka 5 6 rose to 73 years in 2018. In case of the developing
Mexico 5 countries the average life expectancy at
for least
Paraguay 6 6 birth was 55 years in 1970 while
U.A.E. 2 developed countries it was only 44 years. In
countries life
Less developed countries 9
the case of more developed in
More developed countries 10 10
expectancy was recorded as high as 71 years
and 65
World 9 7 1970. Life expectancy rose to 80, 71
years in more developed, less developed and
Sources: (1) World Resources, 1996-97, Oxford least developed countries respectively up to
University Press, Oxford.
2018.
(2) World Population Data Sheet,
2018.
 Population Gedgl. 30° 60
30°
ofTropic S
75° 60° Équator Capricorn
ofTropic 180°E
N
Cancer
180°E Crude
Death
Rate
WORLD
(2013)
150°
150°

4000
120°
120°

Kilometres
90°
90°

World

60°
4000 60° tlne
in
Rate
30° 30° Death

Crude
0°
of
5.1:Di
30°
30°

60°
Fig.
60°

90°

90°
Crude
Rate
Death
1000
(per
persons)
120°

120°
above
&
12
150
W 8Below
8-
12
150
W
75°
60°
30°
0 30°
60°
S
 Mortality 93

It is also a fact that in the case of females, more than 80 years. In Europe, for Russia and
ife expectancy is little higher than that of males Ukraine it is around the average of the world
all over the world. On an average it was 69 (71 years).
years for females and 65 years for nnales in 2005. The life expectancy at birth for a number
It shows that the females are less susceptible to of developing countries from Latin America,
diseases and are biologically considered a Asia and Africa is recorded more than 70 years.
stronger sex. "Their immunity system is muca Such countries include Chile, Uruguay, Cuba,
stronger than that of males. The nature has Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Paraguay
made them stronger perhaps due to fact that etc. from Latin America; South Korea, Saudi
their role in reproductive process is much more Arabia, Oman, Malaysia, China, Vietnam,
crucial in comparison to that of males" Thailand, Turkey, Syria, Philippines etc. from
(Chandna, 2006, 177). Asia; and Libya, Algeria etc. from Africa.
It is quite evident from Table 5.2 that Most of the developing and least
the life expectancy at birth for developed developed countries of Asia and Africa
countries ranges between 74 and 82 years. The have life expectarncy at birth below the average
highest life expectancy at birth is registered of the world (71 years). In Africa south of
by Japan (83 years) and Switzerland Sahara, life expectancy at birth ranges between
(83 years). It is closely followed by Norway, 40 and 65 years. Meso Africa (Tropical Africa),
Akstralia, Sweden, and France. Other by and large, exhibits lowest life expectancy
developed countries including Canada, US.A., of the world. Lesatho registered lowest life
Netherlands, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, expectancy at birth (44 years) in 2013
NewZealand etc. have life expectancy at birth foilowed by Siera Leone, Angola, Central
Table 5.2
World
Life Expectancy and Infant Mortality Rates for Selected Countries of the
Country Life expectancy at birth Infant mortality rate
(Years) (Per 1000 live births)
1970 2018 1970 2018

71 82 13 2
Iceland
82 13 2
74
Norway 19 5
Canada 72 82
83 11 3
Sweden 74
13 4
Netherlands 74 82
14 2
72 85
Japan 20 6
United States 71 79
13 4
72 81
United Kingdom 18 3
71 83
Australia 4
82 17
New Zealand 71
3
83 29
71
Italy 81 22 3
71
Germany 72 83 18 4
France 15 4
73 83
Switzerland
94
Population Geography
83 21 3
72
Spain 82 37
70 4
Poland
80 79 7
Chile 62
79 47 12
69
Uruguay 79 45 4
Cuba 70
75 75 17
Mexico 61
75 104 22.
56
Libya 120 9
50 78
Oman
76 49 7
Romania 68
53 75 122 12
Saudi Arabia
64 76 42 7
Malaysia
Russian Federation 69 72 28 6

59 76 96 11
Brazil
65 72 54 13
Venezuela
61 77 78 14
Coiombia
71 72 22 8
Ukraine
Thailand 60 77 69 10

