Research Methodology & IPR

23HMCC216

4th Semester

Module 1
Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

1. Apply the basic research principles and methodologies

2. Review the Literature, Technical Reading, Attributions and Citations
3. Understand Various Intellectual Property Rights
4. Draft patent application

Syllabus: Module 1
Module 1:
Introduction, Literature Review and Technical Reading
• Meaning of Research, Objectives of Research, Motivation in Research, Types of
Research, Research Approaches, Significance of Research, Research Methods
versus Methodology, Research and Scientific Method, Importance of Knowing
How Research is Done, Research Process, Criteria of Good Research

• New and Existing Knowledge, Analysis and Synthesis of Prior Art, Bibliographic
Databases, Effective Search: The Way Forward, Introduction to Technical Reading,
Conceptualizing Research, Critical and Creative Reading, Taking Notes While
Reading, Reading Mathematics and Algorithms, Reading a Datasheet
 Meaning of Research

Meaning of Research
• Research refers to a search for knowledge.
• One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic.
• In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
• The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the
meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
• In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concern in
generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research.
• The term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts
and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
• Research refers to a careful, well-defined (or redefined), objective, and systematic
method of search for knowledge, or formulation of a theory that is driven by
inquisitiveness (curiosity/ questioning/ attentiveness) for that which is unknown
and useful on a particular aspect so as to make an original contribution to expand
the existing knowledge base.

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 Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulate
research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or

a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research
studies);

2. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);

3. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such

studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Motivation In Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or
more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions,

curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking
and awakening, and the like may as well motivate people to perform research
operations.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH The basic types of :research are as follows

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical:

2. Applied vs. Fundamental:
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical:
5. Some Other Types of Research:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive

This type of research includes surveys and fact- finding enquiries of different kinds. The
major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure
such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data.
Analytical research:
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
[Link] vs. Fundamental:
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’ sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research.”Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of Fundamental research. Similarly, research studies,
concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about
human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at
certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an
example of applied research.
 Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of
scientific knowledge.

[Link] vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.

• For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour
(i.e., why people think or do certain things),
• we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative
research.
• Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.

[Link] vs. Empirical:

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary
to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to
stimulate the production of desired information.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical
studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis.
 Some Other Types of Research:
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on
the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or
longitudinal research.
In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting
research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment
in which it is to be carried out.

• Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time.
• Research can also be classified as conclusion- oriented and decision-oriented.
• While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.

Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own
inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a
scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operations under their control.

Also, some other types such as

• Exploratory or formulative research: This type of research is typically used to gain a
better understanding of a problem or issue. For example, an engineer might conduct
exploratory research to better understand the causes of a machine failure.
• Descriptive research: This type of research is used to describe the current state of
affairs. For example, an engineer might conduct descriptive research to determine the
average lifespan of a certain type of bearing.
• Diagnostic research: This type of research is used to identify the causes of a problem.
For example, an engineer might conduct diagnostic research to determine why a certain
type of engine is not performing as expected.
• Hypothesis-testing research: This type of research is used to test a hypothesis. For
example, an engineer might conduct hypothesis-testing research to determine if a new
design for a wind turbine blade will increase its efficiency.
Research Approaches:
There are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the
qualitative approach. The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form
which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
This approach can be further sub-classified into Inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research.
The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population.
This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned
or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population
has the same characteristics.
Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within
which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of
the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.
The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications refers
to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process.
Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation
is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.”

Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future
conditions. Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the
form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques
of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these
are explained at length in chapters that follow.
 The significance of research:
It can be understood keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.

Significance of Research

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads
to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of
which the significance of research can well be understood.
Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related
to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
The increasingly complex nature of business and government has focused attention
on the use of research in solving operational [Link], as an aid to
economic policy, has gained added importance, both for government and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system. For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of
the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these
needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field
where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative policies
and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are
considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market
for the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and
sales.
Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and
analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimization or
of profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization problems.

Motivational research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly

concerned with market characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the
determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market) behaviour. All
these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible for
taking business decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors has
great utility in business.

