MUD FACTS

Written By
Raafat Hammad
 HYDRODYNAMICS:
Viscosity of Fluids:
All fluids exhibit a certain resistance to flow, In general terms, a fluid is often described as being thick or thin.
A thick fluid crude oil has a high viscosity than thin fluid such as water.
In general viscosity is defined as the relationship between the shear stress (flow pressure) and the shear rate
(flow rate), shear stress and shear rate cause deformation of mud matter and thus affect the flow property of the
drilling fluid.

1. Shear stress:

It can b defined as the force required to overcome the fluid resistance to flow divided by the area that force
acting on.
Shear stress (t) =force applied (dynes) / A (cm2)
= dunes / cm2
Where: A is the surface area subjected to stress.

2. Shear rate:

It can be defined as the relative viscosity of the fluid layers, or elements divided by their normal separation
distance.
Shear rate (y) = V (cm/sec) / H (cm) = sec-1

FIGURE

Assume that two flat plates are placed parallel too each other, at 1 cm apart the top plat is free to move, while
the bottom plat is fixed , the space between the two plates is filled with fluid . So if a force is then applied to
the top plate, so that it moves with a constant velocity of 1 cm /sec, that force will be transmitted to the fluid,
thus causing the layers within to move also but with different rates. The layers that is close to the moving plate
will move approximately with the same velocity of the plat, while the movement of the force that is transmitted
through the layers diminishes until the movement at the fixed plat is nearly equal zero.
Thus viscosity can be defined as a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow.
Viscosity = shear stress / shear rate.

Drill Fluid Rheology:

Rheology can be defined as the science of the deformation of the flow of matter.
It as usually described by viscosity and gel strength.
Types of flow regimes:
 Laminar flow.
 Turbulent flow.
N.B. The type of flow is usually depending on the flow rate (SPM * POP), the flow pressure and the relative of
the flow channel.
 Laminar flow:
Is generally associated with low flow rate, low fluid velocities and with fluid movement in uniform layers. In
laminar flow the force (pressure) required to induce flow increases as the fluid velocity increase.

CURVE

In laminar flow, the fluid particles tend to move in straight lines parallel to direction of flow. The layers near the
wall of the flow channel tend to move at a lower velocity than that exists in the center of the flow channel, thus
the flow profile of the fluid in case of laminar flow when move a cylindrical pipe will be in a sort of concentric
cylinder.

FIGURE

 Turbulent flow:

In generally occurs at high flow rates, high fluid velocities, and is characterized by an erratic, random
movement of the drilling fluid particles.
A flowing fluid is generally considered to be an either laminar or turbulent flow.
There is a very critical period called transitional period between two regimes when the movement of fluid
particles is no longer complete laminar, nor has it yet become complete random .
I.e.: If the flow pressure is reduced slightly, the fluid particles will return to the laminar movement. Conversely,
if the flow pressure is increased sufficiently the fluid particles will assume the random flow patterns associated
with the turbulent flow.
This transition occurs at some critical velocity, which is generally governed by the ratio of the fluids internal
forces to its viscous forces this ratio is called Reynolds number (Nre)
Nre = [diameter of the flow channel *average flow velocity * fluid density]/ fluid viscosity

CURVE

N.B.
Shear stress and shear rate data, allows accurate determinations of the fluid behavior under varying flow
conditions.
This data then provides the basis for further calculations used to determine several important aspects related to
the drilling fluids parameters.
I.e.: proper understanding and application of rheological principles can be valuable aid in determination of
dynamic performance of drilling fluid in order to establish and maintain the most effective properties for
efficient and economical drilling fluid performance.
These further calculations are:
1. Fluid velocity.
2. Calculation of the system pressure losses.
3. Calculation of surge and swab pressures.
4. Bit and jet nozzle hydraulics.
5. Relative hole cleaning efficiency.
6. Equivalent circulating density.
7. Estimation of the relative extent of hole erosion.

Reynolds Number:

a. In pipe Nr = 15.46 dvw / PV.

b. In annulus Nr = 15.46(dh-dp) vw / PV.
Fluid velocity (ft/min):
a. In pipe V = 24.51 GPM / d2.
b. In annulus V = 24.51 GPM / (dh2 – dp2) OR = POP (bbl/min)/ Ann. Vol. (bbl/ft).
Critical Velocity (ft/min):
a. In pipe V = 64.57 PV + 64.57 [(PV)2+ 12.3 d2YP W] / wd.
b. In annulus V = 64.57 PV+ 64.57 [(PV)2+9.26(dh – dp)2YP W] /w(dh – dp).
Slip Velocity Vs (ft/min):
a. Laminar Flow = 3210 (Wc – W) D2 V / 339 YP (dh – dp) + PV V.
b. Turbulent Flow = 60 [D(Wc – W) /W] .
I.e.: Slip Velocity is that velocity of desendigration of cuttings, according to its specific gravity, cutting size and
hole size, which acts against fluid velocity, carrying capacity and viscosity of mud.

WHERE :

V = fluid velocity (ft/min).

GPM = gallons per min. d = hole diameter.(in) Dp = pipe diameter (in)
D = cutting diameter(in).
Wc = cutting density (PPG).
L = section length (ft).
W = mud weight (PPG).
Vc = critical velocity(ft/min).
PV = plastic viscosity (cp).
YP = yield point.(lbs./100sq ft).
TVD = true vertical depth(ft).

Pressure drop = [Mwt in – Mwt out] * 0.0519 * TVD.

 MUD FACTS AND PRINCIPLES

PLASTIC VISCOSITY (PV)

=======================================
The friction to resist moving of mud layers against each other in dynamic state
In other words
Is the resistance of the fluid particles to move against each other in dynamic state, which is caused primary by the friction between the
suspended particles and the viscosity of the continuous liquid phase.

NB: PV is a function of solids

I.e.: plastic viscosity depends on the concentration of solids, also size and shape of solids.

PV is affected by the following:

1- Size and distribution of solids

2- Shape and concentration of solids.
3- Fluids phase viscosity

CAUTION
!S T O P
IN GENERAL: PV gives an
indication about the nature of solids in mud
.
NB:
* The finer the solids, the higher the PV due to the increase of surface area which surrounded by more Volume of water.
*PV may be called (bit viscosity) which is equivalent to the viscosity of mud coming out of the bit, because PV has to be measured at
high shear rate.
*PV = 600 reading – 300 reading

CAUSES OF PLASTIC VISCOSITY (PV) INCREASE:

1- Increases of solids concentration

a- drilled solids
b- commercial solids
1- Barite
2- Bentonite
2-Increases of solids surface area.

Non dispersed solids Dispersed solids

 less surface area * more surface area

 less quantity of adsorbed water * more quantity of adsorbed water
 more available free water *low available free water
 low PV *high PV
 low YP *high YP
 low GEL *high GEL
 low viscosity *high viscosity
* High capability to removed *low capability to be removed
 thin fluids * thick fluids
 thin rigid cake *thick cake
NB: Increase of PV direct related with increases of YP, also with increases of annular
pressure losses and with increases of ECD value, and decreases of ROP value.
METHODS OF DECREASING PV:
=================================

1- DILUTION:
a- with water in case of water base mud.
b- With diesel in case of oil base mud.
c- With clean premixed mud.

2-REMOVAL OF SOLIDS BY:

a- solids control equipment’s

b- settling
Natural settling: is effective because some of solids are colloidal and suspended.
(NB: settling does not take place by stopping agitation.)
c- adding Flocculants:
This is done by flocculate solids and decrease surface area of solids.
Flocculants are chemicals added to collect the solids together to decrease surface area of solids and thus can easily
remove solids out of mud.

NB: treating by dilution is more effective than chemical treatment.

YIELD POINT (YP ) :
IT’S THE ELECTRO – CHEMICALS ATTRACTION BETWEEN SOLIDS OR MUD COMPONENTS

IN OTHER WORDS:

IT’S THE FORCE REQUIRED TO SLIDE ONE LAYER OF THE MUD OVER ANOTHER

These forces are a result of the +ve and –ve charges located on the surface of fluids layers.
YP is the measurement of these forces and its effect on fluids under flowing condition of drilling fluid.

NB: YP is the measure of Flocculation

In general YP gives some indication of hole cleaning ability of the fluid, when the fluid is in
motion
CAUSES OF (YP) INCREASE: (CAUSES OF FLOCCULATION)
=============================================================

1- FLOCCULATION DUE TO TEMPERATURE :

====================================
THIS TAKE PLACE BY

A- CHEMICAL DEGRADATION
B- CLAY MOVEMENT
C- DEHYDRATION

**Over 150 F the space between clay particles increases causes over hydration on the clay particles, so Water is no longer
available in the system to keep mud flows, that’s why mud become more thicker

**Over 350F a chemical degradation to clay particles occurs, causes an increase in activating ions and by term an increase in
Electro-chemicals attraction occurs, so Flocculation occurs accompanied by increase in YP.

TO DECREASE (YP ) DUE TO TEMPERATURE: (TEMP FLOCCULATION )

A- Dilute with water or fresh mud
B- Reduce clay as possible
C- Add high temp Deflocculant

2- FLOCCULATION CAUSED BY SOLIDS CROWDING:

REASONS:
A- Weighting up of mud ( water should be added to wet barite)
B- Poor solid control equipment
C- Reactive formations
D- Dehydration.

TO DECREASE (YP) CAUSED BY SOLID CROWDING:

A- Dilute with water or fresh mud.
B- Use high efficiency solid control equipment

3- FLOCCULATION CAUSED BY ALKALINITY CHANGES:

REASONS:
 A- PH increases or decreases due to cement contamination.
B- Lime addition.
C- Acid gas influx (CO2 , H2S )
D- Carbonate
E- Incorrect Pm/Pf ratio (lime mud )

NB: High PH causes flocculation due to increases of attraction forces between particles.

TO DECREASE (YP) CAUSED BY ALKALINITY CHANGES:

A- Increases of PH by adding caustic soda or caustic potash.
B- Decreases of PH by dilution or adding organic acid such as Lignite (3.8 PH) or lignosulfonate (4.2 PH).
C- Adjusting Pm/Pf ratio by adding lime or caustic soda.

4- FLOCCULATION CAUSED BY COMMERCIAL ADDITIVES ( BENTONITE & POLYMERS):

A- Overdoses of polymers (such as viscosifiers, flocculants, water loss reducer )
B- Excess of bentonite.

TO DECREASE (YP) CAUSED BY COMMERCIAL ADDITIVES:

A- Dilute with water
B- Adding deflocculants.

5- FLOCCULATION CAUSED BY CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION:

A- Salt/salt water
B- Calcium
C- Carbonates
D- Cement
E- H2S/CO2
F- Anhydrite/Gypsum.

TO DECREASE (YP) CAUSED BY CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION:

A- Add deflocculant
B- Chemically remove the contaminate
C- Dilute
RELATION BETWEEN (PV) AND (YP):
1- If both (PV) and (YP) increases: ( solid content problem)
TREATMENT:
A- Dilution
B- Maintain solid control equipment.
NB: Don’t add thinner otherwise (YP) will dramatically decreased and (PV) still high and
this will causes barite settling.
2- If (PV) is steady and (YP) increases : ( chemical contamination problem-YP problem)
TREATMENT:
A- Dilution
B- Add Deflocculants
NB: In low saline mud and as a result of presence of CL ions (at a certain limit) the (YP) increases with no
effect on (PV) value, this take place due to increases of Electro-chemical attraction between ions in mud, so if
same salinity required, add deflocculants, And if we need to reduce salinity we had to dilute with water.

3- If (PV) and (YP) decreased : (in case of high saline mud)

TREATMENT:
A- Add Flocculants
B- Add Viscosifiers
C- Add Water reducers.
NB: In high saline mud, the % of free CL ions will increase in the mud and thus will retrieve water from
bentonite plates back to the system, so both PV and YP will decreases. That besides increasing of frees H2O
and thus increases of water loss.

GENERAL NOTES:
1- PV = 600 READING - 300 READING

2- YP = 300 READING - PV

3- YP IS A MEASUREMENT OF THE CHARGES ON THE SOLID.

4- ALWAYS KEEP PV LOWEST AS POSSIBLE.

5- PV IS A FUNCTION OF SOLIDS.

6- IF PV INCREASES, YP MUST BE INCREASE DUE TO CROWDING EFFECT OF FINE SOLIDS.

THESE FINE SOLIDS PUSHES THE CHARGES TO EACH OTHER, SO THE ELECTRO-
CHEMICAL ATTRACTION BETWEEN MUD COMPONENTS INCREASES, CAUSING YP
INCREASE.

7- CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION Ca, Mg AND SALT, WILL INCREASE YP WITH NO EFFECT ON

PV.
SO: IF PV INCREASED, YP MUST BE INCREASED TOO.
BUT YP INCREASING DOES NOT AFFECT THE PV VALUE.
GEL STRENGTH:

Is the measurement of chemical attraction forces between mud particles under static conditions. GEL Strength is
an indicator for low shear rate rheology at 3 rpm reading ( V.G meter)

Gel strength importance:

A- Low gel strength : causes

1- settling of cutting and barite in static’s conditions

2- building up of cuttings beds in deviated wells

B- High gel strength : causes

1- increasing pressure in break circulation to break down gel( may break down formation and
causes mud losses )
2- Increasing applied pressure to the formation while running in hole.
(Might break down formation, causes mud losses)
3- Swabbing while pull out of hole.
4- Poor cement jobs( as gel are hard to break, so that causes channeling of cement)

TYPES OF GEL:
1- Fragile or flat Gel:
Gel strength of 10 minute is slightly higher than 10 seconds gel even if 10 seconds gel reading
is high.

This gel can be easily broken by low pump pressure.

This type of gel has low swab and surge pressure.

2- Progressive or elevated Gel:

Gel strength increases significantly after 10 minute, even if 10 seconds gel is low.

Causes of Progressive Gel:

1- Reactive formation resulting in high percentage of reactive solids.

2- Solids crowding.
3- In sufficient deflocculation.
4- Carbonate contamination (CO3& HCO3).

NB: Relation between Gel,YP, and Viscosity, Cake and pore hole diameter:---

The increases of viscosity causes increase in YP & Gel, where too much increase of viscosity causes removed
of filter cake and may causes wash in bore hole diameter.
FILTRATION:
Is the rate of water loss of mud into formations
There are two aspects of the filtration phenomenon:

1- The quantity of filtrate which is the volume of filtrate that invades the formation.
(Anyhow lowering the water loss helps in hole stability)

2- The quality of filtrate, which gives an idea about the type and concentration of materials dissolved in
filtrate.
This gives an idea about the extend of stability of mud resulting from chemical interaction forces
between mud components, also gives an idea about the amount of contaminants dissolved in mud (LGS,
SALT and Chemical contaminants) that
Contributes this stability.
NB: 5ppb water loss reducer ==== water loss = +/- 3.0

FILTER CAKE:
IS THE MEASUREMENT OF THE RELATIVE AMOUNT OF MUD SHEETS DEPOSITED ON
THE PORE HOLE FORMATION SURFACE

Evaluation of filter cake depends mainly on two items:

1- QUALITY:
A- Impermeable
B- Non Porous
This much affected by:
 percentage of solid in mud
 shape and size of solids
 chemical contaminant in mud

2- QUALITY: (THIN OR THICK)

Cake must be thin to minimize well sticking and reduce friction forces between drill string and pore hole
wall.
This is much affected by:
 Quantity of water loss.
 Solid content in mud
 Chemical contaminant

RELATION BETWEEN WATER LOSS AND FILTER CAKE.