China 63 77 51 10
52 77 145 9
Turkey
Peru 53 77 118 16
61 71 63 21
Philippines
65 74 56 17
Paraguay
Iran 51 77 139 5
Sri Lanka 64 77 49
Algeria 50 77 128 22
Vietnam 60 75 55 15
Indonesia 52 72 109 22
Syria 59 72 81 17
Egypt 52 72 169 15
Kyrgyzstan 61 71 105 17
Bolivia 46 37
71 156
South Africa 53 36
64 80
Botswana 55 69 97 31
Namibia 53 36
63 108
India 49 69 129 34
Myanmar 51 67 116 52
Ghana 49 64 110 37
Pakistan 53 67 66
123
 Mortality 95

Mauritania 49 65 110 65
Lesotho 49 54 127 59
Bangladesh 48 72 165 28
Nepal 42 71 166 32
Papua New Guinea 46 64 106 46
Sudan 52 65 97 45
Kenya 52 66 98 36
Yemen 41 66 196 44
Uganda 49 63 113 43
Gambia 38 62 120 46
Nigeria 41 54 153 67
Tanzania 47 65 124 43
Guinea 37 61 190 68
Rwanda 44 69 136 32

Angola 37 61 179 44
Zambia 49 64 112 49
Congo (Dem. Rep. of) 44 60 138 67
Ethiopia 53 66 144 40
Chad 41 54 153 72
Central African Republic 42 53 149 85
Mali 32 59 184 56

Mozambique 39 60 165 65
Niger 36 62 154 60
Sierra Leone 35 54 197 84

More Developed Countries 71 80 24 5

Less Developed Countries 55 71 100 34

Least Developed Countries 44 65 150 49

World 58 73 89 31

Source :(1) World Population Data Sheet, 2018.

(2) Human Development Report, 2019, UNDP, New York.
considerably higher than that of Africa.
African Republic, Rwanda, Mozombique, In case of China and India, the large and
Lesotho, Democratic Republic of Congo, most populous countries of Asia, life
Nigeria, Botswana, Uganda and Tanzania. expectancy at birth was 77 and 63
South Africa, Namibia, Ghana, Kenya, respectively in 2018. It is notable that within
Sudan, Gambia, Ethiopia, Chad and Niger last 48 years (from 1970 to 2018) China had
exhibit life expectancy at birth between 50 succeeded in raising its life expectancy at
and 70 years. birth from 63 (1970) to 77 (2018). In the
63
case of India, it increased from 53 to
In Asia except only a few (like during the same period.
Afghanistan) life expectancy at birth is
 Population
30° Geography 30 60°
75° 60° S
Tropic 'Equator Tropic
of of Capricom 180°E
180°E at
Birth Cancer

WORLD2013)
Life
Expectancy
150°
150°

4000 120°
120°

Kilometres
90° 90°
0 World

the
60° 4000 60 in
Birth

of
30° 30°
Expecta

0° Life
0°
of
5.2:Dis
30° 30°

60°
60° Fig.

90° (years)
90°
Birth
75
and
above
120° at below
6O 120°
Expectancy
60-75

150
W
150
W
Life
75° 60°
N 30°
0 30° 60°
S
 75° z ofr30°
ropic 30° 60 S
60°

180°E Rate
of Caprícorn
'Equator Tropic 180°E
Cancer
WORLD
Mortality .
(2013)
150°
150°
Infant
4000
120°
120°
Kilometres

90°
90°

4000 World

60°
60° the
in
Rate
30°
30° Mortality

0°
lnfant
0°
of
Distributio
30°
30°

:5.3
60°
60 Fig.

90° 90
Infant
Mortality
Rate

1000
(per
births)
120°
120° 80
&
above
20
Below
-20
40 -840
0
150
W
150
W
*.