Research in social sciences

It is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for
what it can contribute to practical concerns.
“This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in the case of social
science.
On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body of principles
that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions.
On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked
to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.”
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of
knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake
of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.
Research Methods versus Methodology

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are

used for conduction of research.
Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the
course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods.
Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a
solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the
problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
• In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
• The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
• The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the
accuracy of the results obtained.
• Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are
generally taken as the analytical tools of research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In
it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying
his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the
researcher to know not only t he research met hods/techniques

Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain

indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also
need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not,
and what would they mean and indicate and why.
Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques
and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not.
All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for
his problem as the same may
 Research m et h od o l og y ha s ma n y dimensions and research methods do constitute a
part of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of
research methods.
Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods
but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research
study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not
using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher himself or by others.

• Why a research study has been undertaken?,

• How the research problem has been defined?
• In what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated?
• what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted?
• why particular technique of analysing data has been used ?and
• A host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research
methodology concerning a research problem or study.

Research and Scientific Method

• Research, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur.
• Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than particular results;
he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more
complicated and general situations.”
• Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations.
• The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
• Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation,
by others. logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying
proportions.”
• In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so
that their possible alternatives become clear.
• Experimentation and survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of
scientific method.
 The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated
as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only
adequate and correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for
use in testing the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as
scientific theories.

Scientific method implies an objective, logical

and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to
ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the
investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal
consistency.

Importance of Knowing How Research is Done

• The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in
gathering material and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work
when required
• Also gives training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular
problems, in the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in
recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it.
In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research stems from the following
considerations:
by others.
• (i) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the
importance of knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious.
• The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new research
worker and enables him to do better research.
• It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field
objectively.
• Hence, those aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of using
research techniques and must thoroughly understand the logic behind them.
 (ii) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to
evaluate and use research results with reasonable confidence.

The knowledge of research methodology is helpful in various fields such as

• government or
• business administration,
• community development and
• social work
Where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research
results for action.
(iii) When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction
of acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at
the world and of judging every day experience.
Accordingly, it enables use to make intelligent decisions concerning problems
facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of
research methodology provides tools to took at things in life objectively.

(iv) In this scientific age, all of us are in many

ways consumers of research results and we can use them intelligently provided we are
able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which they have been obtained. The
knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them and
enables him to take rational decisions.

Research Process
• Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry
out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
• The chart shown below in Figure.1 well illustrates a research process.
by others.
• The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related
activities, as shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather
than following a strictly prescribed sequence.
Following order concerning various steps provides useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process:

1. Formulating the research problem:

2. Extensive literature survey:
3. Development of working hypotheses:
4. Preparing the research design:
5. Determining sample design:
6. Collecting the data:
7. Execution of the project:
8. Analysis of data:
9. Hypothesis-testing:
10. Generalizations and interpretation:
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of
research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate
to relationships between variables.
• The researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide
the general area of interest or aspect of a subject- matter that he would like to
inquire into.
• Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved.
• Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working
formulation of the problem can be set up.
• The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus,
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
• Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical Point of view

2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a

• brief summary of it should be written down.
• It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write
a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research
Board for approval.
• At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem.
• For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to.
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must
be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
• In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
• The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be
carefully studied.
 3. Development of working hypotheses:
• After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences.
• As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly
important since they provide the focal point for research.
• They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data
and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis.
• In most types of research, the development of working
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested.
• The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track.
• It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the
problem.
• It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to
be used
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the
following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible
trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a
limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight
into the practical aspects of the problem.

hypothesis plays an important role.

 4. Preparing the research design:
• The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will
be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted.
• The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information.
• In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
• But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
• Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
• Exploration,
• Description,
• Diagnosis, and
• Experimentation.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs or formal designs out
of which the researcher must select one for his own project. The preparation of the research
design, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.

hypothesis plays an important role.

