The principle of closed-loop control technology
Objectives of closed-loop control technology
Our era has frequently been referred to as the age of automation. The reason for this
is the shifting of ever more control and monitoring functions to machines and
(nowadays primarily computer-assisted) instruments. Open-loop and closed-loop
control technology form the core of modern automation engineering. Although both
areas are practically identical in terms of their objectives, there is a definitive
differentiation between the basic principles used to achieve these goals. As we shall
demonstrate later, closed-loop technology tends to be the more elegant technical
solution - but inevitably entails a greater price in terms of engineering and
instrumentation.
In general, the aim of automatic control technology is to correct certain variables
(normally output variables of technical processes) to preset reference variables. The
variables being controlled (controlled variables) should on the one hand follow any
changes to the reference or set-point variables as closely as possible (good response
to set-point changes), and on the other hand resist as much as possible any
disturbances acting on the process (good disturbance response). In terms of the
response to set-point changes a distinction is drawn between fixed set-point control
and follow-up or servo control.
Fixed set-point control
If the output variable of a process is supposed to be kept at a fixed, i.e. constant value
over time, this is referred to as fixed set-point control. One technical example of this
operation is the task of keeping the speed of a machine at a constant, fixed value.
This function was already successfully achieved as early as 1769 by James Watt with
the aid of an automatic mechanical device, the so-called centrifugal governor. As
shown in the following graphic this device adjusted the supply of steam to a steam
engine in such a way that an almost constant engine speed was attained independent
of how much load the machine was subjected to.
Q1. What would be the effect of shifting the point of contact of the linking rod H to
the left or right? (increased or decreased)
Follow-up or servo control
If the reference variable, i.e. the variable that the output variable of the process is
supposed to follow, is not constant with respect to time, but is instead dynamic, then
this is referred to as a follow-up control problem. An example for servo or follow-up
control is course control when navigating a ship (e.g. when manovering through a
narrow channel). Depending on the natural course of the channel the set-point value
w for the ship’s course angle may need to be reset over and over again (see the
following illustration). By changing the rudder position (manipulated variable y) the
controller R effects an actual change in the course angle, i.e. the controlled variable
x, thus constantly adjusting the set-point course, so that the deviation between the
set-point and the actual course (error signal e) tends as much as possible toward
zero. Disturbances, e.g. effects from wind or water currents, arise as well.
Q2. After flushing, a toilet´s cistern should fill back up to the top. Does this operation
require fixed set-point or follow-up set-point control? (Yes or No)
The principle of open-loop control technology
Open-loop control versus closed-loop control
Both basic principles of automatic control technology - open-loop and closed-loop
control - pursue the same objective, namely how to influence a process for a desired
end. They differ, however, in their fundamental operating structure. This can be
demonstrated and clarified using the example of how to maintain a certain
temperature in a room.
Example of room temperature control
The following animation shows a representative control diagram for a room temperature control
system.
The way this control system works can be roughly described as follows:
• The room including the radiator constitutes the process to be influenced, the
so-called “controlled system”.
• The outdoor temperature z1 is measured via a thermometer and the signal is
supplied to the control unit S.
• Based on the outdoor temperature and the temperature set-point value, the
control unit then determines the valve setting (manipulated variable y).
• The valve setting results in either a greater or a lesser flow of heat. This leads
to a lesser or greater increase in room temperature x.
This relationship can be shown more clearly in the form of a so-called block circuit
diagram:
This block circuit diagram has the characteristic open-loop control structure for a
control process:
• Here we have an open-loop action process spanning one or more transfer
elements arranged in a sequence.
• The actual target variable of the control system (the indoor temperature in this
example) is not measured. The consequence of this is that the control unit does
not detect whether this variable deviates from the set-point and to that extent
cannot respond. This is the critical disadvantage of open-loop control.
• The control unit is generally set so that it can operate “reasonably” under
certain conditions. If these conditions are altered (e.g. by replacing the
radiator with a radiator of a different size), the system response deteriorates.
• If a disturbance arises (e.g. a window is opened, disturbance variable z2), the
control unit also does not register this. For that reason this leads to an
unimpeded drop in the temperature indoors.
Example of a car radio
In modern motor vehicles the volume of the radio is frequently adjusted as a function
of the speed of the vehicle, i.e. the engine rpm.
Q3. Car radio with automatic volume adaptation. Is this type of control an open-loop
control system? (Yes or No)
Principle of feedback (closed-loop control)
Example of closed-loop room temperature control
The objective of maintaining a certain temperature illustrated in the previous chapter
can also be achieved with closed-loop control instead of open-loop control. The
detailed process and control diagram is shown in the following animation.
This functions as follows:
• Again the room with radiator constitutes the process to be influenced, in this
case, it is called a closed-loop controlled system or simply system.
• A thermometer provides for constant measurement of the target indoor
temperature variable (controlled variable x). This is compared to the desired
set-point temperature (set-point value w). The difference between the two
variables is the so-called error signal e.
• The heating valve is now adjusted as a function of this error signal. This can
be performed manually (as in the image on the left) or automatically using the
controller R (partial image on the right). If the measured temperature value is
lower than the set-point value, the valve is opened even more, if it is larger,
the valve is closed more. This is how the actual value is corrected to approach
the set-point value.
These relationships are also much more clearly illustrated using a block circuit
diagram:
We can see that by just a slight modification to the control diagram for an open-loop
control system (moving the thermometer into the interior) a considerable
improvement has been achieved in the system's response. We now have a closed
sequence of actions with feedback of the controlled variable, a so-called closed
control loop. By implementing a constant comparison between the set-point and the
actual value, the controller immediately registers any deviation from the set-point
condition and can counteract this by performing the corresponding control action
(opening or closing of the valve). In the process it is completely irrelevant whether
these set-point value deviations (error signals) arise due to changes in the controlled
system itself (parameter variations) or on account of disturbances (e.g. opening of a
window or more sunlight through the window). This is the principle advantage of a
closed control loop over an open one. However, one disadvantage of a closed control
loop is that measurement of the controlled variable is always required, which in itself
leads to higher material costs (sensors). An open-loop control system does not
require controlled variable measurement (although the measurement of other
variables may be involved, as in the room temperature control system described
previously).
Control by human beings
Every day human beings actively control processes - normally without even being
conscious of it. The following illustration shows a person trying to adjust the water
in a bath to an amenable temperature.
Test
Q4. Which of the following statements are correct? (More than one answer may be
correct.)
o An open-loop control can compensate for parameter variations in the system.
o An open-loop control can compensate for disturbance variables affecting the
system.
o A closed-loop control system can compensate for parameter variations in the
system.
o A closed-loop control system can compensate for disturbance variables
affecting the system.
Q5. Which operating principle normally requires more investment?
o Open-loop control
o Closed-loop control
o Neither one nor the other
Q6. The following illustration shows as an example the process and control diagram
of a simple automatic level control system.
What happens when the valve in this closed-loop control system is opened wider?
o The liquid level in the tank rises.
o The liquid level in the tank falls.
Q7. The following illustration shows the operating principle of an automatic filler
nozzle at a petrol station. As soon as the liquid level of the tank reaches a certain
maximum level, the filler nozzle automatically switches off and the fuel flow into
the vehicle's tank is interrupted.
What principle does this involve?
o Open-loop control
o Closed-loop control
o Neither one nor the other