30° 60°
75° 60° 30° S
N
 Population Geography
98
5. CAUSES OF DECLINE IN THE
Rate
(C) Infant Mortality MORTALITY

connoting mortality
It iscalculated for It is quite evident from Table
5.2 that
than one year of age.
among children of less mortality rates have been declined
The infant mortality rate is a sensitive
index
conditions.
steeplyCrudein
the developing countries of the world.
country's economic and health death rate for developing countries in 1950-35
of a infant mortality rate
Table 5.2 reveals that the was 22.2 which declined to 10.9 in 1980-85 3
1000live
for the world as awhole was 89 per 7in 2018. Similarly, life expectancy at birth and
in 1970 which declined to 31 per 1000 infant mortality rate also decreased steeply
births
live births in 2018. The more developed during the same period. It is assumed thattha
low infant decline in mortality has been mainly result of
countries (OECD) has a verybirths in 2018
mortality rate of 5 per 1000 live social and economic development which is
a very reflected in individual standards of nutrition.
while less developed countries had
high infant mortality rate of 34
per 1000 live housing, clothing, water supply, transportatio,
produ
are medicalcare and so on. It may also the
births. The infant mortality rate measSures with an
1000 live of social policy
amazingly high (average 49 per countries. unprecedented scope or efficacy. Following are
births) in the case of least developed Eastern mortality
the
For the countries of Central
and the significant causes of decline in
decades.
rate in developing countries in recent
Europe and CIS average infant mortality
is found 20per 1000 live births. (1) Rise of Income Levels
N. W.
In the developed countries of
Canada), levels of
Europe, Anglo America (U.S.A. and infant During last five-six decades,
countries have
Australia, New Zealand and Japan, the income in the developing
level
mortality rates were below 5 per 1000 live increased considerably. Increasing income
food, better
births in 2018. Thisfigure for Russia, Ukraine has enabled the people to buy more
care. During
and Romania was about 8per 1000 live births. housing and more health
In major developing countries like Mexico, twentieth century particularly after 1950, lie
associated at
Libva, SaudiArabia, China, Peru, Turkey, Iran, expectancy has been stronglyincome. "When
Indonesia, Egypt, Sonth Africa, India, Pakistan, national level with per capita generally
Sudan, Kenya and Nigeria, infant mortality income increases the Poor people
ways th
rate exceeds 10 per 1000 live births. spend a larger portion of it on their diet
In least developed countries of Africa, inhance their health : on improving
on upgradue
and
the infant mortality rates are very high on obtaining safe water Puri,2002
sanitation and housing" (Misra and
(between 30 and 90). The highest infant 318).
mortality rate of 85 per 1000 live birth was
registered in Central African Republic in 2018 (2) Control of Famines
followed by Democratic Republic of Congo, productivity
Guinea, Angola and Chad, Other African Due to low agricultural ofstoring
poor irrigation facilities, inadequacy
undeveloped
countries with infant mortality rate between etc.
30 and 80 per 1000 live births are Kenya, and warehousing facilities, communication
Mauritania, Botswana, Uganda, Gambia, facilities of transport and developing
famines were widespread in been
Tanzania, Guinea, etc. countries in the past. These these
hasfronts

considerable improvements on all

 Mortality 99

during last some decades and famines are now thousand in 2010. Death rate during 1901-21
very much under control. Now starvation fluctuated between 42 and 49 per thousand. But
deaths have reduced considerably. after 1921, aclear fall in death rate is noticeable.
Death rate which stood 49 per thousand in 1911
(3) Control of Epidemics and Diseases 21 came down to 19 during 1961-71. Death rate
has further fallen to a level of 7.3 per thousand
As a result of the medical advancemernts in 2009-10. Prior to 1921, India was in the first
and better health care measures, developing stage of demographic transition characterised
countries have become able to control the by high but flactuating death rate and static
incidence of malaria, tuberculosis and many high birth rate. But from 1921 onwards it has
other diseases and epidemics effectively. entered into the second stage of demographic
Malaria, the most potent single cause of sickness, transition with decreasing death rate.
invalidism and death in most the tropical Table 5.3
countries of the world is on the run. R. [Link]
Crude Death Rates in India (1901-2010)
(1979, 86) observed:"a substantial share of the
decline in mortality in India since World War II Year Crude death rate
mav be attributed to malaria control which (per 1000 persons)
saved million of lives, not only from malaria,
but also from diseases which afflicted those 1901-11 43
whose defences malaria had lowered". 1911-21 49
The three major causes of epidemics 1921-31 36
plague, cholera and small pox that were very 1931-41 33
common before 1950, have been brought under 1941-51 27
control. Preventive steps undertaken by the
1951-61 23
governments in the developing countries have
played an important role in controlling various 1961-71 19
epidemics and diseases. Many developing 1971-81 15
countries including India have succeeded in 1981-91 10
eliminating small pox completely. 2000-01 8.4
(4) Improvement in Nutritional Standards 2009-10 7.3