 Isolating the formation from the drilling fluids will minimize the potentially detrimental interaction between
 Filtrate and exposed formation and thus control the hole stability, this is complied by controlling:
 Water loss
 Quality and quantity of filter cake.
 In other word minimize water loss by mean of water loss reducers together with getting rid of colloidal
 Materials (LGS) off mud and chemical treatment of chemical contaminants .
SOLIDS:
TYPES OF SOLIDS:

A- High gravity solids (Ca CO3 +Barite)

B- Low gravity solids (drilled solids + bentonite)

Increases of drilled solids effect:

1- increase of mud weight
2- increase of viscosity
3- increase of Gel = may leads to gellation
NB: Gel must be obtained from bentonite or polymers not from drilled solids (to keep cutting suspended in mud
in static case not to be settled)
4- Increase of water loss.
5- Increase of PV & YP
6- Increase cake thickness and porosity.
NB: Increase of high gravity solids in mud leads to increases in mud weight only, when low gravity solids
Increase in mud leads to all pervious effects and may causes flocculation in mud.

7- Severe cut to PH =which may leads to bicarbonate problem.

Removing solids off mud produces the following benefits:

1- Improve filter cake quality (less coarse drilled solids) results in a less permeable and less porous cake.
Improving cake quality (thinner and tougher) minimize wall sticking and pore hole wall
And thus reducing pipes corrosion and minimizes pressure produced on formation resulting from those friction
forces (surge ) and thus reducing fluid losses.

2- A decrease in concentration of drilled solids contributes to improve and maintain rheological and other mud
properties and thus reduce mud maintenance cost.
Increase of solids in mud can be detected by:
1- Weighting mud
2- Evaporating and condensing mud fluid in a cylinder, leaving solid residual behind.
3- Increase of PV

BENEFITS OF OBTAINING LOW PERCENTAGE OF LOW GRAVITY SOLIDS (LGS ) IN

MUD :
1- Better hole condition
2- Reduce torque and drag
3- Reduce swab and surge pressure
4- Reduce tendency for differential stuck.
5- Fewer possibility of stuck of logging tool.
6- Improve bit run
7- Reduce bit and stabilizer balling
8- Better hole stability
NB: As increase of LGS % in mud causes an increase in mud weight and thus increases the hydrostatic head of
mud column and by turn ECD.
In other words increase the imposed pressure on formation which may exceed fracture pressure of the formation
leading to a loss of circulation.
9- Keep PV low and thus obtaining higher penetration rate.
10- Low abrasive LGS in mud reduces equipment wear and repair
11- Low abrasive LGS in mud minimize pipe washout.
12- Better cement jobs.
13- Better condition drilling fluid, thus low rate of dilution and mud treatment, which
Reduces mud cost.

Effect of solid size on ROP:

Particles less than 1.0 micron decrease rate of penetration 12 times more than that which is higher than 1.0
micron because:
1- PV increase
2- Surface area of adsorption of water increases
NB: 6-8 % colloidal solids adsorb 50% of water
3- Since percentage of adsorbed water increases, the mud will become thicker which may lead to flocculation
of mud.
Solid analysis determines:
 % LGS and HGS
 Mass balance calculation methods
 Salinity corrections
 Percentage of reactive solids
 Percentage of bentonite and drilled solids
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of bentonite and shale.

Remove solids by:

1- dump and dilution
2- mechanical removal (solid control equipment)
3- Settling.

NB: Some times diesel acts like solids, making what is known as (mechanical solids) causing increase in PV,YP
and Viscosity, this take place as a diesel in retort make a sort of droplets which don’t condense and thus gives
slightly increase in solid percentage.

NB: NEVER INCREASE MUD WEIGHT WITH DRILLED SOLIDS ( LGS).

I.e.: never to put off solid control equipment to increase mud weight

Example:

To increase mud weight 0.1 PPG with drilled solids, that means ==0.1 X 2.6 X 42 = 10.92 ppb of low gravity
solids which is too high and will cause a lot of solid problems as mentioned before.
 SOLID CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Solid Control Depending on:
1. Screening.
2. Centrifugal force.
3. Combination of both.
A. Screen Device:
This depends on:
 Screening area and number of mesh.
 Pump out put.
 Solids load or penetration rate.
 Mud viscosity.
Factors Affecting Shaker Efficiency and Solid Removal:
1. Screen selection:
Selecting the right screen for shakers recommended to remove the maximum amount of solids of mud, and
limits solids returning to mud system.
Screen selection depends on:
 Amount and shape of solids to be removed.
 Circulating rate.
 Viscosity.
 Screen life expectancy.
NB:
1. You will normally remove some finer solids than the mesh size due to piggy – backing .
2. Changing wire diameter will change the cut point although mesh is the same.
3. Fine screen anticipating losing mesh water due to increase of surface area on smaller solids which are
removed.
Screen Types:
a. Sandwich:
If it’s a 40 mesh I.E.: it is accurately 80 mesh.
Advantages: never plugged with sand.
Disadvantages : plugged with gumbo shales.
b. Rectangular opening.
c. Plain weave.
d. Conventional.
Advantages: resist more than sandwich.
Disadvantages: plugged with sand faster than sandwich.
e. Oblong:
The best square mesh screens.
f. Pyramidal:
Advantages: never plugged with sand.
Disadvantages: plugged with gumbo shales.
What does screen mesh means?
Mesh means the linear measurements of number of openings per square inch.
I.E: Mesh counts opening per square inch.
 EG: 80 mesh 80 openings per square inch.
 One mesh includes width of one opening plus width of one wire.
 Mesh count only tells the number of openings per linear inch in each direction.
 Changing wire diameter without changing mesh will change the cut point although mesh is the same.
 Size openings depend on mesh count and wire size.
NB: If screens are cutted at the same point several times you have to change the support cushion(Page6-10).
Type of Motion:
A. Circular.
B. Elliptical.
C. Longitudinal.

Circular and elliptical damage faster than longitudinal.

But elliptical is better than circular where the solids are exposed to more surface area at the screen.
Angle of Deck:
 Horizontal decks
Have a higher liquid handling capacity than the sloped deck shakers, since the liquid has no tendency to run off
the end of the shakers.
 Sloped decks shakers:
Have a higher solid handling capacity because the deck angle tends to make solids fall off the unit as it vibrates.
NB: Screen motion and deck angle controls:
1) Rate of travel of cuttings along screen.
2) Solid capacity .
Distribution of fluid carrying solids on screens.
3) Fluid capacity.

Flow Capacity:
a. As PV increases flow capacity decreases.
b. As mesh screens increase flow capacity increase.
c. % screen covered increase flow capacity increase.
d. Plugging effect increase flow capacity increase.

PS: Screens have a viscosity and solids limit.

Precautions;
 Wash down screens before trips.
 Keep screens clean and you will reduce blinding and plugging effect.

Amplitude or Stroke Length:

 Shakers are available with stroke lengths from 0.025 to 0.5 inches. The greater the stroke length , the higher
solid removal because of the greater the unit the unit handling capacity.
 Long strokes that forces thick fluids through the screen openings, also tend to force solids into the screens
openings which cause blinding or partially blinding that particularly while handling sticky solids.

Speed of Rotation:
The general vibration frequency for shakers is 1100 to 3300 RPM.

Shale shaker (G) Force:

The common expression for the amount force generated by a shaker is G force.

PS:
Cut point of shaker means that all cuttings above that size of mesh screens will be separated on the shaker,
below that size will pass from mesh screens of shaker back to system until removed with other solid control
equipments.
Cut point Millimicrons.
In General the Optimum Shale Shaker Operation Depends on:
 Mounting and Leveling:
Shakers must be leveled according to GPM not too much to the front so as not to lose mud. Or not too much up
so as cuttings do not accumulate on the back sides of screens which by turn will cause too much load on that
part of screens and thus may cause screen cut and by turn solids will escape into system.
 Provide required voltage and frequency .
 Vibrator should rotate in proper direction.
 Install proper screens and proper support cushions.
Proper and screen size is recommended so as not to have too narrow mesh and thus solids may plug screens and
thus lose mud at shakers OR too wide and thus allow cuttings to pass into system and thus increase solids
percentage in mud.
Also make sure that sealing rubber (support cushions) of screens is proper and not small or cutted otherwise the
solids will escape into system through cutted points.
 Tension screens properly.
 Size of mesh screens so as mud to cover 75 – 80 % of length.
 Use water hose to wash down screens on trips.
 You need partial plugging of mesh screens to aid in flow capacity and cutting removal.
 Make sure that the bypath of shakers is not leaking. Otherwise solids will escape to system.
 The volume of fluid lost on shale shakers per unit time depends on
1. Shaker design.
2. Screen mesh and type.
3. Drilling fluid properties.
4. Solid loading.
PS:
If only 50 % or less of the screen area is covered with mud, finer mesh screens is recommend.
Inspite that without changing screens, the operating ones can become partially blocked with time by cuttings
wedge in the open screens (blinded) or by sediments/ residue/ mud dried on the wire cloth(coated).

B. Centrifugal Device:
Depends on separating solids based on size and specific gravity of solids.
The centrifugal separator mechanically subjects the fluid to increased G forces and thus increases the settling
rate of particles by mean of this method both heavy – coarse and light – fine fractions are separated of mud.
Desired fractions of solids are then selected and return to the system. This recharging works well with both low
density(low gravity solids), and high gravity fluids.

FIGURE

Hydrocyclones Performance Depend on:

 Fluid viscosity.
 Mechanical condition of cones.
 Head at cone manifold(Feed pressure = 30 – 40 psi.
 Solid load.
Hydrocyclones Instillation & Maintenance:
 Flow capacity should exceed rig circulating rate by 10 – 20 %.
 Eliminate mud guns and use mechanical agitators.
 Recommended individual centrifugal pump for each set of Hydrocyclones.
 Pumps properly sized to give recommended head at Hydrocyclones (35 psi).
 Lines properly sized and short as possible.
 Suction out of one compartment, and discharge down stream in next
  Replace only worn cones or nozzles.
 Do not bypath shakers, as bypassing shakers causes most plugged cones.
 Run as fine shale shaker screens as possible.
 Operate in spray discharge for higher efficiency.
 Periodically unplug (clean).
NB: If keeping the previous percussion you will get the best solid separation.
Also separation depends on:
1. specific gravity of solids (separation).
2. Size of particles (separation).
3. Centrifugal force (separation).
4. Liquid phase viscosity (separation).
5. Solid load (separation).
6. Feed pressure optimum (separation).
7. Mechanical condition (separation).
NB1:
As centrifugal forces increases the cut point decreases (I.E. decrease the size of separated particles).
NB2:
As viscosity increases the cut point increases (I.E. increase the size of separated particles).
PS:
Under Flow GPM (equipment) = 1.25 X GPM (rig).

How heavy should cone underflow be?

 Depends on size and nature of solids in feed.
 Cone should be in spray discharge.
 Cone underflow should be heavier than feed.
 Desander underflow should be heavier than desilter underflow.

Hydrocyclones Optimistic Cut Point

Centrifugal force increase
Size D 50 microns
12” (Desander) 65 - 70
6” (desilter+M.C) 25 –32
4” (desilter+M.C) 16 –18
3” (desilter+M.C) 12
2” (desilter+M.C) 7 -10

Effect of PV 0n separation 4” cone

Mud PV (cp.) D 50 microns
1 16
10 18
23 29
The higher the viscosity and PV the lower the efficiency of the equipment.
 Effects of solids 0n separation 4” cone
PV = 7 YP = 1 solids %

Solids % D 50 microns
1.2 18
2.05 22.5
2.37 19
3.9 27

Hydrocyclones Rope Versus spray discharge

Discharge Wt(PPG) Solids Lb./hour lb./day

Rope 4 GPM 14.5 46% 2392 57403
spray 3 GPM 13 35% 3640 87360

NB:
1. Cones processes 125 – 150 % of the flow line GPM.
2. Optimum pressure on the solid control equipment = [Link] X (distance between pumps of solid control
equipments 75ft and the equipment itself) X 0.0519.

GPM of Solid Control Equipment:

a. Measure how much time needed to fill a viscosity cup to the mark from one cone.
Convert seconds to minutes.
NB: viscosity cup = ¼ gallon.
Say in 8 min.
 0.25 gallon was filled in 8 min.
 0.25/8 = 0.03125 GPM for one cone.
b. Multiply by number of cones to get GPM of equipment.
a. Multiply by 60 minutes to get gallon / hour.
b. Multiply by 42 minutes to get bbl / hour.
NB:
On calculating equipment losses always try to match the GPM of equipment with equipment losses.
PS:
Never measure [Link] with drilled solids.
I.E: Never to put off solid control equipments to increase mud weight.
EG:
To increase [Link] 0.1 PPG with drilled solids that means:
0.1 X 2.6 = 0.26 (ppb LGS).
2.6 = specific gravity of LGS.
I.E: 0.26 X 42 = 10.92 (ppb of pure LGS). Which is too high and will cause a lot of solid problems as
mentioned before.

See pages 6-13, 6-14, 6-15, and 6-16.

1. Desander / Desilter Operation Tips:
A. Equipment is fed by a centrifugal pump maintaining a manifold pressure of 35-40 psi.
Excessive pressure contributes to a bladder wear and effects cut point.
Excessive pressure may be due to :
 Feed lines are plugged.
 Distance between equipment pumps and equipment itself is not correct.
If pressure is less than 30 psi mean that there is a leak somewhere or equipment is not working.
In both high and low pressures the efficiency of solid separation is not ok.
B. Proper discharge from the cones is in the form of a conical pressurized spray. Roping may occur when the
fluids to be processed has an excessive amount of solids present in the mud .
Cones discharge may be adjusted by turning the adjustment at the cone apex.
If discharge coming out of the cone is like a stream (like that causing out of a tap of H2O). this means that
cones are highly wearied which will not give a chance for good centrifuging and separating of excess solids.
C. Cones may become plugged from time to time and should be cleaned by opening the adjustment and
inserting a welding rod or equivalent from the bottom to dislodge the solids blocking the discharge.
D. Continual plugging of cones may be due to the failure of up stream solid control equipment, which should
be checked to insure that it’s functional.
OR
Plugging of cones may be due to incorrect shale shaker mesh screens which allows larger amount of solids to
pass into system.(use finer mesh screen after unplugging cones to solve this problem).
OR
Plugging of cones may be due to those guns in tank before unit is on (stop guns immediately and use normal
agitation).
E. Weight of discharge must be high as an indication of getting rid of excess solids.
If discharge weight is nearly the same or higher a little bit than feed in mud . this means that equipment is
not working.
Also you can feel the discharge by your hand if it is mud or solids.
NB: Cones processes 125-150 % of the flow line GPM.
2. Mud Cleaner:
The hydrocyclone / screen combination consists of a bank of desilters which are mounted over a fine mesh
vibrating screen. The discard from desilter is processed by the fine screens.
Particles are removed by the screen and discarded while the fluid processed through the screen is returned to the
active system.
Mud cleaner is a fine screen shaker, its primary function is to remove that portion of sand size or larger that
passes through rig shaker.
NB:
Ideally a 200 mesh screen would be desirable on mud cleaner , however 140-150 mesh screens is generally
necessary to minimize barite losses.
3. Degasses:
 By mean of centrifugal action separates gas + foam from mud.
 Hydrocyclones ID is ranging from 6”-12”.
 It process mud immediately from below the sand trap not from the sand trap.
4. Centrifuge:
 Last defend for solids. Can remove solids below 4-6 microns that will not be separated at shakers and pass
to the system.
These very fine particles have a greater effect on rheology than the coarser particles.
Centrifuging will not however eliminate the need for water. But dilution rates will be reduced and a fluid
maintenance cost reduction will be expected.
Trend of PV can give an indication of how fast solids concentration is increasing the MBT and solid content
and solid content can also be an assistance guide in this determination.
 Each type of centrifuge have its own optimum RPM (normal RPM from 1900 to 2200).
 Has to be used carefully in weighted mud otherwise will separate barite and affect [Link].
 The reference to make sure that centrifuge is working ok is the discharge weight and weight of flow of
processing mud coming out of centrifuge to system.
I.E: Must have good flow . processing mud weight must be less than operating mud weight.
Charging optimum RPM range of any centrifuge affects the unit efficiency.
SOLID CALCULATION:

CALCULATION USED IN SOLID – CONTROL EVALUATION

The following equation is based on the fact that the specific gravity (sg) of the mud is Equal to
the sum of the specific gravity times the volume fraction of each component.
In this simplified equation, the mud will consist of three basic components: liquid, low-gravity
Solids, and high-gravity solids.