5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any
field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. The researcher must decide
the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In
other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.’ or ‘population’.
 • A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
• (i) Deliberate sampling:
• (ii) Simple random sampling:
• (iii) Systematic sampling:
• (iv) Stratified sampling:
• (v) Quota sampling:
• (vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling:
• (vii) Multi-stage sampling:
• (viii) Sequential sampling:

6. Collecting the data:

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably
in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the
researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.
• If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative
measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth
contained in his hypothesis.
• But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the
following ways:

• By observation:
• Through personal interview:
• Through telephone interviews:
• By mailing of questionnaires:
• Through schedules:
• The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking
into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry,
finanical resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
 Execution of the project:

• Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process.

• If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable.
• The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and
in time.

• If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can

be readily machine-processed.
• In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded.
• If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made
for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to
the task of analyzing them.
• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified
data are put in the form of tables.
• The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few
manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
• Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories.
• Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.

9. Hypothesis-testing:
• After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position
to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier.
• Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
• This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
• Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test,
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it.
 10. Generalizations and interpretation:
o If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
o As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations.
o If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory.
o It is known as interpretation.
o The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further researches.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare
the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care
keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
• the preliminary pages;
• the main text,
• the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed
by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:
1. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and
an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope
of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
2. Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings
and recommendations in non- technical language. If the findings are extensive, they
should be summarized.
3. Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
4. Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
 2. Report should be written in a concise and
objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there
may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present
the information nmore clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various
constraints experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is
that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them.
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
1. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
2. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
3. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

1. The analysis of data should be sufficiently

adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
2. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research
and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
3. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,
has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

The qualities of a good research is as under:

1. Good research is systematic:

 It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
 Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking
but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.
 2. Good research is logical:

• This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and
the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research.
• Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion
which follows from that very premise.
• In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.

3. Good research is empirical:

It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real

situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.

4. Good research is replicable:

This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

• New and Existing Knowledge,

• Analysis and Synthesis of Prior Art,
• Bibliographic Databases,
• Effective Search:
• The Way Forward,
• Introduction to Technical Reading,
• Conceptualizing Research,
• Critical and Creative Reading,
• Taking Notes While Reading,
• Reading Mathematics and Algorithms,
• Reading a Datasheet

……………………………………………………
Reference:
1. C.R Kothari “Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques” 2nd Edition,
Newage international, 2009

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New and Existing Knowledge
• The interpretation of new knowledge heavily depends on the researcher's background
and perception, which can range from indifference to excitement. The significance of
new knowledge is often established by identifying existing problems in the field and
demonstrating the gaps in the current understanding.
• Existing knowledge is essential for highlighting the existence of a problem and its
importance. Researchers use the context, significance, originality, and tools from existing
literature to build a case for their work. This knowledge is gathered through extensive
reading and literature review, spanning both foundational textbooks and recent research
papers.
• Textbooks provide established knowledge and foundational background, while
research papers focus on presenting new, cutting-edge information. Research papers
assume prior knowledge and can be challenging to understand without a solid foundation.
Researchers often need to refer to various sources to interpret the content of research
papers effectively.
• A thorough literature review is crucial to demonstrate how a research piece builds
upon existing work. It provides a strong foundation for advancing knowledge, identifying
gaps, and suggesting new research directions. A good literature survey is concept-focused
rather than author-focused.

Analysis and Synthesis of Prior Art

• After collecting relevant sources, researchers engage in breaking down and
synthesizing each article's content to construct a interconnected literature
review.

• This process involves understanding the articles' hypotheses, models,

experimental conditions, and drawing connections between different pieces of
information.

• The goal is to identify unsolved issues, flaws in existing models, and propose
novel ideas

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• Analysis and synthesis of prior art" refers to the process of thoroughly
examining existing information related to a particular technology or invention
(prior art), breaking down its key components and features, and then combining
those insights to identify potential gaps or opportunities for a new innovation,
essentially creating a comprehensive understanding of what already exists to
inform the development of something novel.

Steps in Analyzing Literature

1. Understanding the Hypothesis: Grasp the central research question or
hypothesis of each article. This helps establish the context and purpose of the
research.

2. Understanding Models and Experimental Conditions: look into the models and
experimental setups used in the articles. This understanding helps in comparing
and contrasting findings and methodologies.

3. Making Connections: Identify common themes, similarities, and differences

across the articles. This step involves synthesizing the information to derive
meaningful insights.