In recent decades many developing Sources: (1) Census of India, 1991,

countries have initiated diet supplementation (2) Sample Registration Systenm (SRS) :
programmes and this must have helped in Statistical Report 2002, Registrar
Improving the nutritional standards. It is a wellI General, India, New Delhi.
known fact that malnutrition has been an (3) Economic Survey, 2010-11, Govt. of
important factor underlying high mortality India.
rate in the developing countries.
Before 1921, the growth of population
was insignificant. This was due to widespread
6. MORTALITY PATTERNS IN INDIA famines and the influenza epidemic of 1918
which killed about one million people in both
India is a representative of developing rural and urban areas. The death rate in 1918
COuntries where crude death rate (mortality) rose to an astonishing figure of 63 per thousand,
has traversed a longdistance from a very high though in the preceding decades of 1921-31and
level of over 40 per thousand in the early 1931-41 it was 36 and 33 per thousand
decades of twentieth century to around 7.3 per respectively. The decreasing trend of infant
 Populaton G
100
88° 92° 98°E
84° 38
76° 80°
68° 72°
36°
INDIA
Crude Death Rate
2010 32°

32°

-28°

24°
24°

20°
20°

16°

Crude Death Rate

(per 1000 persons)
8 and above

12° 6-8
124
below 6

8
8
200 200 400 600
72° 76° 89 84° Kilometres
88° 92° E

Fig. 5.4: Distribution of

Crude Death Rate in India.
mortality is another
contributingto low death inmportant
rate in the factor 2000 and whereas in 1910-11 it was 50 per
The infant
mortality rate which stoodcountry.
per thousand at 218 thousand live births. The main causes ofinfant
live births during
come down to 68 per mortality include malnutrition,
thousand 1910-20 had
during 1990 diarrhoea, pneumonia, infections and
parasitic
diseases.
 84° 88° 92° 96°E
68° 72° .76° 80°
36°
36°

INDIA
Crude Death Rate (Rural)
2010 32°
-32°

-28°

24°

20°
-20°

16°
Crude Death Rate
(per 1000 persons)
8& above

6- 8 12°
12°
below 6

8°
8°
400 600
200 200
Kilometres
84° 88° 92°E
72° 76°

in Rural Areas of ndia

Fig. 5.5: Distribution of Crude Death Rate
developing countries in and 400 per thousand women of reproductive
Like other many (15-45 year). Due to mass poverty and
maternal mortality (mortality among ages
India also inadequacy of medical facilities, inadequate pre
pregnancy
females of reproductive ages due tobetween 300 natal and post-natal care is largely responsible
reasons))is also high which ranges
 68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92°
36°
96°E
36°
INDIA
Crude Death Rate (Urban)
32° 2010 32°

-28°

24°
24°

20°
20°

16°

Crude Death Rate

(per 1000 persons)
8 & above
12°
6 -8
12°
3-6
below 3
8
8°
200 200 400 600
72° 769 Kilometres
84° 88° 92° E