Sm = VwSw + VlgSlg + VhgShg

NB: Volume of salt water corrected (Vwc) and specific gravity of water (Sw) is obtained from appropriate salt
table.

CALCULATE OF LOW GRAVITY SOLIDS AND HIGH GRAVITY SOLIDS VOLUME

SOLIDS ANALYSIS:
Calculation of low-gravity solids and high-gravity solids from a retort analysis. Correct the
retort values and the specific gravity of the water phase by using the salt tables.

EQUATION TO GET VOLUME OF LOW GRAVITY SOLIDS

[{ Vw}{Pf}+ {Vss}{Pb} + {Vo}{Po}] – 100{Pm}

Vlg =
{Pb – Plg}

EQUATION TO GET VOLUME OF HIGH GRAVITY SOLIDS

100{Pm} - [{ Vw}{Pf}+ {Vss}{Plg} + {Vo}{Po}]

Vb =
{Pb – Plg}

WHERE:
- Vlg = volume of low gravity solids
- Vss = volume % of suspended solids
- Vb = volume of high gravity solids
- Vw = water fraction corrected for presence of dissolved salt
- Po = density of oil
- Pm = density of mud (spgr)
 - Plg = density of low gravity solids (LGS) = 2.6
- Pf = density of water phase corrected for dissolved salts

EXAMPLES OF SOLID CALCULATIONS:

IF : M .WT = 14.0 PPG = 1.88 sp .gr
Density of weighted material (Pb)== barite = 4.2 & hematite = 5.0
From retort:
Vs (volume of solids ) = 28 %
Vo (volume of oil) = 8 %
Vwr(volume of water) = 64 %
CL = 100,000 mg/l (Na CL)
1. Correct retort value for soluble salts from Na CL table
 Pf = density of water phase corrected for dissolved salt = 1.111
 Volume increase factor = 1.059
 Vw ( water fraction corrected for presence of dissolved salt )
= Vwr X volume increase factor
= 64 X 1.059
= 67.8 %
 Vss (volume percentage of suspended solids)
= 100 – Vw – Vo
= 100 – 67.8 - 8
= 24.2 %
 One bbl of mud = 14 PPG X 42
= 588 ppb
 Weight of water = 67.8/100 X PPG of brine water(water of 100,000 mg/l Na CL salt table) X 42
= 67.8/100 X 9.27 X42
= 263 ppb
 Weight of oil = 8/100 X 7.0 X 42
= 23 ppb
 Calculated weight of solids = weight of mud – weight of water (corrected) – weight of oil
= 588 – 263 - 23
= 302 ppb

2. Substitute in equation to get volume of low- gravity solids and high-gravity solids.

[{Vw){Pf}+{Vss}{Pb}+{Vo}{Po}]-100{Pm}
 Vg = ---------------------------------------------------------
{Pb – Plg}
[{67.8}{1.111}+{24.2}{4.2}+{8}{0.84}] –100{1.8}
= ---------------------------------------------------------------
{4.2- 2.6}
= 2.3 % LGS
100{Pm}-[{Vw){Pf}+{Vss}{Plg}+{Vo}{Po}]
 Vb = -----------------------------------------------------------
{Pb – Plg}
100{1.8}-[{67.8}{1.111}+{24.2}{2.6}+{8}{0.84}
= --------------------------------------------------------------
 { 4.2-2.6}
= 21.9 % HGS (Barite)

 Percentage of low-gravity solids to total solids

2.3
= ------ X 100 = 9.5 %
24.2

 Percentage of high-gravity solids to total solids

21.9
= ------ X 100 = 90.5 %
24.2

 Weight of low-gravity solids .

9.5
= ------ X {2.6 x8.33}X [{24.2/100}X42]
100

= 20 pounds
 Weight of high-gravity solids

90.5
= ------ X {2.4 x8.33}X [{24.2/100}X42]
100

= 322 pounds

 Fluids concentration

TYPE [Link] PPG (SP .GR X 8.34 ) PPB(PPG X 42)

WATER 1.0 8.34 350.28
BARITE 4.2 35.028 1471.176
LGS 2.6 21.684 910.728
CARBONATE 2.7 22.518 945.756

Examples:
1 -fluid with 3% LGS, how much concentrate in ppb.

{3/100} X{910.728} = 27.3 ppb

2 –Fluid with 54.6 ppb LGS, how much concentrate in percentage

{54.6}/{910.728} X 100 = 6.0 %

3 –Fluid weight 9.2 PPG, how much ppb of LGS in un-weighted mud (LGS % = 7.5%)
  for unweighted mud:
solids = solids % X [Mud weight – weight of water (8.34)]
 LGS % = 7.5 (% solids of retort) X ( 9.2 – 8.34 )
= 6.45 % ( % of corrected solids)
 LGS ppb = [{6.45}/{100 }}X 910.728
= 58.7 ppb

4 – On adding 5.5% solids to one bbl of mud free of solids, calculate volume increase

 Volume increase = {5.5}/{100} + 1

= 1.055 bbl

5 - If water = 86 % , oil = 10 % , solids = 4 %, MBT = 18 ppb

Calculate:
 % of solids corresponding to one bbl
 corrected MBT
 corrected solids
 total solids in fluid

 volume increase by 1 bbl = {4/100} + 1 = 1.04 bbl

 corrected solid % in one bbl = {4.0}/{1.04} = 3.85 %
 weight of solids = {3.85}/{100}X 910.728 = 35 PPB (of solids}
 corrected MBT in one bbl = {18.0}/{1.04} = 17.3 ppb
 total corrected drilled solids in ppb (LGS)
LGS in ppb = 17.3 + 35 = 52.3 ppb
 total LGS % = [{52.3}/{910.728}] X 100
= 5.75 %

 Mixing liquids of different densities

Mass balance equation :

1 -Two phase equation:

{Vt}{Wt} = {V1}{W1} + {V2}{W2}

Example: If Vt = 1890 bbl, Mwt (Wt) = 8.8 PPG ,calculate volume of water for 100 bbls.
V1 = volume of water
W1= weight of water (8.34 PPG)
V2= volume of LGS
W2= weight of LGS

 100 X 8.8 = V1 X (8.34) + V2 X 21.7

100 X 8.8 = V1 X (8.34) + {100-V1} X 21.7
1290 = 13.36 V1
V1= 96.6 %
V2 = 3.4 %
 OR: calculate for total volume:
 1890 X 8.8 = 8.34 V1 + {1890 – V1} X 21.7
13.36 V1 = 24471
V1 = 1831.66
V1 % = {1831.66} / {1890 } X 100 = 96.9 %
V2 (LGS) = 3.1 %

2 THREE PHASE EQUATION:

Vt Wt = V1W1(H2O) + V2W2(LGS) + V3W3(HGS)

EXAMPLE:
Vt = 100 bbl
Wt = 12.5 PPG
V1 = 84 ( % or bbl because Vt = 100 )

Solution:

 V2 + V3 = 16 %
 V2 = {16 – V3}
 W2(LGS) = 21.7 PPG
 W3(HGS) =35 PPG
 100 X 12.5 = {84 X 8.34} + {16 –V3} X 21.7 (wt of LGS) X {V3 X 35(wt of barite)}
 13.3 V3 + 1047.76 = 1250
 V3 = 202.24
 V3 = 15.2 %
 V2 (LGS) = 16 – 15.2 = 0.8 %

3 -FOUR PHASE EQUATION:

Vt Wt = V1W1( WATER) + V2W2( LGS) + V3W3( HGS) + V4W4 (DIESEL)

EXAMPLE:
 IF Vt = 100
 Mwt = 12.8 PPG
 V1 = 72 (retort value)
 V4 = 10 (retort value)

Solution:

 V2 + V3 = 100 – {72 +10}

= 18
 V2 = {18 – V3}
 W2(LGS) = 21.7 PPG
 W3(HGS) =35 PPG
 W4(DIESEL) = 7 PPG
 100 X 12.8 = 72 X 8.34 + {18 – V3}21.7 + V3 X 35 + 10 X 7
 V3 (HGS) = 16.46 %
 V2 (LGS) = 1.54 %
THREE PHASE MUD WITH SALT:

EXAMPLE:
 Mwt = 12.1 PPG
 Water = 80 %
 Solids = 20 %
 CL = 141,000

Solution:
 From Na CL salt table, salinity of 141.0 k, volume increase = 1.087
 Brine volume = 80 X 1.087 = 86.9 %
 Corrected solids = 100 – 86.9 = 13.1 %
 From NaCL salt table, adjust density of water corresponding to 141.0 k of CL = 9.6 PPG
 100 X 12.1 = {86.9 X 9.6} + { 13.1 – V3 }X 21.7 + 35 X V3
 V3 = 6.9 %
 V2 = 13.1 (Total corrected solids) – 6.9
 V2 = 6.2 %
ALKALINITY AND PH :
 ALKALINITY IS DEFINED AS THE AVAILABILITY OF H+ IN SOLUTION

 PH IS A FUNCTION OF DISSOCIATION OF WATER

 PH NUMBER ARE A FUNCTION OF H+ IONS CONCENTRATION IN GRAM

IONIC WEIGHT PER LITER OF MUD.
 ALKALINITY PROPORTIONAL WITH 1/H+

PH = 16 PH = 7.0 PH = 814

ACIDIC NEUTRAL ALKALINE

 IN GENERAL ALKALINE MEDIA IS THE BEST ENVIRONMENT FOR ALL CHEMICAL

PRODUCTS TO PERFORM GOOD WHILE DRILLING
 PH EXPRESSED AS LOG SCALE (BASE 10)
Example: PH OF 9.0 indicates an alkalinity ten times as greater as that of PH of 8.0 .
 PH value depending on the concentration of OH group and or CO3 , HCO3 and CO2 in mud As:

IF
 PH =12.0 or higher ======= Mud contaminate with OH group

 PH =10.0 ======= Mud contaminate with OH & CO3

 PH =9.0 – 10.0 ======= Mud contaminate with CO3 group only

 PH =9.3 - 8.3 ======= Mud contaminate with CO3 & HCO3

 PH =8.3 – 6.0 ======= Mud contaminate with HCO3 only

 PH = 6.0 – 4.3 ======= Mud contaminate with HCO3 & CO2

 PH = 4.3 or lower ======= Mud contaminate with CO2 only.

NB: Using PhPh indicator to test PH value

As follows:

 No color ========= PH less than 8.3

 Light pink color ==== PH 7.5==8.5
 Pink color ======= PH 9.0 =10.0
 Violet color ======= PH more than 10.0
 NB: PhPh end point is at PH = 8.3

ALKALINITY OF MUD TEST : (Pm )

 Prepare 1 ml of mud + 5 ml distilled water + 3 drop PhPh (red pink color)

 Titrate with H2SO4 acid (N/50)===== end point == colorless indication
 Pm = Volume of H2SO4 used.

ALKALINITY OF FILTRATE : ( Pf & Mf test)

 Prepare 1 ml of filtrate + 2 drop PhPh (red pink color)

 Titrate with H2SO4 acid (N/50)===== end point == colorless indication
 Pf = Volume of H2SO4 used
 Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator (yellowish orange color)
 Continue titrate with H2SO4 (N/50)===end point ==pale red color
 Mf = total volume of H2SO4 used.

RELATION BETWEEN Pf & Mf:

1. If Mf = Pf or little higher :
 That means mud contaminate with OH ions only
 Expected to get Ca++ ions contaminate in mud , whenever no CO3 group to precipitate Ca++.

2. If Mf less than twice of Pf:

 Most of ions CO3 and OH.

3. If MF = TWICE Pf:
 Most of ions are CO3
 High pH related to CO3 not OH which may causes a problem in lignosulphonate mud Leads no
response for rheological properties.

4. If Mf higher than twice of Pf:

 Most of ions are CO3 and HCO3.

5. If Pf = 0 and Mf very high:

 Most of ions are HCO3 only.

NB:
 Mf is a matter of measuring CO3, HCO3 & CO2
 Pf is a matter of measuring CO3 & OH group.
 Pf end point is at PH = 8.3
 Mf end point is at PH = 4.3
 Example:
If PH = 9.0 Pf = 0.8 Mf = 1.6

That means high consumption of H+ ions of H2SO4 acid, take the same quantity of Pf to utilize the filtrate
to reach PH = 4.3, So all alkalinity in Pf was from CO3 group.

 Total carbonate = 1220 (Mf – Pf )

 Treatment of carbonate contaminate in mud depending on total carbonate value (Mf & Pf ) and type of
carbonate .
 Carbonate contamination treated by adding Lime, or Lime +NaOH or Lime +Gypsum
 Carbonate contamination treated as follows:
- HCO3 value X 0.00021 == PPB of Lime (treatment value)
- CO3 value X 0.00043 == PPB of Lime
- HCO3 value X 0.002 ==== PPB of NaOH
- CO3 value X 0.001==== PPB of Gypsum

Rule of thumb:
 CO2 AND H2S are acidic gases
 At high PH you have free OH ions in mud
 At high PH we minimize bacterial degradation
 Don’t treat carbonate to zero so as to have some carbonate to react w/ excess Ca ions in mud
 Accepted carbonate in mud is between 500 – 2000 mg/l
 A solids problem may look like a CO3 problem.
 In case of CO2 treat with lime C<2O + Ca<2OH =(CaCO3 + H2O
 In lime mud the influx of CO2& H2S, which are acidic gases gives incorrect Pm/Pf ratio
 Solubility of Ca increase with low pH, causing flocculation of mud
 Clay or shale becomes highly sensitive to mud in highly pH over 9.0, causing flocculation of mud as the
attraction forces between ions increases
 Mf value sometimes tend to be higher than actual (false value),this is because some chemicals added to mud
(such as ,lignosulphonates , unical , resinex), buffer the pH of the fluid (fix it) ,so it takes more amount of
H2SO4 to reach pH 4.3.
 High pH more than 11.0 may deactivate some polymers, best media pH is between 8.5(10.0.
 Low pH less than 7.0 causes breakdown (burn) of polymers
 Ligosulphonate becomes less affective and may cause sever foaming at pH below 8.0,so add caustic
 Soda to adjust PH
 In lime mud or excess lime Pm becomes higher than Pf as lime increases.
 To adjust Pm/Pf ratio add lime or caustic soda .
 Contaminants :
 Na Cl :
Source :
1. salt domes .
2. rock salt beds .
3. evaporite formations .
4. salt H2O flow .
5. salty make up water.
Effects :
1. Increase apparent viscosity .
2. Increase yield point .
3. Decrease pH .
4. Cl- ion will increase in filtration and will decrease P f .
5. Flocculation followed by aggregation of mud .
6. Wash of hole .
7. Chemical foam .
Treatment :
1. Dilution .
2. Add thinner to reduce apparent viscosity, YP, Gel strength .
3. Add caustic soda (Na OH) to increase and adjust pH .
4. Add organic thinner to reduce filtration .
5. Analyze salty make up water before adding to system otherwise it will act as if we get a salt water flow .
6. To make sure that there is no increase in mud weight .
7. To convert to salt saturated mud .
8. Any treatment should be done as soon as possible otherwise getting a hole wash or untreated mud may cause loose control which
might result in moving in salt body into hole getting a pipe stuck .
9. In case of foams, add defoamer (aluminum stearate defoamer) .