4. 4. Comparing and Contrasting: Compare various pieces of information,

methodologies, and results across different sources. This comparison can reveal trends,
contradiction, or gaps in the existing knowledge.

5. 5. Finding Strong Points and Loopholes: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
each article. Identify areas where the research is robust and where there might be
limitations or areas that need further investigation.

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 Key aspects of the process:
1. Identifying relevant prior art:
This involves searching through various sources like patents, scientific
publications, trade journals, product manuals, and even publicly available
demonstrations to gather information about existing technologies that are
similar to the concept being investigated.
2. Detailed analysis:
Once the relevant prior art is identified, each piece is carefully examined to
understand its key features, functionalities, limitations, and potential
advantages.
3. Categorization and comparison:
The analyzed prior art is then categorized based on similar functionalities or
technical aspects, allowing for direct comparison between different
technologies to highlight similarities and differences.
4. Critical evaluation:
Beyond simply listing features, the analysis should involve a critical
evaluation of each prior art piece, considering its strengths and weaknesses,
potential drawbacks, and overall effectiveness in addressing the problem at
hand.
5. Synthesis:
By combining the insights gained from the analysis, the researcher can identify areas
where existing technologies could be improved, gaps in the market, or
opportunities to create a new solution by combining elements from different prior
art sources.

Bibliographic Databases:
Bibliographic databases serve as essential resources for researchers by offering
access to citation-related information and abstracts of scholarly research
articles. These databases provide a valuable tool for searching and retrieving
relevant literature, aiding in the exploration of new ideas and addressing
research problems.

 Web of Science
Web of Science, formerly known as ISI or Thomson Reuters, is a
comprehensive platform encompassing multiple databases and specialized
tools for scholarly research. It provides researchers with access to a wide range
of scholarly materials, making it an invaluable resource for academic
exploration.

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 Web of Science is a powerful tool that empowers researchers to navigate
scholarly literature effectively. Its diverse databases, specialized tools, and
search features allow for precise exploration of topics of interest. By offering
features such as cited reference searches and detailed result information, Web of
Science facilitates informed decision making and efficient utilization of research
time. This platform is an invaluable asset for researchers seeking to access,
analyze, and contribute to scholarly knowledge.

 Google and Google Scholar

 Google and Google Scholar are valuable starting points for research due to their
accessibility and potential to find freely available information. However, both
platforms come with limitations and challenges, leading researchers to seek
alternative strategies for obtaining relevant and accurate sources of information.

 "Black Box" Nature: Google searches the entire internet without quality
control, making it difficult to determine the reliability and source of results.

 Limited Search Functionality: Google offers limited search and refinement

options, potentially leading to overwhelming or irrelevant results.

 Google's Limitations:
 Mixed Scholarly Content: Some results may appear scholarly but lack
credibility upon closer examination.

 Incomplete Coverage: Not all publishers make their content available to

Google Scholar.

 Limited Search Capabilities: Google Scholar provides fewer search options

for refining results.

Search Operators for Improved Results:

1. OR Operator: Broadens searches by capturing synonyms or variant spellings.
Example: Synchronous OR asynchronous captures results with either term.
2. Brackets/Parentheses: Group OR'd synonyms of a concept while combining
them with another. Example: RAM (synchronous OR asynchronous).
3. Quotation Marks: Narrows searches by finding words together as a phrase.
Example: "Texas Instruments" narrows results to that specific phrase.
4. Site Operator: Limits searches to a specific domain or website. Example: site:
[Link] focuses on results from that site.

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5. Filetype Operator: Filters results based on a specific file extension. Example:
filetype: pdf narrows results to PDF documents.
6. Search Tools Button: Provides additional options like date limitation.

Seeking Scholarly Resources:

1. Academic Databases: Databases offer specialized search capabilities and better
quality control. They provide access to journal articles, conference proceedings,
and scholarly resources.
2. Advantages of Databases: Databases offer more relevant, focused results due
to better quality control and search functionality.
3. Database Selection: Choose databases based on subject area, date coverage,
and publication type.
4. Search Techniques Consistency: While database interfaces vary, the core
search techniques remain consistent

Key Features and Usage:

 Search Capabilities: Web of Science offers an extensive search functionality,
allowing researchers to explore scholarly materials within specific topics of
interest. The search can be refined using various fields such as title, topic,
author, address, and more.