Fig. 5.6:Distribution of CrudeDeath

Rate in Urban Areas of lndia.
for high maternal mortality. With the
With improvement and
in diet, hospital and midwifery
facilities it is Sundaram, 2007, 45).
standards
and
reasonable to expect that infant and maternal improvement in living expected
mortalities willregister a further decline(Datta that availability medical facilities,
of it is and
rate
crude death rate, infant mortality
 Mortality 103

maternal mortality rate will decline Punjab. The regions with crude death rate
considerably. below 7.0 per 1000 in descending order are
Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,
Regional Pattern of Mortality Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Goa,
Lakshadweep, Uttarakhand and West Bengal.
Table 5.4 reveals statewise crude death
rates for year 2010. Crude death rate ranges (3) Regions of Low Mortality
from the minimum of 3.6 (Nagaland) and The states and union territories with
maximum of 25.5 (Maharashtra) per 1000 Crude death rate below 6.0 per 1000 persons
persons. Accordingly to crude death rates, all
the states and union territories may be are included in this category. These political
arranged in following three groups : units are 12 in number. Nagaland had the
lowest crude death rate (3.6) in the country
(1) Regions of high mortality (8 per followed by Chandigarh (3.9), Delhi (4.2) and
thousand and above), Manipur (4.2). Nagaland, Manipur and
(2) Regions of medium mortality (6-8 Mizoram in North-East India are Christianity
per thousand), dominated states while Chandigarh and Delhi
(3) Regions of low mortality (below 6 are highly urbanized areas where mortality
per thousand). rate is very low. Other political units of this
group are Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim,
Tripura, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar
(1) Regions of High Mortality Haveli, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Six states of India registered crude death
rate 8 and above per 1000 persons in 2010. The Infant Mortality
highest death rate of the country is recorded
for Maharashtra (25.5 per 1000 persons) Infant mortality rate (IMR) refers average
followed by Odisha (8.6), Madhya Pradesh (8.3), mortality among children below one year of age.
Assam (8.2), Uttar Pradesh (8.1) and It is greatly influenced by socio-economic and
Chattisgarh (8.0). The data about Maharashtra health conditions of the people. It is widely used
is misleading the fact. The high death rate in as an indicator of total health conditions and
other states of this group is mainly governed living standards of a society. Generally infant
by high infant mortality rate ranging between mortality decreases with socio-cultural and
79 (Chhattisgarh) and 96 (Odisha). It is economic growth of population. The infant
noticeable that mortality in rural areas is mortality rate for males and females may be
considerably higher than those of urban areas. different.
Table 5.5 shows the statewise infant
(2) Regions of Medium Mortality mortality rate for years 2000 and 2013. The
infant mortality rate per 1000 live births was
About half (17 in number) of the states 68 in 2000 which declined to 40 in 2013. Most of
and union territories of the country are the states and union territories of India have
included in this category, having crude death experienced considerable decline in their infant
rates from 6.0 to 8,0 per 1000 persons. Of these, mortality rate during 2000-2013. At present 4
8 states and union territories have crude death states of the country have highest infant
rates below 8.0 but not less than 7.0. These mortality rates (50 and above). The highest
political units in descending order are infant mortality is recorded in Assam and
Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh (54) followed by Odisha (51)
Puducherry, Karnataka, Kerala, Jharkhand and and Uttar Pradesh (50).
104
Population Geography

68° 72 76° 80° 84° 88°

36° 92°
96°E
38
INDIA
Infant Mortality Rate
32° 2013
32°

-28°

24°
24°

20°
20°4

16°

Infant Mortality Rate

(per 1000 births)
below 15
12° 15 - 30
12°
30 - 45

45 & above

8°
200 200 8°
400 600

72° 76°
Kilometres
84°
88° 92° E
Fig. 5.7 Distribution of
Infant Mortality Rate in India.
 Mortality 105

The lowest infant mortality rate is fountl 13. Jharkhand 7.0 7.4 5.4
in Goa (9) followed by Manipur (10), Kerala (12), 14. Punjab 7.0 7.7 5.8
Puducherry (17), Nagaland (18) and Daman and 15. Himachal Pradesh 6.9 7.2 4.2
Diu (20). Other states and union territories have 16. Arunachal Pradesh 6.8 7.0 5.6
infant mortality rate between 20 and 50 per
thousand births. 17. Haryana 6.6 7.0 5.6
18. Rajasthan 6.7 6.9 6.0