 Ca SO4 :
Source :
1. Gypsum (Ca SO4 2H2O)
2. Anhydrite (Ca SO4 ) .
3. Cap rock of a salt dome .
4. Make up water .
Effects :
1. Cause flocculation and aggregation .
2. Increase apparent viscosity .
3. Increase YP & gel strength .
4. Increase filtrate .
5. Increase Ca++ ion in mud which cause flocculation . also increase SO4—content in filtrate which increase hardness .
6. Increase thickening of mud .
Treatment :
1. Add soda ash (Na CO3)with low pH or Anhydrox (Ba CO3) or Na HCO3 with high pH .
Na2 CO3 + Ca SO4 = Ca CO3  +Na2 SO4 .
2. Add thinner to reduce viscosity and gel strength .
3. Work on thickening and filtration by adding either CMC , Lignosulfonate .
4. If large amounts of soda ash is added , the soluble sodium sulfate tends to build up and cause (ash gels)which are indicated by
High Progressive Gel Strength .
Also if HI pH is maintained this too may result in ash gels due to formation of Na 2 SO4 .
So it is required to
a. dilute with H2O .
b. add lime for alkalinity .
5. Prepare pretreated mud with Q-broxine and caustic soda .
6. Convert to gypsum mud so as Ca SO4 will have no effect on mud

 Ca (OH)2 Cement :
Contamination occurs during :
1. Cement squeeze operation .
2. Poor casing cement job .
3. Drilling out cement .
4. Wet (green) cement has a greater contamination effect than hard cement because of increased solubility .
NB : (Salinity + gas + oil) prevent cement to get hard. (weak cement job) .
Effects :
1. Increase apparent viscosity .
2. Increase YP & gel strength.
3. Increase pH .
4. Increase filtrate .
5. Increase Pf and hardness content of filtrate .

Treatment :
1. Reduce pH by adding sodium bicarbonate , this Na HCO 3 will also treat the thickness of mud . Caused from the presence of
Ca++ ions and retain the dispersed – defllocculated condition of mud .
NB : 100 lb. Of bicarbonate of soda / 2 cubic feet of hard cement .
100 lb. Of bicarbonate of soda / 1 cubic feet of soft cement .
This is done to prevent flocculation of clays .
1. If contamination is slight , Barafos is sometimes used as it will remove calcium ion and reduce pH .
NB : Be careful of bottom hole temperature .
2. Add organic thinner with little or no caustic soda to reduce the thickening of contaminated mud .
Other Divalent ions :
Source :
EG : a- Magnesium chloride .
b- Calcium chloride .
c- Magnesium sulfate .
1. In formation water
2. Sea water .
3. Evaporate formation .
 Mg++ ion acts like Ca++ ion contamination .
NB : The magnesium can be precipitated from solution as magnesium hydroxide (Mg (OH) 2) at a pH above 10 .

 H2S Gas :
Source :
1. In formation fluids as a result of bacterial action or from sulfur compounds commonly found in the drilling fluid .
2. Thermal degradation of sulfur containing drilling fluid additives .(EG: Lignosulfonate) .
3. Chemical reaction with tool joint thread lubricants that contain sulfur .
Effects :
1. Toxic gas .
2. Corrosion of drill string .
3. Decrease pH .
4. H2S  2H+ + S-
H+ acidic ion cause corrosion , react with OH- ion in mud causing dehydration of mud and thus flocculation of bentonite and by
turn decrease pH and get polymer back to its acidic form and thus do not work .
S- cause flocculation of mud and might react with any H+ ion left to give back H2S .
Treatment :
1. Add caustic soda to keep pH above 10.5 .
2. Add zinc oxide , zinc carbonate
Zn O + H2S = ZnS + H2O .
3. Add lime .
Lime is reported as lb. /bbl and not ppm . Multiply lb./bbl lime tests constant to get lb./bbl treating agent needed .
 At pH 10.5 all but 50 ppm of magnesium has been reacted .
 Zinc oxide has less effect on rheological properties in non dispersed systems .
 CO2 flocculate mud in case of bentonite mud as it will take OH- ion to give HCO3, also decrease pH .
 To get rid of CO2 add lime Ca(OH)2 = Ca++ + 2OH- .
HCO3 + OH- = H2O + CO3 .
Ca++ + CO3-- = CaCO3 .
 Chemicals Required to Remove Ionic Contaminations

Contaminant Treating Chemical

(Mg/L) X Factor = (lb./bbl)
Ca X 0.00093 = Na2CO3 (soda ash)
Ca X 0.00074 = NaHCO3(Bicarb.)
Ca X 0.00097 = Na2H2P2O7 (SAAP)
Mg X 0.00093 = Na2CO3 (soda ash)
Mg X 0.00116 = NaOH
CO3 X 0.00043 = Ca(OH)2 (Lime)
CO3 X 0.001 = CaSO42H2O (Gyps)
HCO3 X 0.00021 = Ca(OH)2
HCO3 X 0.002 = NaOH
PO4 X 0.00041 = Ca(OH)2

Example:
Titration of the filtrate shows a calcium level of 650 mg/L. to remove all but approximately 100 mg/L, treat
550mg/L (650- 100 = 550) of calcium with soda ash.
Therefor, soda ash required is approximately
550 X 0.00093 = 0.51 lb./bbl
the higher the salinity the lower the pH, the higher the Ca contamination.
Ca can be
 CHEMICAL TREATMENT GUIDE

Contamination To remove add to water base mud Amount to add (lb./bbl) to remove 1 PPM
ion contaminated ion
Calcium Soda ash to hold pH or raise it. 0.000927 lb./bbl
Gypsum (Ca++) SAPP to hold pH or reduce it 0.000971 lb./bbl
or Sodium bicarbonate to hold pH or 0.000735 lb./bbl
Anhydrite reduce it.

Calcium SAPP 0.000971 lb./bbl

cement Ca++ Sodium bicarbonate 0.000735 lb./bbl
Calcium Sodium bicarbonate 0.000735 lb./bbl
Lime (Ca++)
Lime SAPP 1.5 lb./bbl
(Ca++, OH-) Sodium bicarbonate 1.135 lb./bbl

Magnesium First: Caustic soda to pH 10.5 0.00116 lb./bbl

Hard (Mg++)
water calcium Second: Soda ash 0.000928 lb./bbl
(Ca++)

Sulfide Keep pH above 10.5. add basic zinc 0.00123 lb./bbl

Hydrogen (S-) oxide,
sulfide zinc carbonate or lime 0.00805 lb./bbl

Carbonate Gyp to hold or reduce pH 0.001 lb./bbl

Carbon (CO3--) Lime to raise pH 0.000432 lb./bbl
dioxide bicarbonate Lime to raise pH 0.000432 lb./bbl
(CO2) (HCO3-)

NOTE:
 Lime is reported as lb./bbl and not PPM. Multiply lb./bbl lime tests constant to get lb./bbl treating
agent needed.
 At pH of 10.5 all but 50 PPM of magnesium has been reacted
 Zinc oxide has less effect on rheological properties in non-dispersed systems.
 CO2 flocculate mud in case of bentonite mud as it will take OH- to give HCO3, also decrease pH.
To get rid of CO2 add lime Ca(OH)2. Ca+2 + 2 OH-
HCO3 + OH- = H2O + CO3
Ca+2 + CO3-- = CaCO3
 TROUBLE SHOOTING GUIDE

Barite Viscosity MBT Low Density Calcium

Problems Weight Solids Content Treatment

Normal Normal Add barite.

Normal Normal or high Normal
Weight too _
low Low High High High Normal Dilute, add barite, XC polymer and
_ polyac.
Normal Normal Normal High Normal Dilute w/ H2O, add prehydrated
bentonite +XC polymer if needed to
_ maintain viscosity.
Weight too Low- Normal- Normal- High Normal Dilute w/ H2O, add XC polymer &
high Normal high high polyac.
_

Viscosity too Normal Normal Normal Add prehydrated bentonite + XC

low _ Low polymer
Normal
Normal Normal Normal Normal MBT may be due drilled solids-so
dilute or remove solids, Add
Normal _
prehydrated bentonite + XC polymer

Normal High Normal Normal Dilute or remove solids, add XC

_ polymer & polyac.
Normal

Viscosity too Normal Normal Normal Normal Insufficient amount of XC polymer +

_ barite. Add both.
high Normal

Normal Normal Normal High Before drilling cement, pre treat w/

High pH sodium bicarbonate rather than soda
Normal _
ash. Use soda ash only w/ normal
drilling.
High temp. Normal Normal Low Normal Normal Add prehydrated bentonite + XC
High press. polymer & polyac.
Normal

Fluid loss Normal Normal- Normal Normal High Remove C++ by sodium bicarbonate
too high high rather than soda ash.
Normal

Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Add 100-150 PPM Ca to suppress the
yield of bent. This well allow more
Normal
bent. to be added to the mud for
better particle size distribution
without excessive viscosity.

NB: Gel  PV, to break down gel, dilute (fresh water + caustic soda + spersene. Replace mud. The addition of
water should be slow.
 CHEMICAL TEST (WBM)
 Salinity:
CL : 1ml of filtrate + [Link] if pink add 0.02 H2SO4 colorless.
1 ml of filtrate + 5-10 drops potassium chromate (yellow) # Ag NO3 (end point orange red ppt).

CL = volume of Ag NO3 X 10000

.
 KCL :
6 ml of filtrate + 3 ml sodium perchlorate (centrifuge) ppt of potassium perchlorate, ml ppt with standard
curve.

 Hardness:

* Ca++

1ml of filtrate + 10 drops of Na OH(1N) + Caliver 2 indicator pink.

# EDTA end point violet color.
Volume of EDTA X 400 = Ca++, Let volume of EDTA = A.

* Mg++

1 ml of filtrate + 2-5 drops Buffer solution (Ammonia) + Erichrom black indicator (pink).
# EDTA end point sky blue. Let volume of EDTA = B
++
Mg = (B-A) X 243.2

 Alkalinity of Mud:

* Pm:

1 ml of mud + 5 ml distilled water + 3 drops [Link] (Red – Pink).

# H2SO4 (N 50) end point colorless.
Pm = volume of H2SO4.

 Alkalinity of Filtrate:
 Pf:
1 ml of filtrate + 2 drops of [Link] (pink).
# H2SO4 (N 50) end pint colorless
 Mf:
Add 2 drops of Methyl orange (yellow orange).
# H2SO4 (N 50) end pint pale red.
NB: Very Important:
1. To increase pH add caustic soda.
2. To decrease pH add dilution.
3. To treat flocculation dilution + thinners.
4. To treat foams add defoamer.
5. To treat viscosity dilution + thinners.
6. To treat water loss add filtration control agents.
++
7. To treat Ca add soda ash.
8. To treat Mg++ add Ca CO3.
9. To treat CO3, HCO3, PO4 add lime.

To Measure PV , YP and Gel Strength:

 B mean of apparatus of Rheology (viscometer):
1. Fill cup with mud.
2. Fit agitator.
3. Adjust apparatus to 600 RPM and then allow agitation. Take reading on gauge.
4. Adjust apparatus to 300 RPM and then allow agitation. Take reading on gauge.
5. PV = Reading 600 – Reading 300.
6. YP = Reading 300 – PV.
7. Adjust apparatus to 600 RPM again and then allow agitation for few minutes.
8. Then adjust apparatus to 3 RPM. Put on , after waiting for 10 sec. Take maximum reading to be first
reading for gel.
9. Then adjust apparatus again to 600 RPM , allow agitation for few minutes.
10. Wait this time 10 minutes.
11. Then adjust to 3 RPM, allow agitation and take maximum reading to be second reading for gel strength.
To Measure Water Loss and Filter Cake:
 By mean of apparatus:
1. Fit bottom end of cell to cell after putting a filter paper covered by a rubber o-seal.
2. Fit cell with mud enough for half an hour.
3. Fit cell in place over a graduated cylinder.
4. Fit top part of apparatus.
5. Apply pressure 100 psi.
6. Mud starts loosing water collected in graduated cylinder.
7. If taking reading after 7 ½ minutes multiply by 2.
8. If not continue ½ an hour you will get the same reading.
9. Take filter paper out. Clean filter paper from all above cake, measure cake.
NB: Relation between water loss and cake:

Water loss (ml) Cake (cake/32)

Above 20 3-4
F/8 T/ 20 2
Less than 8 1
2-3 1/2

To Measure Solids and Oil %:

 By mean of apparatus:
1. Fill cell with mud.
2. Put in barrel.
3. Fit all together.
4. Place a graduated cylinder under cell.
5. Apply heat.
6. All fluids will evaporite and condense to be collected in cylinder.
7. When finish, the cylinder will still having an empty part which will be corresponding to solids in mud by %
reading remaining empty to filled part.
8. Also read part containing oil to be oil percent %.

Test MBT:
1. Add 2 ml of mud + 8 ml of deionized H2O + 15 ml of 3 % hydrogen peroxide + 0.5 ml of sulfuric acid.
2. Boil gently for 10 min.
3. Dilute to about 50 ml with distilled water.
4. Add Methylene blue solution about 0.5 ml and steer for about 30 sec.
5. While the solids are still suspended, remove one drop of liquid and place on a filter paper.
6. The end point is reached when the dye appears as a blue ring surrounding the dyed solids.
7. Shake or steer for two minutes and place another drop on the filter paper. If the blue ring is again evident,
the end point is reached. If not, continue as before until a drop taken after shaking two minutes shows the
blue dye.
ML of Methylene blue
8. Methylene blue capacity = .
ML of mud
9. Where :
Bentonite equivalent (lb./bbl mud) = 5 X Methylene blue capacity.
(Kg/m3 mud) = 14.25 X Methylene blue capacity.
NB: drilling mud frequently contains substances in addition to bentonite that adsorb Methylene blue, treatment
with hydrogen peroxide is intended to remove the effect of organic materials such as CMC, Polyacrylates,
Lignosulfonate and Lignite.

SHALE FACTOR:
Clay types have different cation exchange capacities (CEC) and consequently different adsorption capacities.
It was also shown that Na montmorillonite clay will undergo diagensis to illite with the increasing of temperature by the ionic
exchange of K ions instead of Na ions
In order for diagenesis to proceed, water must be flushed out from clays.
If exchange cations K are not available to exchange Na montimorillonite clay will lose its water, but will not convert to illite thus if
this type of clay is drilled with a water-based mud, the clay will hydrate and causes drilling problems.
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) will decrease as clays convert from montimorillonite type (with temperature and thus with depth
and pressure).
Pure montimorillonite clays show a CEC of 100 meq\100gm.
Pure illites (shows no swelling characteristics) have a CEC generally between 10&40 meq\100gm.
Kaolinites have a CEC of approximately 10 meq\100gm.
In general bentonite and montimorillonite have an affinity for water.
NB, the clay /shale zones will have an affinity for water in an amount proportional to the montimorillonite content.

PORE PRESSURE:
There Some Factors That Affects The Estimated Pore Pressure:
1. Mud weight and background gas relationship.
2. Gas cut mud.
3. Cutting character.
4. Hole condition.
5. Temperature.
6. Dex.

1. Mud weight / background gas:

 When the pumping stops , the hydrostatic pressure could be below the formation pressure.
 When connection gas occurs , that means we lost the ECD margin.
 It is normal to drill with normal mud weight and having formation gas coming out (FBG).
NB: The gas coming out depend on porosity, permeability, gas saturation and  P.
 P = (W X D X 0.0519) – (FBG X D 0.0519).
W = mud weight .
D = depth.
 P should be positive while drilling.
If  P is negative a continuos influx occur showing by high background gas and gas cut mud while circulation.
C.G.
Trip Gas. Must be taken in our consideration.
Formation Type.

2. Gas Cut Mud:

In shallow wells great problem.
In deep wells could be with no problem

Gv = { (d/2H) X (3.14 ROP/60) X  X Sg } X 7.48

Gv = gas rate. d= hole diameter. Sg = gas saturation.
Gas @ atmospheric pressure = 14. 7 psi.
Gva = Gv X (P/14.7).
Mud flow (GPM)
W1 = X W2(uncut mud).
Mud(GPM)+ Gas (GPM)

W1 –W2 3.53 X W2 X D
Pressure reduction(  P) = 14.7   In  
W1 1000
D = depth of gas zone.