 Sorting and Refining: Researchers can sort search results by factors such as
the number of citations or publication date. The "Refine Results" panel on the
left enables narrowing down results using keywords, phrases in quotation
marks, material type (e.g., peer-reviewed journal articles), date, language, and
more.

Enhanced Search Strategies: The platform encourages effective search

strategies by suggesting actions such as putting quotes around phrases, adding
more keywords, and considering alternate word endings. Researchers are also
advised to break down search concepts and use the "OR" operator to connect
alternate search terms

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Benefits of Bibliographic Databases:
1. Abstracting and Indexing Services: Bibliographic databases act as abstracting and
indexing services, compiling essential details about research articles. They include
information such as citations, abstracts, authors, affiliations, and keywords.
2. Access to Scholarly Literature: These databases facilitate access to a wide range of
scholarly research articles, helping researchers stay informed about the latest
developments in their field.
3. Search Capabilities: Researchers can perform advanced searches using keywords,
authors, publication years, and other criteria to find relevant articles quickly.
4. Comprehensive Coverage: Bibliographic databases cover a vast array of disciplines
and subjects, providing a comprehensive repository of research materials.
5. Quality Research: Simultaneous searches across multiple databases help
researchers avoid overreliance on a single source and mitigate limitations
associated with individual databases.
Challenges and Solutions:
1. Database Limitations: Relying solely on one database can result in biased or
incomplete results. Researchers might encounter limitations in terms of
coverage, access, or search capabilities.
2. Intrinsic Shortcomings: Each database may have its own limitations, such as
biased indexing, incomplete coverage of certain fields, or inconsistencies in
abstract quality
Effective Search: The Way Forward:
1. Scholarly publications are authored by researchers in specific fields,
undergo peer review, and target experts and students in the field.
2. While engineering researchers often refer to scholarly journals and peer-
reviewed sources, useful content can also be found in popular publications
for broader readership.
3. A comprehensive search involves using various search tools and
considering the type and availability of information.
Introduction to Technical Reading:
1. Research methodology encompasses the systematic processes and
techniques employed to identify, select, process, and analyze information
about a topic. It provides a structured approach to conducting research,
ensuring the validity and reliability of findings.
2. Technical reading, within the context of research methodology, involves the
critical analysis of scholarly articles, technical reports, and other specialized
documents. This skill is essential for researchers to comprehend complex
information, evaluate methodologies, and synthesize data from various
sources.

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Effective technical reading requires:
1. Analytical Skills: Assessing arguments, identifying assumptions, and
evaluating evidence.
2. Attention to Detail: Noticing specific data points, methodological nuances,
and subtle distinctions in the text.
3. Domain Knowledge: Understanding the specific terminology, concepts, and
frameworks pertinent to the field of study.
4. By honing technical reading skills, researchers can critically engage with
existing literature, identify gaps in knowledge, and build upon previous
work to advance their field.
Introduction to Technical Reading:
Staying updated with research outcomes is crucial for active researchers. However,
the abundance of literature can be overwhelming. A strategic and efficient approach
to reading research papers is essential for effective research.
Strategies for Reading Research Papers:
1. Selective Reading: Not all papers are worth reading in-depth. An initial
skimming helps decide whether a paper is worth further exploration.
2. Skimming Process:

a. Read the title and keywords: Determine if the paper is interesting and relevant.

b. Read the abstract: Gain an overview of the paper's content and relevance.

c. Jump to conclusions: Assess if the paper aligns with your research goals.

d. Review figures, tables, and captions: Quickly understand the key results.

3. In-Depth Reading:

a. Introduction: Understand the background and purpose of the study.

b. Results and Discussion: Focus on the core findings and their interpretation.

c. Experimental Setup/Modeling: Read if interested in detailed methodology

4. Consider Author Reputation: Evaluate not only the content but also the
reputation of the authors who produced the knowledge.

5. Staying Updated: Continuously search for relevant literature and remain up-
todate with developments in the field

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Conceptualizing Research:
• Research objectives must center on new knowledge and gain recognition from
the research community.