Rural-Urban Differentials 19. Gujarat 6.7 7.5 5.5

20. Goa 6.6 8.1 5.7
In India like other developing countries, 21. Lakshadweep 6.4 6.1 6.7
the urban areas display lower mortality rates 22. Uttarakhand 6.3 6.7 5.1
in comparison to rural areas. In rural areas 23. West Bengal 6.0 6.0 6.3
crude death rate was 8 per 1000 while the 24. Bihar 5.9 6.9 2.3
corresponding figure for the urban areas was 6 25. Jammu & Kashmir 5.7 5.9 4.7
per 1000 in 2010. Thus, the death rate in urban
26. Sikkim 5.6 5.9 3.8
areas is lower than that in rural areas because
the facilities of medical and health services in 27. Tripura 5.0 4.8 5.7

India are concentrated mnostly in urban areas. 28. Daman & Diu 4.9 4.9 4.8
Crude death rates in rural and urban areas may 29. Dadra & Nagar Haveli 4.7 5.1 3.3
be compared in any of the states or union 30. Mizoram 4.5 5.4 3.7
territories: Odisha (9.0 and 6.6), Madhya 31. Andaman & Nicobar 4.3 4.8 3.3
Pradesh (9.0 and 6.0), Uttar Pradesh (8.4 and 32. Delhi 4.2 4.6 4.1
6.2), Tamil Nadu (8.2 and 6.9), Karrnataka (8.1
and 5.4), Gujarat (7.5 and 5.5), Punjab (7.7 and 33. Manipur 4.2 4.3 4.0

5.8), Haryana (7.0 and 5.6) and Rajasthan (6.9 34. Chandigarh 3.9 3.7 3.9

and 6.0). 35. Nagaland 3.6 3.7 3.3

Table 5.4 Source : Regional Vital Statistics, Registrar General

of India, New Delhi.
Crude Death Rate per 1000 in India (2010)
Table 5.5
States/UT Total Rural Urban
1. Maharashtra 25.5 26.3 22.3
India: State-wise Infant Mortality Rate per
1000 Live Births (2000 & 2013)
2. Odisha 8.6 9.0 6.6
States/Union Territories 2000 2013
3. Madhya Pradesh 8.3 9.0 6.0
4. Assam 1. Assam 75 54
8.2 8.6 5.8
2. Madhya Pradesh 88 54
5. Uttar Pradesh 8.1 8.5 6.3
3. Odisha 96 51
6. Chhattisgarh 8.0 8.4 6.2
83 50
4. Uttar Pradesh
7. Meghalaya 7.9 8.4 5.6
79 47
8. Andhra Pradesh 7.6 8.6 5.4
5. Rajasthan
6. Meghalaya 58 47
9. Tamil Nadu 7.6 8.2 6.9
79 46
7. Chhattisgarh
10. Puducherry 7.4 8.2 7.0
8. Bihar 62 42
11, Karnataka 7.1 8.1 5.4 67 41
9. Haryana
12. Kerala 7.0 7.1 6.7 10. Andhra Pradesh 65 39
106 Population Geography
Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000
11. Jharkhand
12. Jamnu & Kashmir
70
50
37
37 1971
129 liv138ebirths) 8
62 36 110 T19
13. Gujarat 1981
60 35 80
6
14. Himachal Pradesh 1991 87
15. Mizoram 21 35 2000 68 74
32 4
16. Arunachal Pradesh 44
2010 40
17. Uttarakhand 50 32
Source : Sample Registration Data,
18. Karnataka
[Link] Bengal
57
51 31
31
General, India for 1971 to 2C10. Registrar
20. Dadra& Nagar Haveli 58 31
Causes of Decline of Mortality in India
21. Punjab 52 26