3. Cutting Characters (Cavings) (Cvg):

The more the caving the more unsuitability of the well which indicate that hole is under balance.
4. Hole Condition:
If the following conditions occur:
 Caving occur.
 Over pull and drag while tripping.
 Torque while drilling.
 Connection gas and trip gas increases.
 Pit level is increasing (I.E formation fluids are coming out to well).
This indicates that ECD margin is balance or below the formation pressure and we are taking or about to take a
kick.
NB: Watch ROP it will increase and P.P. also will increase.
NB: Over pull could occur because of :
a. Over pressured zone which cause swelling .
b. Swelling of shale due to absorption of water.
c. Due to ledges or dog legs.
This could be solved by increasing the mud weight. Or by jarring, or by back reaming, or by an acid job (in case
of carbonates), or by pumping fresh water in case of salt.
5. Shale Density:
Under normal conditions shale density increases with depth.
N.B: Any accessories will cause increase in shale density (I.E silty, pyritic, calc content …. Etc.).
If shale density decreases while increasing of depth, this indicates high pore pressure zone.
6. Temperature:
Increases with depth.
NB: Any sudden drop in temperature is an indication of a pressure zone. This drop in temperature at or before
pressure zone.
TYPICAL DENSITIES

Type Matrix Density

S.S 2.65
L.S 2.71
DOLO 2.87
ANHY 2.98
SALT 2.03
GYPSUM 2.35
CLAY 2.7 – 2.8
FRESH H2O 1
SALTY H2O 1.15
OIL 0.8
7. D Exponent:
It is affected by RPM, tooth effect, drilling hydraulics (P.P, pump flow, nozzles and mud
rheology) matrix stress and formation compaction.
The DXC a correlation of drilling parameters with ROP in shales

Soft formation (porous & permeable) Hard formation (compact)

Trend

PORE PRESSURE TRANSMISSION:

As well known that shale rock have no permeability, but shale as beds has a sort of unextended cracks which acts as secondary
permeability.
As a rule of thumb the hydrostatic pressure of mud column acts against the formation to control the formation pressure.
But by time part of the hydrostatic pressure migrate into the formation through its pores (degree of migration depends on porosity
&permeability of the rock ).
(The filter cake acts to prevent this transmission of pressure into formation , offcoarse if this filter cake is a good rigid
impermeable cake).
In case of shale and as there is no possibility of formation of filter cake the shales is directly exposed to hole and thus to hydrostatic
head of mud. So this transmission is possible through its cake if present.
By time this transmitted pressure will accumulate inside the shale rock and acts as a formation pressure in a reverse way against the
hydrostatic mud column together with original formation pressure.
If the summation of both formation and transmitted pressures exceeds the hydrostatic mud column or ECD the formation will acts as
over pressurized zone, and caving occurs together with other bore hole problems as mentioned in pressure control section and shale
bore hole problems section.

FORMATION PRESSURE :
All sedimentary rocks are porous to some degree. These void spaces within a rock grains are filled with fluids (liquid or gas or
combination of both). These fluids within pore spaces exhibit a sort of pressure known as PORE PRESSURE.
Pore pressures are equivalent to the average hydrostatic pressure exerted by the fluid contained in the pore spaces from water table (on
shore) and sea level (off shore).

PORE PRESSURE GRADIENT :

Is the pressure per unit depth , which is refereed to water table on shore and sea level off shore(pressure gradient =0.0519*ppg).

EG: off shore

Depth = 1000 ft Sea water density = 8.6 ppg
Distance between RKB to sea level =60 ft
Actual pore pressure gradient = (1000 – 60) * 0.0519 * 8.6
= (420 psi) (0.446 psi/ft)
EG : on shore
Depth = 1000 ft Water density = 8.34 ppg
Depth of water table = (220 ft (from RKB ) Air gap = 30 ft (between RKB & surface)
Actual pore pressure gradient = (1000 – 220) * 8.34 * 0.0519
= (338 psi) (0.433 psi/ft)
NB : Actual pore pressure =depth(from sea level or water table) * pore water density(ppg) *0.0519
But while drilling pore pressure is referenced to the flow line not to water table(on shore) or sea level(off shore). Thereby due to the
difference in height between flow line and the water table(on shore) and flow line and sea level(off shore), so the measured gradients
during drilling will not be the actual pore pressure gradients , but will represent the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid required
to balance the formation pressure at the depth from the flow line. This can be termed as NORMAL FORMATION BALANCE
GRADIENT .
From EG 1 : If the distance from RKB to flow line = 5 ft
Calculated pore pressure gradient form flow line (hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid required to balance the formation pressure at
1000 ft from flow line ) = 420 / [ (1000-5) * 0.0519 ]
=8.07 PPG (0.419 psi / ft ).
From EG 2 :
Calculated pore pressure gradient from flow line = 338 / (995 * 0.0519 )
=6.5 PPG (0.338 psi /ft ).
PS : Apply on greater depth of 3000 ft2
For EG 1 :
Actual pore pressure gradient = ( 300 – 60 ) * 0.0519 * 8.6
= 1312 psi (0.446 psi / ft )
pore pressure gradient from flow line=1312 /[ ( 3000-5 ) * 0.0519 ]
=8.44PPG (0.438 psi /ft )
For EG 2 :
Actual pore pressure gradient = (300-220) * 0.0519 * 8.34
=1203psi (0.433psi/ft)
pore pressure gradient from flow line=1203 / (2995 * 0..0519)
=7.74PPG (0.402psi/ft)
Apply on greater depth 10000 ft .
For EG 1 :
Actual pore pressure gradient = (10000-6) * 0.0519 * 8.6
=4437 (0.446psi / ft)
Pore pressure gradient from flow line=4437/[ (10000-5) * 0.0519 ]
=8.55PPG (0.444 psi/ft)
For EG 2 :
Actual pore pressure gradient =(10000-220) * 0.0519 * 8.34
=4302 (0.433 psi/ft).
Pore pressure gradient from flow line=4302 / (9780 * 0.0519)
= 8.48PPG (044 psi/ft) .
Its apparent that with depth increase the normal FBG will approach the actual pore pressure.
But at shallow depths the differences between actual pore pressure and normal FBG are extremely remarkable .
Since there no water – base mud dose have a density of 6.5 or 8.1 PPG . So drilling with the least available water – base mud densities
(8.6 –8.8PPG) in shallow holes will approach or exceeds the fracture pressure of the formations resulting lost circulation and no
returns .
Since the pore pressure is not constant from surface all the way down bore hole , but actually increases with increase of depth.
The gradient as measured from the flow line is termed FORMATION BALANCE GRADIENT (FBG) and this is precisely equal to
static equivalent mud density (Eq M wt ) required in the bore hole to balance formation pore pressure.(so the terms may be used
interchangeably).
FBG is always less than pore pressure gradient .
PS :
Formation pressure = pressure on the standpipe gauge (after stopping circulation and closing chock) +hydrostatic pressure of mud
column in the drill pipe (as mud inside drill pipe will be normally not contaminated).
Formation pressure = SIDP +(M wt * TVD * 0.0519) .
Controlling the formation pressure is one of the primary functions of drilling fluids that is mainly controlled by the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the fluid column in the annulus ,whenever the formation pressure exceeds the total hydrostatic pressure of the
drilling fluid ,the formation fluids will invade the well bore causing a kick .

OVERBURDEN PRESSURE :
Overburden is that pressure resulting from the combination between those pressures resulting from overburden weight of the rock
grins and pore pressure resulting from fluid content in pore spaces.
Po =Pf +Pc
Where Po = overburden pressure gradient (psi/ft)
Pf = fluid pressure gradient (psi/ft)
Pc = rock grains pressure gradient (psi/ft)
EG : Rock grain density = 2.6 gm/cm3
Pore fluid density =1.07 gm/cm3
Porosity =34%
2.65 * (66/100) = 1.75 gm/cm3
1.07* (34/100) = 0.36 gm/cm3
Average overburden density of this rock =1.75+0.36 =2.11gm/cm3
=2.11*8.34*0.519 =0.92 psi/ft
Normal overburden pressure varies from approximately 0.84 psi/ft near the surface to 1.0 psi/ft @20000 ft.

NORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE :

When a formation is deposited , the formation keeps some fluids in its pores (mostly water) until being exposed to another overlying
sedimentation which exerts a sort of compression pressure on underlying sediments causing escape of some underlying formation
fluids due to that compression force on its pore spaces , the amount of escaped fluids depends on degree of compaction of
rock(resulting from above compression force) also its permeability.
If the amount of escaped fluids off formation are equivalent to overburden pressure and the depth , also corresponding to equivalent
temperature and pressure at that depth. So the formation keeps a normal pressure .
Normal Formation Pressures :
# Marine basins = 0.465 psi/ft =9.0 PPG with salinity of 80000 mg / l CL.
#Island areas = 0.433 psi/ft = 8.34 PPG .

ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURES :

When fluids are sealed within a formation (due to impermeability ) and unable to escape ,they then support apart of the weight of the
overburden .
As the depth increase the overburden load increases and accordingly the formation pressure increases . Also increase of temperature
will lead to abnormal pressure.
Causes For Abnormal Pressure :
1- Rapid sedimentation rates accompanied by thick and low – permeability shale sections.
2- Tectonic activities such as salt intrusions and anticline folds.
3- Diagenetic alterations such as conversion of anhydrite to gypsum . The resulting volume increase could generate substantial
pressure increase within a sealed zone.
4- Formations that have been charged with water from surroundings, and this water was captured inside the formations.

How to Recognize Abnormal Pressure Zones :

Abnormal pressure zones are usually accompanied by under compacted shales. This change in shale characteristics generally results in
:
1- Increase in normal porosity.
2- Increase in formation fluid content and change in formation density.
3- Increase in shale conductivity.

METHODS OF FORMATION PRESSURE PREDICTION :

1- Seismic data the area to be drilled :

Since the abnormally pressured zones have not compacted normally with depth and hence its porosity is high ,together with
presence of high content of gas or fluid occupied within its pore spaces, so the velocity of sound waves traveling through these
formations is reduced .
I.e.: very high adsorptive function to sound waves ends thus very low reflective function to sound waves traveling through it. This
method is highly useful in detecting shallow gas sands, but more difficult to detect deeper gas.(need to have more geologic
information about area from nearby offset wells).

2- Electric log analysis:

a- Conductivity Logs :

Abnormally pressured zones can be predicted by analyzing changes in shales conductivity recorded on conduction logs.
This is done by taking several points of shale conductivity Vs depth. Then draw the best straight line of shale conductivity. Any shift
from that line indicates an abnormal pressure zone .
Then calculate the ratio of shale conductivity observed to the normal conductivity of that shale, that was suppose to fall on guide line
if normal situation
Like that we can indicate the equivalent formation pressure and thus the equivalent fluid density to drill with. This varies from one
area to another.
EG : At depth 13000ft
Observed shale conductivity = 1670
Normal shale conductivity = 630
So the ratio of observed conductivity =1670 /630 = 2.65

DIGRAM
This 2.65 is corresponding to a formation pressure of :16.1 PPG in South Louisiana
12.9 PPG in Texas GULF Coast
12.1PPG in North Sea
13.5 PPG in South China Sea

TABLE

B- Sonic Logs :
Sonic logs measure transit time of sound for a fixed distance through formations(the same as the seismic logs information). Interval
transit time (micro seconds per foot) decreases as the formation porosity decrease because a density material transmits sound waves at
a higher velocity than a less dense material.
Porosity generally decreases at near linear rate as a function of depth in normally compacted shales.
A plot of shale travel time is normally near a straight line with graduated reduction in travel time as a function of depth .
Increased shale porosity (which usually indicates a change in compaction and abnormal pressure)would produce an increase in shale
travel time.
Plot a graph of shale transit time versus depth, any shift from normal compaction trend of shale indicates abnormal pressure zone .
EG : At depth 13000 ft
Observed transit time = 130 (micro sec/ft)
Normal transit time = 95 (micro sec/ft)
Difference = 35 (micro sec/ft)
Which is equivalent to a pore pressure of
15.8 PPG U.S Gulf Coast
14.75PPG South Texas Gulf Coast
14.25PPG West Texas
13.15PPG North Sea
13.6 PPG South China Sea

DIAGRAM & TABLE

SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR SELECTING THE SHALE DATA PIONTS POINTS TO BE USED IN FORMATION
PRESSURE PREDICTION ARE :

1- Select clean shales in intervals of low spontaneous potential (SP) deflection and uniform conductivity or sonic readings
2- Shales selected for data points should be at least 20 ft thick with points obtained from the center of the section if possible
3- Shales stringers within massive sand sections tend to exhibit high unreliable readings
4- Avoid shale readings immediately above known gas sand. These readings will characteristically display high unreliable values
5- If available, the caliper survey should be scanned for excessive hole enlargement, excessive enlargement can create a skip in
signal on sonic logs and lead to erroneous data .
6- Avoid plotting silty or limey shales by inspecting the SP curve. Minimum SP values will result in more reliable data .

DRILLING PARAMETERS USED TO INDICATE AN ABNORMAL PRESSURE ZONE :

1- RATE OF PENETRATION :
The increase of ROP indicates abnormal pressure zone .
A rule of thumb is that a uniform decrease in ROP of shales normally occurs with depth.
This decrease in ROP results from the increase of compaction and density of the shales.
To understand the action during drilling , when a bits tooth penetrates hard formation it forms a cone of crushed rock immediately
beneath the tooth. The formation of cracks alone will not make a hole, so the cuttings must be removed as they are formed. The most
effective force for the removal of cuttings is high velocity jetting by the bit. (PS : In plastic formations the material will be
gauged rather than crushed).
The ease with which cuttings are removed (and hence picking up ROP )depends upon the differential pressure across bottom.
Differential pressure = is the difference between bottom hole circulating pressure (ECD) formation pore pressure (or formation
balance gradient FBG )
If circulating pressure is much larger than formation pressure (overbalance) cuttings will be held down against bottom by the excess
differential pressure .
As the overbalance is decreased , these effects are reduced , cuttings will be removed easily and ROP will increase .
In drilling overpressured zone the formation pressure is sufficiently exceeding the circulating pressure (underbalance) ,the mud filter
cake ceases to form, and the cuttings are forced away from the formation , and thus increase in ROP occurs .
PS : It can be seen that the ROP can be controlled by differential pressure alone.
In most drilling situations it is desirable to maintain the mud density slightly higher than FBG (formation pressure PPG).
The resulting differential pressure can be calculated as follows
= (W * D * 0.0519 ) – ( FBG * D * 0.0519 )
= P
where W = mud density PPG
D = depth ft
FBG = formation pressure gradient PPG
P = differential pressure
NB 1:
Substituting ECD for W gives differential pressure while drilling .
NB 2 :
P should be positive during all drilling operations.
NB 3 :
If FBG > hydrostatic pressure , influx occurs .
Generally we can not count on ROP only as there are other parameters affects the ROP such as:
A – Lithology changes B – Bit weight C- Bit type
D –Bit condition E – Rotary speed F –Drilling fluid properties
G –Hydraulics (bottom hole cleaning)

2 - VARINACE IN SHAPE AND SIZE OF SHALE CUTTINGS :

Shale cuttings from an abnormally pressured zone are larger than those from a normally pressure zone.
They are characterized by sharp and angular edges and needle like shape , while normal pressured cuttings are generally small and
flat with rounded edges .
The variables which determine the size and shape of shale cuttings are :
a- Mineralogical , chemical and physical properties .
b- Type of drilling fluid .
c- Hole geometry .
d- Down hole agitation .