• While originality and significance are key, a solvable approach is crucial.

• Conceptualizing research involves aligning a significant problem, necessary

knowledge, and applicable methods, which requires expertise in the field.

Characteristics of a Good Research Objective:

1. Novelty and Significance: Research objectives should contribute new insights
and be recognized as valuable by peers.

2. Feasibility: Objectives should be achievable within available resources and

methodologies.
Conceptualizing Research at Different Levels:
1. Ph.D. Level and Higher:

a. Expertise Requirement: Developing a research objective demands expertise at

the edge of knowledge.

b. Immersion in Literature: Continuously reading and understanding existing

literature is crucial for combining problem significance, existing knowledge,
and potential methods.

2. Smaller Scope Projects (Master’s Thesis):

a. Expert Guidance: Researcher may lack the time to become an expert. Supervisor's
expertise helps formulate research objectives.
b. Efficient Literature Navigation: Established researchers guide towards essential
literature for a focused understanding.
c. Balancing Building and Knowledge Creation:
d. Engineer's Perspective: Engineers often prefer tangible outcomes. However,
research's primary goal is new knowledge creation.
e. Building vs. Knowledge: Even unique creations can be labeled as lacking research
value if they are intuitive and expected from competent engineers.

Critical and Creative Reading:

• Reading research papers is a process that involves critical evaluation,
skepticism, and a willingness to question assumptions.

• A reader should actively engage with the content, assessing the validity of
arguments, considering alternative solutions, and evaluating the data presented.

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Critical Reading:
Questioning Assumptions: Challenge assumptions made by the authors. Are they
reasonable, and do they align with the problem being addressed?

• Alternative Solutions: Consider if there are simpler or more effective solutions

that were overlooked.

• Limitations and Missing Links: Identify both stated and ignored limitations of
the proposed solution. Determine if any essential connections or steps are missing.

• Assumptions and Logic: Assess the logical flow of the paper and the soundness
of assumptions made.

• Data Evaluation: Scrutinize the data presented. Is it relevant and interpreted

correctly? Could alternative datasets provide stronger support?

Judgmental and Creative Approaches:

• Judgmental Approach: Employ a judgmental mindset to critically identify
errors and inconsistencies in the paper.
• Boldness in Judgment: Be willing to make bold judgments about the paper's
content, assumptions, and conclusions.
• Flexibility in Judgment: Be open to revising judgments based on new insights
gained from careful reading.

Creative Reading:
• Positive Approach: Creatively explore the paper's content to discover new ideas,
applications, or generalizations that may have been missed by the authors.
• Extending Work: Look for opportunities to extend the research by identifying
potential areas for further investigation.
• Practical Challenges: Consider if modifications to the proposed solution could
introduce practical challenges or lead to valuable new research directions.

Challenges in Critical and Creative Reading:

• Critical vs. Creative: Critical reading aims to identify errors, while creative
reading involves seeking new opportunities and insights.

• Relative Difficulty: Creative reading can be more challenging than critical

reading, requiring a proactive and open-minded approach.

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 Taking Notes While Reading:
• Strong reading skills are fundamental for effective research writing.

• The transition from reading to writing is facilitated by the practice of taking

notes during and after the reading process.

• Note-taking helps researchers remember and utilize valuable information,

ensuring a smoother transition from reading to writing

Importance of Note-Taking:
• Preservation of Knowledge: Taking notes prevents valuable insights from being
forgotten over time.

• Highlighting Key Content: Important concepts, definitions, and explanations are

marked for later reference.

• Capturing Questions and Criticisms: Queries and criticisms are documented,

aiding critical analysis and potential research directions.

• Enhancing Recall: Notes help in quickly revisiting and recalling content during
the writing phase.

Methods of Note-Taking:
• Marginal Annotations: Researchers often write down notes in the margins of
paper copies or digitally using specialized tools.

• Content Highlighting: Key concepts, definitions, and noteworthy passages are

highlighted for quick reference.

• Questions and Critiques: Noting questions, concerns, and critiques helps

engage deeply with the material.

• Summary Sentences: Concluding the reading with a few sentences

summarizing the paper's contributions is a beneficial practice.