22. Tripura 41 26 Different types of mortality rates such

23. Maharashtra 48 24 crude death rate, infant mortality rate and
[Link] & Nicobar 23 24 maternalmortality rate continuously declinine
25. Lakshadweep 27 24 since Independence. Following are the man
26. Delhi 32 24 causes of decline in the motality rate in India:
27. Sikkim 49 22 1. Elimination of Famines : Famine
28. Tamil Nadu 51 21 denotes the extreme scarcity of food in a region
29. Chandigarh 28 21 mainly due to failure of crops or overpopulation.
30. Daman & Diu 48 20 Before Independence, recurrence of famines in
NA 18 India was a major cause of high mortality rate.
31. Nagaland
32. Puducherry 21 17
Since Independence during planned period the
33. Kerala 14 12
situation has considerably improved with the
success of Green Revolution in the second halt
34. Manipur 23 10
of1960s, the capacity of India's government to
35. Goa 23
cope with the conditions created by droughs
India 68 40 has increased many times and at present the
Source : Sample Registration System Statistical government is able to face the crisis without
Report, 2000 and 2013, Registrar General, food imports as it could gear up its distribution
Jndia. system to meat the challenge. The famines after
Table 5.,6 1950 have not occurred on a large scale and
Rural and Urban Trend of Mortality in India deaths due to droughts have been met tosuch
an extent that rare cases of starvation deaths
(1971-2010)
Year Total
have been reported.
Rural
Urban 2. Eradication of Epidemics : First often
te
Crude Death Rate (per 1000)
decades of twentieth century (1901-21)!has
recognised as the period Of stagnant
1971 14.9 16.4 9.7 been
1981 12.5 very
1991
13.7 7.8 population when the mortality rateandwas often
9.8 10,6 7.1
high (49 and 48 per thousand)
the fertility rate. The high mortality
2000
2010
8.5 9,3 6.3 outmatched
rate was the result of epidemics and
7.0
recurring rate began
famines. After this period mortality
 107
Mortality
to decline due to the increasing control over calculated for males and females in different
abnormal deaths caused by epidemics. The age-groups. It isexpressed as (1) number of
major causes of epidemics before 1950 were male deaths per 1000 male population in the
plague, cholera and snmallpox. Now plague and same age-group, and (2) number of female
smallpox are completely eradicated and cholera deaths per 1000 female population in the
is also nearly under control. In the late 1930s same age-group.
malaria accounted for about 16 percent of total Age SpecificMortality Rate: It is an improved
deaths in the country. A substantial share of form of crude mortality rate and is
the decline in mortality since 1950 must be calculated separately for different age
attributed to malaria control which shaved groups. It shows the ratio of total deaths
thousands of lives during last six decades. to total population in a specific age
3. Spread of Education and Medical group.
Facilities: The level of education and medical Cause Specific Mortality Rate: It expresses the
facilities in urban and rural both ares have mortality rate according to concerned cause.
considerably increased during planned period. It indicates the ratio between total number
Expanded medical facilities particularly of deaths due to any specific cause in one
immunisation against various preventable year or any definite period. The cause
diseases must have reduced the occurrence of specific death rate may also be calculated
various diseases. according to age and sex separately.
4. Improvement in Sanitation and Crude Death Rate ::Crude death rate expresses
Hygiene: After Independence the condition of the average number of deaths per 1000 of
sanitation and hygiene in urban and rural both population in aparticular year or any
areas have improved which have must helped period of time. It is the simplest and most
in lowering down the mortality rate in India. commonly used index of mortality. It givesa
Likewise, supplies of pure drinking water have crude figure and suffers from many
considerably improved not only in towns and deficiencies.
cities but who in rural areas. It is believed that Infant Mortality Rate: This index of mortalitv
such improvements have made some impact
provides average mortality among children
on the decline of mortality rate. below one year of age. It is widely used as
5. Improvement in Nutritional Level : an indicator of total health conditions and
Nutritional level is directly related with income living standards of a society. The infant
level and food supply. Unfortunately, there mortality rate generally tends to decrease
has been no visible improvement in the with socio-cultural and economic growth
nutritional level because of rapidly growing of population.
population, mass poverty, unemployment etc. the
Life Expectancy: Life expectancy expressesby a
But improving nutritional level may be average number of years to be
lived
definitely responsible for decline in mortality population group or society. It is usually
rate. calculations from
derived from the life table
Life
birth or from a particular age.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS as a
expectancy at birth is frequently used
whole
measure of mortality for the
denotes
Age and Sex Specific Mortality Rate: It It is population of a region.
sex-wise age-specificmortality rate.