3 - CHANGE IN ROTARY TORQUE :

During normal drilling operation , rotary torque gradually increase with depth due to the effect of wall contact of the drillstring on
the well bore also the action of formation on bit rotation Any abrupt changes from this trend indicates :(a twist of in the drill string , a
locked cone on the bit , a wash out in the drill string , a change in formation pressure)
Increase of pre pressure causes larger amount shale cuttings to come into the well bore ,and the bit teeth will take larger bites into the
formation.
The increased amount of shale tends to stick or impede bit rotation.
Rotary torque can not be an indicator for abnormal zones in deviated holes.

4 – CHANGE IN DRAG AND OVERPULL :

When drilling in a balanced or near balanced situation, an increase in drag and over pull can occur while making a connection in
abnormally pressured zone.
This increase in over pull and drag is due to :
a- Plastic nature of some pressured shales, which may cause close of shale around the drillcollars and bit.
b- Swelling action of shale
c- Extra pressured shale cuttings which enter the well pore when keeping abnormal pressure.

5 - SHALE DENSITY :
Shales which are normally pressured have undergone normal compaction and thus densities increase uniformly with depth, this
uniform increase allows shale density to be predicted.
Any significant reduction in shale density (due to improper compaction and occupying of more fluids than usual) indicates an
overpressured zone.

6 - INCREASE IN CHLORIDE IONS IN MUD ABOVE 10,000 mg/l :

7 - DECREASE OF FLOWLINE TEMPERATURE :

A normal trend for flow line temperature should be plotted or recorded .
Any significant decrease in flow line temperature (6F or above)indicates overpressured zone. But still this parameter has to be
compared with some other parameters be positive of presence of an overpressured zone .

8- GAS CONTENT OF DRILLING FLUID :

Increase of gas content of drilling fluid was recommended an indicator for detecting abnormal pressured zones.
 Since the gas cutting is not always a result of an underbalance condition, so correct interpretation of gas cutting trends is
recommended .
Also a trend for background gas and connection gas is recommended . So as when having any abnormal significant increase in
gas it can be referred to presence of an abnormal pressured zone .
# Gas may be entrained in mud column as a result of the following conditions :
a - When a formation containing gas is drilled, and while circulating cuttings containing gas up the hole , gas in these drilled
particles expanded and released to the drilling fluid system causing cut in the mud weight .
in such cases , increasing [Link] will not stop the gas cutting.
This condition can be verified by reducing drilling rate or by stopping drilling and circulating bottoms up.
b- While drilling a pressured formation the differential pressure between the ECD and formation pressure is reduced to be very
close.
I.e. : ECD is very slightly higher than formation.
But when stopping circulation the static hydrostatic fluid column pressure is nearly equal or even less than formation .
So on making a connection or trip the piston effect of upward pipe movement can swap formation gases and fluids into the well
bore causing cut in [Link] especially gas which will expand on circulating up causing gas cut.
Ps :
If differential pressure increases but from negative side .
I.e. formation become > hydrostatic pressure
So the influx activity of the formation content bore hole increases and might exceed to cause a kick.
# To detect the amount of gas entering the mud system as follows :
Gv =(d/24) * (#*R/60) *porosity *Sg * 7.48
Where Gv = rate of gas entering the mud system at reservoir pressure (gal/min)
R = rate of penetration (ft/hr)
d = hole diameter (inch)
Sg = gas saturation
EG : If d =8.5 porosity = 25%
R = 85 Sg = 70%
With a reservoir pressure at 15,000ft of 7,000 psi
Gv = (8.5/24) (3.14*85/60) * 0.25 * 0.7 * 7.48
= 0.731 GPM @7,000 ft
the gas volume each minute at atmospheric pressure(14.7 psi) using ideal gas low (neglecting temperature effect) is :
Gva =Gv *(P/14.7)
=0.731 *(7,000/14.7) = 348 GPM @ atmospheric pressure
when the gas reaches the surface the volume of gas flowing with mud is about 350 GPM.
If the normal flow of mud is 280 GPM using a [Link] of 9.2 PPG , the gas mixed with mud at that GPM will result in a mud density of
:
W1 =[GPM (mud) / GPM (mud) + GPM (gas)] *W2
Where W1 =gas cut mud density PPG
W2= uncut mud density PPG
W1 =[280 / (280+350)] * 9.2 = 4.1 PPG.
NB : Increasing the mud density will not reduce gas cutting as the hydrostatic pressure of 9.2 PPG mud @ 15,000 ft is7162 psi . i.e.,
162 psi greater than reservoir pore pressure.
The pressure reduction caused by mud cutting :
P = 14.7 * [(W2-W1) / W1] * Ln [(3.53*W2*D) / 1,000]
P = pressure reduction caused by mud cutting psi
W1= gas cut mud density at the flow line PPG
W2=uncut mud density PPG
D =depth of gas zone ft
Using information from previous example :
P =14.7[(9.2-4.1) / 4.1] * Ln[(3.53*9.2*15,000) / 1,000 ]
= 113 psi
So the actual mud gradient @ 15,000 ft is :
W = [hydrostatic pressure – P ] / D * 0.0519
= [7162 – 113] / 15,000 *0.0519 = 9.0+ ppg

PS : The decrease in bottom pressure in deep wells is small as shown in previous example, But in shallow wells it is a major problem .
EG : Hole diameter = 12.25”
Drilling rate = 500 ft/hr
Depth = 1,000 ft
Formation has 30 % porosity
Formation has 70 % gas saturation.
Formation pressure = 467 psi (9 PPG).
[Link] = 9.2 PPG
Pump rate = 450 GPM
Amount of gas entering the mud system =(12.25/ 24) *[ (3.14 * 500) / 60 ] * 0.3*0.7*7.48
= 10.7 GPM @ 467 psi.
Gas volume each minute at atmospheric pressure = 10.7*[467/14.7]= 340 GPM.
The resultant mud density = [450/(450+340)] * 9.2 = 5.2 PPG.

Thus the pressure reduction at 1,000 ft

P =14.7*[(9.2-5.2)/5.2] * Ln [(3.53*9.2*1,000)/1,000]
= 39 psi
although the pressure reduction appears to small, only 39 psi, but the resultant mud gradient @ 1,000 ft = [9.2*1,000*0.0519]-39 =438
psi
[438 / (1000*0.0519)] = 8.4 PPG
The mud gradient is reduced from 9.2 PPG to 8.4 PPG by a reduction of 39 psi @ 1,000 ft.
If formation pressure gradient is 9.0 PPG @ 1,000 ft, the well will kick if this situation is permitted to occur.
NB :
Gas cut mud @ shallow depths may be extremely hazardous as a severe kick and loss of well control can result !
These calculations do not take into account the effect of temperature and compressibility has a small effect on gas expansion when
compared to effect of pressure .
But due to difficulty of estimating formation temperature and obtaining realistic values for gas compressibility . The calculation only
takes pressure into account.
On surface the temperature effect is insignificant .
NB1:
Circulating gas out without controlling gas expansion causes reduction in annulus hydrostatic column and thus cause disturbance in
differential pressure (formation pressure comes to be >hydrostatic pressure ) as pervasively mentioned causing more gas influx into
the well bore leading to gas kick .
NB 2 :
Deferential pressure is one of the major factors that affect the amount of gas that enters the mud Other factors effecting the gas influx
are porosity and permeability of the formation and also gas saturation.
NB 3 :
Negative differential pressure can be shown by increasing background gas .
NB 4 :
Large cutting can be produced under conditions of very high underbalance from beneath the bit.
NB 5 :
Negative differential pressure during tripping may result in swabbing , kick and severely gas cut mud upon recirculation.
NB 6 :
On stopping circulation ,differential pressure small or close to zero can cause connection gases to be produced from gas bearing
permeable formations.
NB 7 :
Connection gases produced from clays are indicative of reasonable high negative differential pressure.

9 - DRILLING EXPONENT :
The rate at which a formation can be drilled is controlled by a number of drilling parameters which are :
a- Bit size .
b- WOB .
c- Tooth shape and distribution and tooth efficiency .
d- Drilling hydraulics .
e- Differential pressure .
f- Matrix strength .
g- Formation compaction .
h- RPM .
Since DXC is a function of those drilling parameters . So by mean of plotting a normal trend for DXC of the area.
So any deviation from that trend is an indication for abnormal formation.
DXC = { Log(R/60N) / Log(12W/1000B) } .
Corrected DXC = DXC *[ N. FBG/ECD]
R = rate of penetration (ft/hr)
N = rotary speed (RPM)
B = hole diameter
N. FBG =normal formation balance gradient (PPG)
ECD = effective circulating density (PPG)
W = weight on bit (1,000 lbs.)
For metric system :
DXC ={Log(R/18.29N) / Log (W/14.88B)} * (N. FBG / ECD)
R in m/hr
B in cm
N in RPM
N. FBG and ECD in g/cc
W in tones (1,000 kg)

10- PALEO INFORMATION :

Abnormally high pore pressured zones are frequently related to certain environmental conditions within a given geologic time
period. This depositional environment is marked by presence of certain fossils.

CAUSES OF A KICK :
1- Insufficient mud density .
2- Swab and surge pressures.
When the pipe is tripped from the hole it acts like a piston so swab occurs causing bottom hole pressure reduction.
As the pipe moves upward, frictional forces between the pipe, mud and bore hole wall will cause a pressure reduction .
The maximum effect of this pressure reduction on mud density will be immediately below the bit. The maximum over pull pressure
reduction will occur at the bottom of the hole .
NB :
An open drillstring will allow some fluid to flow through the jets allowing some degree of pressure relief. But if the drillstring has a
float or down hole BOP swabbing pressure will be at a maximum .
As a rule of thumb , this pressure reduction can be at least the same as the annular pressure loss. Swab values will depend on pipe
pulling speeds and hole condition.
A safe weight to trip can be determined from the annular pressure losses using :
W trip < W- [annular pressure losses psi] / [0.0519*D]
Pressure reduction due to swabbing can be serious when drilling geopressured intervals, as the dropping of the BHCP/ECD may cause
the will to flow.
Large changes in mud density or effective mud density should avoided as these changes cause unexpected in magnitude which may
lead to severe hole problems.

The following items act to increase swabbing effect :

a- Thick filter cake.
b- Bit balling.
c- If nozzles are blocked and back pressure value in the drillstring .
d- The speed at which pipe is pulled has a great effect on swabbing.
e- High gel and viscosity (as both have a large effect on swabbing)
NB :
If swab does occurs pipe should be run back to bottom and circulation out invaded fluids or gases.
Surge pressure when running into the hole (pipe or casing )may be sufficient to overcome the fracture pressure of weak formations ,
So the pipe run into the hole should be at a speed that produces a surge pressure, below the minimum fracture pressure.
This is important to be taken into our consideration any where in the bore hole as pressures are transmitted to the bore hole even when
the bit is inside the casing.
3- LOW DIFFERANTIAL PRESSURE :
The majority of kicks occur when the bit is off bottom while tripping. When the pumps are shut down prior to tripping. There a
pressure reduction in the bore hole equals to the annuals pressure loss(annular friction pressure loss) .
If the pore pressure is nearly equals the mud hydrostatic pressure or even higher , flow may occurs when circulating stops and may
lead to a kick .
4- DROP IN LENGTH OF DRILLING FLUID COLUMN IN BORE HOLE :
In case of loss circulation with presence of failure to keep the hole full, the fluid level in the hole will drop and thus result in loss in
hydrostatic pressure due to decrease in length of drilling fluid column. If not controlled this hydrostatic pressure loss , this may lead to
disturbance balancing formation pressure, and thus allowing influx of formation fluids into bore hole.
5- RISER EFFECT :
The mud density used must be capable of balance the formation pressure. when the marine riser is removed.
It is important to determine pressure reduction resulting from removal of riser on running casing job :
EG :
Water depth = 250 ft
Air gap = 45 ft to RKB
RKB to flow line = 5 ft
Set 30” casing @ 600 ft
Total depth = 1500 ft
[Link] = 9.2 PPG
NB : Gas shows were recorded at 800 ft and 1100 ft.
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure !
- at 600 ft =9.5*(600-5)*0.0519 =293 psi
- at 800 ft = 9.5*(800-5)*0.0519=392 psi
- at1100ft =9.5*(1100-5)*0.0519=540 psi
- at 1500ft=9.5*(1500-5)*0.0519=737 psi
In order to pull the riser it is necessary to displace it with sea water of density 8.5 PPG.
So the resulting pressure would be:
- at sea bed = (250+45-5)*8.5*0.0519 = 128 psi
- at 600 ft =[9.5*(600-290)*0.0519]+128 = 281 psi
- at 800 ft =[9.5*(800-290*0.0519]+128 =379 psi
- at 1100ft =[9.5*(1100-290)*0.0519]+128=527psi
- at 1500ft =[9.5*(1500-290)*0.0519]+128=726psi
From results a reduction in EQMD =
- at 600 ft = 9.1 PPG
- at 800 ft = 9.15PPG
- at1100ft = 9.25PPG
- at 1500ft =9.3 PPG
If gas zones at 800 ft and 1100 ft are permeable and with that big difference between 9.5 PPG on having riser and 9.1 and 9.15 PPG
on removing riser, we might have a gas flow to bore hole.
On removing riser, the fluid level in riser falls to sea level causing further reduction pressure.
So the hydrostatic pressure will be :
- at sea bed = 8.5*250*0.0510 =110 psi
- at600 ft =[9.5*(600-290)*0.0519]+110 = 263 psi
- at 800 ft =[9.5*(800-290)*0.0519]+110 = 361 psi
- at 1100ft =[9.5*(1100-290)*0.0519]+110=509psi
- at 1500ft =[9.5*(1500-290)*0.0519]+110=708psi
So from results an other reduction in EQMD =
- at 600 ft =8.5 PPG
- at 800 ft =8.75PPG
- at1100 ft=9 PPG
- at 1500 ft=9.1PPG
To keep a 9.5 PPG gradient at 1100 ft will be necessary to increase the mud density into hole before disconnecting riser, the new
mud weight can be calculated as follows :
New [Link] =[(D*W) –8.5*(Dw –BOPl)] /[D-Dw-A+BOPl ]
D =vertical depth of hole(ft) from flow line
W =mud density in hole (PPG)
Dw=water depth (ft)
BOPl =height of BOP stack from sea bed to riser conductor (ft) = eg 35 ft
A =distance from flow line to sea level (ft)
8.5 = density of sea water (PPG)
So the new [Link] ={[(1100-5)*9.5]-8.5*(250-35)} /(1100-5)-250-40+35 = 10.2 PPG.
So the new Mwt must be = 10.2 PPG to keep a 9.5 PPG gradient @ 1100 ft.