• Effective note-taking during the reading process enhances a researcher's ability

to transition from reading to writing. Noting key content, questions, and
criticisms aids in maintaining the integrity of the knowledge acquired.

• Summarizing a paper's contributions and assessing its technical merit are

important skills that flourish with experience and engagement with existing
literature.

• By honing these skills, researchers optimize their reading efforts to produce

well-informed and impactful research writing.

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Reading Mathematics and Algorithms :
• Mathematics serves as the foundational framework for the advancement and
growth of engineering research and practice.

• It plays a pivotal role in deriving proofs, developing algorithms, and creating

the theoretical foundation of technical papers.

• While mathematical content may appear daunting, diligent reading and

understanding of mathematical derivations are essential for comprehending the
core of any technical research paper.

Importance of Mathematical Derivations and Proofs:

• Core of Technical Papers: Mathematical derivations and proofs form the heart
of technical papers, providing the foundation for novel concepts and
innovations.

• In-depth Understanding: Meticulous reading of mathematical content

enhances the researcher's grasp of the problem, solution, and underlying
principles.

• Sound Understanding: In-depth comprehension of proofs and algorithms after

identifying paper relevance fosters a solid grasp of the authors' attempted
solution.

Implementation of Algorithms:
• Verification and Validation: Implementation of complex algorithms using
programming languages helps identify errors and validate their functionality.

• Real-World Application: Practical implementation reveals the feasibility of

algorithms and uncovers potential issues that might not be apparent in theory.

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Importance of Quick Coding:
• Algorithm Verification: Rapid coding and implementation can validate the
correctness of algorithms.

• Practical Application: Practical coding unveils real-world challenges and

discrepancies that may not be evident from theory alone.
• Mathematics is the backbone of engineering research, providing the basis for
proofs, algorithms, and theoretical frameworks. Thorough reading and
understanding of mathematical content, along with selective skimming of
technical sections, ensure comprehensive comprehension of research papers.

• Practical implementation of algorithms through coding serves as a vital step to

verify their correctness and applicability. By embracing mathematical rigor and
practical coding, researchers can effectively bridge theory and practice,
contributing to the advancement of engineering knowledge and innovation.

Reading a Datasheet:
• In various engineering fields, researchers encounter diverse types of documents
that are crucial for understanding, designing, and incorporating specific
components or parts. For example, mechanical and civil engineers would need
to read drawings related to mechanical parts and buildings.

• Datasheets, particularly in electronics, serve as instruction manuals for

electronic components and play a pivotal role in circuit design, debugging, and
integration.

Importance of Datasheets:
Instruction Manuals for Components: Datasheets provide comprehensive details
about electronic components, including their functionalities, specifications, and
usage instructions.

• Design and Debugging: Researchers utilize datasheets to design circuits, debug

existing circuits, and ensure proper component integration.

• Performance Analysis: Datasheets offer insights into component performance

under varying conditions, enabling researchers to optimize circuit design.

35
Reading Datasheets:
Initial Skimming: Begin with an initial skimming to assess the relevance of the
datasheet to the research task at hand.

• Functional Block Diagram: Review the functional block diagram to understand

the internal functions and connections of the component.

• Pinout and Physical Layout: Examine the pinout to identify the physical location of
pins, ensuring correct placement in the circuit.

• Graphs and Performance Data: Study graphs depicting performance against

variables like supply voltage and temperature. Note safe operating regions for
reliable functioning.

• Truth Tables: Understand truth tables detailing input-output relationships, aiding in

configuring the component correctly.

• Timing Diagrams: Analyze timing diagrams to grasp data transmission and reception
speed and patterns.

• Package Dimensions: Note accurate package dimensions, which are vital for proper
PCB layout.

Benefits of Reading Datasheets:

Efficiency and Time Savings: Thoroughly reading a component's datasheet provides

insights that can lead to shortcuts and efficient solutions, saving time in the long run.

• Informed Decision-Making: When choosing components for a research project,

detailed knowledge from datasheets helps researchers make informed decisions.

• Circuit Reliability: Properly understanding datasheets ensures that components are

used within specified parameters, enhancing circuit reliability.

36