KICK RECOGNITION :
1- Increase in flow rate.
2- Increase in pit volume.
3- Well flowing with pumps off.
4- Increase in chloride content of drilling fluid at flow line (above 100k mg/l).
5- Gas cutting.
6- Circulating pressure drop because of the unbalance between the hydrostatic column in the drill pipe and annuals after penetrating
an abnormal zone, it may take less pump pressure to circulate the fluid. Flow rate and pit volume increase would normally be
observed before a circulating pressure decrease.
7- Hole not taking proper quantity of fluid while tripping pipe out due to formation fluid invasion into bore hole.(swab).
8- Drag while tripping in .
 WELL CONTROL AND KILL PROCEDURES
1- Record predetermined kill rate (SPM), and kill rate pressure[Other names :Slow Circulating Pressure](SCP) or Reduced
Circulating Pressure (RCP) ] .
A predetermined slow rate for circulation out a kick is recorded each tour. This is done to stand on any change in slow rate pressure
due to chock line friction or kill line friction. also to compensate for changes in depth or any fluid weight changes.
This slow rate is recommended to be ½ of the normal rate or even less to prevent any excessive well bore pressure, when circulating
out a kick through chock lines or kill lines.
2- Position Kelly and tool joint , so that tool joint are clear of sealing elements .
3- Stop pumps and check for flow.
4- If flow is noted, close will in without delay.
5- Record shut-in drill pipe pressure (SIDP) and shut-in casing pressure (SICP) .
The drill pipe pressure gauge or pump pressure gauge is in reality a bottom hole pressure.
After a well kick , and when the pump is off and the well is shut-in the drill pipe is then a large gauge stem that reaches to the bottom
of the hole . So the drill pipe pressure gauge reads in a some how the bottom hole pressure as seen from the gauge stem.
PS :
If the drill pipe was empty the surface gauge would read bottom hole pressure. But the drill pipe is filled with the drilling fluid,
which is normally not contaminated so the gauge reading shows the difference between bottom hole pressure and the hydrostatic
pressure of mud column in the drill pipe.
The SIDP (or kick pressure)is the difference between the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud column in the drill pipe and the
bottom hole pressure exerted by formation (formation pressure).
Formation pressure = stand pipe gauge reading after stopping the pump (SIDP) +the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid column
inside the drill pipe .
NB :
Casing pressure will normally always be higher than drill pipe pressure , because kick gas or water well normally be lighter than the
mud and by turn cuts [Link] in annulus . This makes the mud column pressure in the annulus less than the full non contaminated
column of the mud in the drill pipe. So the formation pressure acting against the hydrostatic pressure of mud column in annulus will
be much easier than acting against the hydrostatic mud column inside the drill pipe and thus the annulus surface pressure will be
higher than the drill pipe pressure.
Shut-in drill pipe pressure can be determined by :
a- Read directly from gauge if there is no back pressure value in the string .
b-
If a back pressure value in the string then :
- Start pump slowly , continue until fluid moves or pump pressure increase suddenly .
- Watch casing pressure , stop pump when the annular pressure starts to increase.
- Read drill pipe pressure at this point.
- If casing pressure increase above its original pressure when closing the well this would indicate trapped pump pressure must be
subtracted from drill pipe pressure reading at the point when stopping circulation. This is the SIDP .
These procedures should be repeated until having the same value two consecutive times .

OR :
If predetermined slow rate and slow rate pressure have been recorded.
- Open chock and start pump slowly .
- Hold casing pressure at the same level as the SICP .
- Bring pump speed up to predetermined slow rate , keeping casing pressure constant.
- Read new circulating pressure at predetermined slow rate from stand pipe gauge (at this kick situation) .
- Then subtract predetermined circulation pressure at predetermined slow rate from the new circulating pressure in this kick
situation at the same predetermined slow rate.
The difference will be the amount of underbalance or SIDP .
6- Check BOPs and manifold for any leaks .
7- Check accumulator pressure.
8- Check flow line and check exhaust lines for flow .
9- Record volume gain and mark pits.
10- Fill up kill sheet .
11- Calculate well kill calculations .
a- Initial circulating pressure = slow circulation pressure + SIDP .
As previously mentioned a predetermined slow circulation rate (usually ½ the normal drilling rate)and corresponding pressure loss
versus depth and variation in [Link] should recorded each tour . This recorded pressure plus the SIDP will equal the initial circulating
pressure (ICP) .
If no predetermined slow rate has been recorded the SICP can be used as a reference point .
Open the chock slightly and bring the pump up to a slow rate while maintaining the original SICP at all times .
 When a satisfactory slow rate has been reached and the casing gauge still reads original pressure , the initial circulating pressure
can be read from the drill pipe gauge .
b- Calculate required [Link] increase =SIDP / (0.0519*depth)
EG :
[Link] =12 PPG
SIDP =260 psi
TVD =10,000 ft
[Link] increase =260 /(0.0519*10,000) = 0.5 PPG
c- Calculate required [Link] (kill [Link]) to equalize formation pressure
= required [Link] increase + original [Link]
So the new [Link] to equalize formation pressure =12 + 0.5 = 12.5 PPG.
d- Final circulation pressure (FCP) :
With the new [Link] at slow circulating rate = ICP-SIDP*(Mwt2 / Mwt1)
=SCP*(new [Link] / old [Link])
e- Maximum allowable casing pressure :
So as at any time not to reach that value .
I.E : Always keeping casing pressure under maximum allowable casing pressure with a satisfactory value . Otherwise causing
changing to the casing if its pressure increases .
= (Fracture [Link] – Present [Link]) * Casing depth * 0.0519 .
 TYPES OF MUD

KCL POLYMER MUD

Composition and properties :
Kcl-polymer mud are considered to be the most inhibitive mud against clay , fluid interaction on drilling massive layers of hydratable
clays and shales.
Its beneficial effect is based on inhibitive properties of potassium ions towards shale hydration and on the encapsulating and coating of
both cuttings and bore hole wall by selected polymers .
Kcl-polymer mud is often refereed to as (low solids) mud which means that :
- No collided or suspended solids are used in the initial make up.
- Treatment is geared to prevent the dispersion of drilled solids to enable solids removal (no thinner added) .
1- Fresh H2O, saline H2O, brine H2O or even sea water , in all types of water should check and treat the hardness of used water as
polymers used are very sensitive to Ca content . so always keep Ca content below 400 mg/l .
2- Kcl ,(however the concentration of Kcl may vary depending on the degree of inhibition required) the typical concentration is 10%
by W or 35 lb./bbl .
Alternatively concentration Kcl brine may be diluted in a 1: 1 ratio with water.
3- Caustic soda (0.5 lb./bbl) to maintain pH between 9-10 to provide non corrosive conditions.
4- Soda ash (0.1 lb./bbl or 0.3 kg/m3) to treat out Ca content to be less than 400mg/l.
5- PAC-LV Resinex & starch {3lb./bbl or 8.6 hg/m3- 4lb./bbl or 11.5kg/m3} for fluid loss control.
6- PAC-HV {1-2 lb./bbl or 2.8-5.7 kg/m3} or XCD polymer(BipolyE) (0.5-1.0 lb./bbl or1.5-2.8 kg/m3). PACs are CMC- type
polymers. They are different from technical grade CMC in that the molecules have more anionic sites (promoting adsorption into
clay particles) are larger(higher viscosity) and the material contains less impurities.
7- Polyacrylomide (1 lb./bbl or 2.8 kg/m3) (optional)is added to encapsulate clay cuttings. This additive as a liquid concentrate (as a
dispersion in oil) to facilitate rapid addition to the mud.
8- Barites as required..

PARAMETERS NEEDED :
1- Density > 10.80 kg/m3 .
2- M.F viscosity 45-50 sec .
3- PV 15-20 cp. (14-20 m [Link]).
4- YP 20-25 lbs/ft2 (10 12 Pa) .
5- pH 9.5-10.5 .
6- API fluid loss < 10 cm3 .
7- K+ content 52 gm/l .
NB : If its required a low fluid loss mud directly from the start (e.g. : permeable formations closely below the casing show) addition of
fine particulate matter could be required to aid in filter cake build up , use of prehydrated bentonite (approximately 5lb./bbl or 14
kg/m3) or finally graded Calcium carbonate with a medium particle size of 25 micron , is then recommended .
Effect of Clays and Shales :
The polymer (Polyacrylomide) in Kcl-polymer mud is through to aid in shale stabilization. It is generally perceived that the polymer
(anionic polyelectrolyte) is adsorbed at the positive sites on the edges of clay crystal lattices. It seems likely that this adsorption occurs
multiple points along the chain of the elongated polymer molecules , thus linking particles together and form a jelly coating at the
surface of the drilled shale and clay particles and on the pore hole wall and thus slow down the rate of transport of water into the shale.
It was found that not all anionic polymers seem to be equally effective encapsultors only Polyacrylomide and biopolymers (XCD
polymer) have encapsulating properties .
Inspite of its inhibiting properties , mud shale interaction can not be prevented completely as a result of ion – exchange with drilled
clays the K+ content of the mud will decrease .
And as in bentonite and gypsum based muds the mud properties which are affected by shales are:
a- Viscosity .
b- Density .
c- Plastering properties .
d- pH .
e- Water loss .
# The increase of water loss is due to :
It is well known that the fluid loss in this type of mud is controlled mainly by polymers. So as a result of depletion of these polymers
which adsorb onto drilled shale particles , together with entrance of clay properties into mud in a flocculated state, poor filtration
characteristics .
I.e. increased value fluid loss will result in a thicker mud cake.
# Still many operational problems related to mud shale interaction are reduced by using Kcl polymer muds .
EG : Balling problems will be less than during drilling with other mud types . If still occurs ,this an indication for insufficient
inhibition and should be treated by increasing Kcl level .
A- Tight Hole and Over pulls :
They are often experienced when drilling gumbo shales, because shale hydration is reduced , hole erosion is reduced as will as a result
the well bore will be in gauge , which is easily experienced as a tight hole . In a dispersed system rapid erosion would avoid this. This
can be avoided by continuos reaming before each connection .
B- Caving and Hole Enlargement :
In more brittle shales, sloughing resulting in Caving and hole enlargement is often a result of hydration along micro fractures,
permeable bedding planes and other lithological inhomogenities. The degree of further disintegration of cuttings depends on the shale
strength and hydration potential and may therefore be limited in a Kcl polymer mud .
Caving circulated out of the hole are often hard and dry with a surface which is clearly not affected by hydration .
Operational problems in sloughing shales are Over pulls and difficulties in hole cleaning. When using less inhibitive muds dispersion
of Caving may be the reason that sloughing remains unnoticed during drilling , because Caving circulated out cuttings size. An
excessive hole size over the unstable zone is often the only indication of shale sloughing in these muds .To avoid these problems its
necessary to adopt certain operational problems such as frequent check tripping to restore the hole gauge and to thoroughly clean the
hole prior to making trips and ream and clean prior to making drill pipe connection .

# Treatment Whilst Drilling Shales and Clays :

In Kcl polymer muds inclusion of clay and shale is avoided by , hydration is minimized and particles are protected from
disintegration by encapsulation .
Kcl polymer muds are also called Low Solids Muds .

# Viscosity and Fluid Loss Control :

They are avoided by polymers (XCD polymer, PAC-HV for viscosity and modified starch or PAC-LV for fluid loss control) .
Bentonite should not be used for this purpose as it contributes to the clay content of the mud . Chemical treatment with thinner to
control rheology should not be done , because clay particles would then be dispersed to unremovable size
# Both Viscosity and Density : should be controlled by dilution only, this normally implies disposal of old mud and addition of fresh
mud. Treatment indicators are the(rheological indicators PV, YP, Gels) which may exceed set limits, and MBT.
NB :
The upper limit of bentonite association is 25lb./bbl or 72kg/m 3 . Above this value the rheology will rapidly increase to intolerable
values .
NB :
Always the added new mud should be at least ¼ of the circulating volume and should contain all additives as required in the basic
make up.
NB :
One could be tempted to add fresh volume with a reduced viscosity to counteract the high viscosity in the circulating mud. By doing
so , one would start to convert to a system which relies on the viscosity being provided by drilled clays rather than by polymers .
Reduction of the overall polymer level result in incomplete encapsulation hence increased hydration and dispersion of clay particles
and a more rapid deterioration of mud properties.

# K+ and Polymer may deplete rapidly while drilling reactive clays and shales and the level of these additives should mounted closely
to enable timely replenishment . The Cl- level of the mud remains virtually constant , however it therefore not possible to monitor K +
content in Kcl –muds by relating to Cl- measurements. Both Kcl and Polyacrylomide (which is available as a liquid concentrate) can
be added directly into the active system (no hopper required).
Its good practices to start off with a slightly higher Kcl level than specified. EG:(40lb./bbl or 115kg/m 3) when 35lb./bbl or 100 kg/m3
is specified. A more or less constant addition rate can be estimated from the observed rate of depletion.
In area when mud plant facilities are available Kcl is often supplied as concentrated brine (80-90 lb./bbl Kcl). Altranativly Kcl
supplied in big bags (1or1.5MT content).
# For Polyacrylomide additions in reactive shale a rule of thumb is 1 pail (approximately 25L polymer solution) for every single
drilled. Addition rate should be adjusted to maintain the excess polymer content at approximately 0.5 lb./bbl or 1.4 kg/m 3 in the mud
at the flow line.
Addition of PPA can result in a thickening of mud in the active pit (say to a MF viscosity of 60-70 sec). This is perfectly accepted as
it should be realized that the concentration is automatically reduced when the mud enters the annulus where the polymer is adsorbed
onto the surface of cuttings and formation face .
The Polyacrylomide content may not depleted because restoring the level may cause excessive viscosity . Deficiency of polymer may
result in the build up of fine hydrated clay particles in the mud . Subsequent addition of polymer may then result in blocky structure of
flocculated particles with accompanied effect on the mud viscosity, which can only be restored by prolong shearing and circulating
.Physically this phenomenon is very similar to the (over the hump)effect in bentonite muds upon salt or Ca ++ additions .

FACTS [% of K+]
 3% (W) or less is enough to consolidate illitic shales.
 20% (W) is required for gumbo shales of young age.
 10%(W) 35 lb./bbl is desired to whenever the requirements dictated by formation properties are not known .

INDICATORS FOR INCOMPLETE INHIBITION :

1. When cuttings generated are sticky I.E cuttings generated should be firm and move off the shaker screens as discrete particles and
when squeezed in the hand they should not form a sticky mass . If sticky means that hydration is still taking place and inhibition is
incomplete.
2. High reduction rate of K+ ion level .
3. Rapidly deteriorating rheology properties (requiring high dilution rate)
4. Occurrence of potential problems (balling , tight hole).
- Increasing the Kcl level improves the inhibiting effect of the mud.
- Increasing the polymer level does not contribute to better inhibition . As long as some excess polymer can be detected in the mud
from the hole encapsulating is considered optional.
- Polyacrylomide can be left out without adverse effect on the mud or the drilling performance . This indicates that the
encapsulating effect of other polymers present in the mud( EG :XC polymer ) can be sufficient. It is recommended however to
include Polyacrylomide if such experience does not exist .
- Kcl polymer are sensitive to drilled solids which might get into the mud and thus will affect viscosity and gels of the mud,
therefore it is required high efficiency solid removal equipments especially with respect to shale shaker.

- EFFECTS ON DRILLING ANHYDRITE :

Contamination by anhydrite does not affect the properties of a Kcl polymer mud.
The only indication of anhydrite contamination will be an increase of dissolved calcium to approximately 600 mg/l which is not
sufficiently high to give a noticeable effect on Polyacrylomide .
NB : Hydration of drilled clay is sufficiently prevented by K + to avoid flocculation by Ca+2.

- EFFECTS ON DRILLING CEMENT :

- Since drilled clays have been converted to a form with K + as the base ion , which provides inhibition against hydration .
- So the cement will only show an increase of pH and Ca+2 content and mud alkalinity (Pm, Mf) .
- In case of mud containing polyacrylamide
- Ca+2 levels in excess of 1000 mg/l will deactivate, precipitate and consume the polyacrylamide. But still other polymers (
PACS, XCD POLYMER AND STARCH ) will have a higher tolerance to Ca+2.
- Ca+2 levels in excess of 2000 mg/l and high pH in excess of 11.5 will affect, precipitate and break down XCD POLYMER,
PACS and MODIFIED STARCH.

- TREATMENT WHILE DRILLING CEMENT:

- With NAHCO3 ( 0.25 – 0.5 lbs/bbl OR 0.7 – 1.4 kgs/m3 )

- In case of severe contamination with cement, dump the contaminated mud.

- EFFECT ON DRILLING SALT

The properties of KCL – POLYMER Mud are not affected by salt contamination other than increase in cl- content. Similar to other
non – saturated mud, the mud should be saturated prior drilling through a salt layer.
 The effect and treatment of Kcl – poly mer mud when drilling different formations
Formation [Link] Vis WL MBT pH Alk CL Ca K Treatment
Clay + Shale + ++ + ++ - - -- Add K – CL & polymer, dumb old partly,
replace by fresh mud @ MBT 25 bbl, solid
removal.
Sand + Silt + + + + Solid removal, dumb and replace by fresh
mud.
Chalky L. ST.

Cement + ++ ++ ++ pol Pretreated with NaHCO3, restore fluid loss and

polymer content, dumb contaminated mud.
Anhydrite + No treatment required .

Salt ++ Consider conversion to salt saturated mud.

H2S / CO2 -- -- Add C. soda & suitable scavenger

Zn CO3 (H2S)
Lime (CO2).
Formation ++ - -- -- ++ ++ -- Increase [Link], treat Ca w/ soda ash, pH w/ C.
soda
Brine Correct fluid loss, restore polymer, and
consider conversion to salt saturated mud.
GEL – POLYMER MUD
Preparation :
1. Water .
2. Caustic soda .
3. Soda ash to treat out Ca +2 .
4. Bentonite 5-10 lb./bbl .
5. Polymer (viscosifires type depends on depth, temperature, pressure and salinity ), (CMC – HV, XCD, PAC – R, CATA Free,
BIPOLY E ) 3 lb./bbl .
6. Starch – poramile in case of high salinity .
7. W.L. reducer (CMC – LV, Resinex[used when MBT>5lb./bbl, but never use in high salinity ], SALTEX, POLY- PAC, PAC- SL,
POLY TRIX ) .
NB :
Mixing viscosifires and W.L reducers must be very slow , together with good agitation , and use guns while mixing (at least 10
min/sack). As fast addition will result in poor mixing which by turn will result in :
a. plugging of rig pump screens, and thus pump pressure increases.
b. Fish eye .
c. The used polymer will be inactive .
NB : On using mud from previous phase first of all work on Ca +2 contaminations resulting from cement by NaHCO3 to adjust pH ,
viscosity, Pf, Mf, Pm and dump highly contaminated mud .

Parameters Needed :
1. pH 10-10.5 .
2. Viscosity 45 s .
3. YP 15 –20
4. PV +/- 5 .
5. MBT 5 – 10 .
6. W.L as required .
7. Density as required .
Effects of Different drilled Formations :
1. Drilling clay or shales :
a. Increase MBT .
b. Cause flocculation followed by aggregation . Thus increase viscosity at beginning then viscosity will decrease .
c. Increase weight .
Treatment :
a. Dump and dilution with fresh water .
b. Add water loss reducer .
c. Solid removal .
d. Add dispersants if necessary .
2. Drilling sand + silt :
a. a. Increase weight .
b. Increase viscosity + PV .
c. Increase W.L .
Treatment :
a. Remove solids by solid control equipments .
b. Dilute by mean of fresh mud .
c. Add W.L. reducer and dispersants if necessary .
3. Drilling Cement :
a. Increase hardness .
b. Increase alkalinity pH, Pf, Mf, Pm .
c. Increase W.L .
d. Increase viscosity .
e. Decrease YP .
Treatments :
a. Treat with NaHCO3 in case of high pH , soda ash Na2CO3 in case of low pH .
b. Add W.L. reducer (RESINEX, POLYTRIX, and OR CMC- LV) .
c. Add thinner (SPERSENE) .
d. Add viscosifier to retain YP if necessary
e. Dump highly contaminated mud and add fresh water .
4. Drilling Anhydrite
a. Increase Ca+2 content .
b. Increase viscosity .
c. Increase W.L.
Treatment :
a. Add soda ash .
b. Thinner .
c. W.L. reducer .
d. Consider conversion to gypsum mud .
5. Drilling Salts
a. Decrease pH .
b. Increase then decreases viscosity .
c. Increase weight .
d. Increase W.L.
e. Foaming due to chloride increase .
Treatment :
a. Add thinner .
b. Dilution and dump sand trap every 4 connections .
c. Correct W.L.
d. Add defoamer [no foam, or AL Stearate(1kg/gallon diesel to be sprayed on surface of foamed mud in pits)] .
e. Use solid control equipments .
f. Consider converting to salt saturated mud .
6. Effects of CO2
Causes CO3 gelatin.
a. decrease pH .
b. decrease alkalinity of mud .
c. increase viscosity .
d. increase W.L.
Treatment :
a. If pH is not too low add caustic soda .
b. If pH is too low add lime .
c. If pH ok add thinner (Lignosulfonate + caustic soda) .
GENERAL TROUBLE SHOOTING IN WBM:
1. In case of increase of % of gas in system , which will affect the mud weight even with true balance increase surface area of mud ?
Putting on Desander to increase of gas from the mud .
2. In case that in active is contaminated with CO2 which will lead to CO3 gelation . This will result in foams . Add lime straight
away on system to get rid of CO3 and by turn foams (CO2 gas)
3. NaHCO3 + cement =(may result in ) come CO2 dissolved in mud , this only take place at low pH .
4. For quick treatment of Ca+2 contamination add NaHCO3 directly on settling + intermediate . I.E mud out .
5. In case of a gas kick while circulation through check use pH paper after hydrated with H 2O. Put it in chock line ,if CO2 is present
the color will change from yellow to green which indicate acidic medium .
6. In case of bit balling
a. Batch (H2O + caustic soda + Spercene ) .
b. Drum drilling detergent .
c. Redicoat .
d. Nut plug to make friction surface under bit .
NB :The higher the salinity the lower the pH . The higher the Ca +2 contamination .
NB : Ca+2 can be treated by caustic soda , the ppt is Ca(OH)2 (lime) .
NB : Treating Ca+2 by mean of caustic soda . So required cut of X 0.1/100 = ppb of NaOH to treat out Ca +2
OIL BASE MUD
Introduction :
The most important feature of any drilling fluid is that there no interaction between the fluid and the drilled formation which if present
will affect the mechanical properties of the formation .
If a water based system is used the water will inter the formation causing change in its mechanical properties and thus cause instability
of this formation(this can be minimized by using a system like Kcl-polymer mud).
However the only way to prevent the water wetting of the pores of the rock is to contact the formation with a fluid thus will not wet
the rocks and thus will not enter the pores and cause a change in the mechanical properties of the rocks. These fluids having oil to be
the continuos phase of the drilling fluid .

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Shale stability and inhibition.  High initial cost per barrel.

 Temperature stability.  Mechanical shear required.
 Lubricity  Reduced kick detection ability.
 Resistance to chemical contamination  Pollution control required.
 Gauge hole in evaporite formations.  High cost of lost circulation.
 Solids tolerance.  Disposal problems.
 Reduced production damage.  Solids control equipments based on
 Reduced tendency for differential sticking. centrifugation does not work effectively.
 Drilling under-balanced.  Hole cleaning.
 Re-use.  Rig cleanliness.
 Reduced cement cost  Special skin care for personnel may be required.
 High penetration rate.  Hazards vapor.
 Flexibility.  Effect on rubber.
 Reduced of stress fatigue.  Fire hazard.
 Reduced corrosion.  Special logging tools required.
 Gas stripping.
 Oil Based Drilling Fluids are of Two Types :
1. Oil Base Fluid :
This type does not rely on entrained emulsified to drive the basic properties of rheology and fluid loss control.
Normally these would be formulated without water. Generally contain less than 10% water( usually from 1%-5%by volume of water).
This formulated with refined oils such as diesel fuel.
NB : Crude oils can be used (they contain high levels of air blown asphalts).
2. Invert Emulsion Fluid :
Has a continuos exterior oil phase but must have water into interior phase to provide same of the rheological properties and fluid loss
control. This type may contain from 10% - 50% water by volume with the continuos oil phase which can be oil or diesel .

OBM is mainly composed of :

1. The oil phase (mainly diesel)
Which is the continuos phase into which every thing is mixed ?
2. The brine phase (Ca Cl2 + H2O)
It exists in the drilling fluid in the form of extremely small droplets ranging in size form submicron to a few microns in diameter.
These droplets act as solids in the fluid and impact the basic viscosity . Usually Ca Cl2 not Na Cl is used as it gives greater flexibility
in adjusting the activity of the system .
3. The solid phase (barite) :
This consists mainly of the weighting agent., which is mainly barite . But also having fine drilled solids which must be minimized by
removal as much as possible.
This done by adding lime.

The main advantages and reasons for using OBM :

1. Protection of producing sands :
As some producing formations have clays in their pore spaces that swell when contact with water base mud due to water mud
filtration .
This swelling results in partial to complete blockage of the formation which by turn prevents the passage of formation fluids.
The oil filtration of an oil muds does not swell formation clays and therefore does not reduce permeability.
Even on drilling clean sands with water base mud may cause water blocked because of the interfacial and surface tension properties
of water mud filtrate.
2. Drilling water sensitive shales :
Some shale formations that slough when contacted with water mud are drilled readily with oil mud. The external phase of the oil
mud is oil and does not allow water contact the formation, the shales thereby prevented from becoming water wet and dispersing into
the mud or caving into the hole. The result is closer to gauge hole, this have a great advantage on drilling deep wells or deviated wells
and thus prevent and relieving stuck pipe .
3. Drilling deep hot holes :
Oil mud do not undergo any chemical changes at high temperature, which cause solidification of water muds, and thus this
advantage make oil muds an excellent drilling for deep hot wells.
4. Drilling soluble formations :
The drilling of water soluble formations such as salt, potash and gypsum by using water base muds can present a difficulty in
controlling viscosity, gel strength, yield, filtration and density. Also the problem cavities in massive salt formations.
Oil muds aids in overcoming these problems as the external of an oil base mud is oil and non of the normally encountered salts are
soluble in the mud.
NB : Two exceptions are calcium chloride and magnesium chloride which will dissolve in the emulsified water , but have no adverse
effect on oil mud properties .

NB : The non polar nature of the oil muds ensures that the system is in generally insensitive to the chemical contamination that affect
water base systems, such as contamination with salt, anhydrite, cement, carbon hydroxide, sulfides .
5. Coring fluid for oil producing zones :
When water muds a coring fluids , invasion or flushing may destroy the reliability of the data obtained from the core . The total
amount of core which is recoverable may be reduces when water mud is used . For these reasons oil muds is used as a coring fluid.
As oil muds have a low oil filtrate which allows cores to be cut with only slight invasion and flushing.
NB : The water in the oil mud which is squeezed into the core by the high pressure under core bit will slow upon distillation of the
core, as connate water. For this reason its desirable to prepare either oil fluid have a very low percentage of water or water free system
to avoid any damage to the core , but this is quite expensive .
6. Spotting to free differentially stuck pipe :
Because of lubricity property of oil and oil muds, it have been used to prevent and relieving all types of stuck pipe.
# Two things are always present when differential sticking occurs :
 A permeable zone exposed in the open hole.
 A mud with sufficient solids, and a sufficient high filtration rate under down hole conditions, to deposit a thick filter cake.
Therefore to relive differential sticking , it is necessary to effect some change in the cake already deposited . And to prevent
differential sticking it is necessary to prevent deposition of a thick filter cake.
Because of the ability of an oil mud to penetrate the water mud cake and because the inherent lubricity of oil muds they are quite
successful in freeing pipe that was differentially stick while using water mud. It is well known that oil muds have low filtration rate
and head thin cakes at elevated temperature and pressure .
7. Plastic flowing shales :
Gumbo shale is unique in that it contains low concentrations of hydratable clay(10% - 25%) and a large amount of relatively fresh
water (20% - 30%) .
When water base mud is used to drill this(gumbo) the shale immediately disperses into the mud. The mud becomes so thick that
drilling must proceeds at controlled rate or the mud will plug the annulus. Bit and collar balling , stuck pipe , also shaker screens
become plugged because of cutting are soft and gummy.
Oil muds overcome all gumbo drilling problems but only solid control problems .
NB : By incorporating a fairly highly concentration (10-15 lb../bbl) of Ca Cl2 into the water phase of an oil mud a dehydration of this
wet shale would occur and make it drill and act like firmer shale type . The mechanism of this dehydration appears to be osmotic
because of the difference in salt concentration in the shale and in the water phase of the oil mud.
8. Casing pack and packer fluids :
It was found that oil muds have a long term stability and non conduct nature which make them useful in casing packs and packer
fluids in completion and workover situations .
The requirements for a fluid that is to be placed in the casing tubing annulus are relatively simple. This fluid should be :
a- Provide density required to assist in maintaining the packer seal and prevent burst or collapse of pipe. There should be no
compacted settling of solids and slugging and top oil separation should be minimized .
b- To be non – corrosive .
c- To be fluid enough to permit placement a small annulus, or a good clean displacement in a large annulus .
d- To be stable in down hole conditions of temperature and pressure .
e- Have a very low filtration rate to avoid significant loss of volume or change in composition.
f- Be sufficient gelled to prevent migration of fluids into the annulus .
g- Protected casing from corrosion by formation fluids .
It is not difficult to prepare an oil mud to meet these requirements . But if the fluid to be used in an open hole annulus , so to
migrate corrosion attack , or to facilitate recovery of the casing later, it must be meet much higher standards .

9. To obtain proper pressure control via formation pore pressure :

10. Can be stored and reused :
Thus having the advantage to reduce cost comparing with water base mud which can be only used in one well.
11. Low solids oil muds :
a- Diesel oil 85% as fast as water base mud and the same factors that reduce drilling rate whether oil or water is the base fluid.
b- Diesel oil is less dense than water .
c- Solids do not disperse in oil readily as in water .
d- Diesel oil is relatively non – corrosive .
12. Treated curds :
In some areas low cost oil muds are prepared for drill – in and completion work, simply by treating a field crud to give some
property such as filtration control or carrying capacity.

Requirements for preparing OBM :

1. E MUL / E CON :
These two products combines to form a very tight film of surfactants at the interface between brine droplets and oil phase
, and thus ensures the emulsion stability in the presence of high temperature and high pressure.
These two products are high molecular weight sodium and calcium shapes, having a slow acting and requires high shear
for dispersion to obtain highly stable water in oil emulsion.
NB : Since no fatty soaps are employed , so there is no instability introduced at low alakalinities introduced by H 2S and the
system will not react adversely with high levels of magnesium contamination .
Also E MUL acts as an effective oil wetting agent, this helps to make the fluid resistant to contamination from drilled solids and
salt.
E CON also imparts the basic filtration control properties to the drilling fluid, upon addition of this product it requires the
presence of lime but after the initial reaction the presence of lime is no longer required .
2. Lime :
 Gives alkalinity to mud.
 React with H2S gas
H2S + Ca(OH)2   CaS +H2O .
 Help to give gel mud stability (leak of lime will cause high viscosity, high YP, high PV).
3. E VIS :
It is an organophilic clay which is a viscosity agent which gives the drilling fluid excellent rheological properties (viscosity and
carrying capacity) this product also aid in filtration control.
4. E TON :
Is an asphaltic HT HP filtration reducer . It also functions as a thinner and difflocculant for high density fluids in high temperature
environment.
5. E WET :
This product is an extremely powerful oil wetting agent developed to give the drilling fluid extra stability when drilling extremely
wet formations .
It also acts as a thinner when substantial quantities of solids are present .
NB : While adding barite add E WET slowly at the pit to wet barite and keep it always in suspension and prevent its settling .
I.E So as solids get gate by diesel.

Mixing OBM :
Diesel H 2O
+ +
Emulsifier (MUL or CON)  Ca Cl2
+
Lime
1. Fill tank with required volume of diesel .
2. Add emulsifier (15 lb.,/bbl) and mix thoroughly .
3. Dissolve required salt in a separate tank in the required H2O. Add brine slowly under maximum shear to the diesel E MUL
mixture .
4. Simultaneously add the Lime and the E CON .
The mud color will darken with shear and time . Shear for maximum stability .
5. Add required E VIS (5lb./bbl) and shear until required rheology is achieved .
6. Add required E TON (8lb./bbl) and shear until required rheology is achieved .
7. Add all Barite if high densities are required a small dose of E WET (1-2 lb./bbl)is recommended .
8. Agitate and shear the system as large as possible to get the maximum stability .

Precautions :
A. Make on water addition while adding Barite, or vice versa.
I.E : Barite addition should never be made in the presence of free H2O .
B. Vigorous agitation while adding (high shear)is necessary when adding materials to give stability to the mud .
C. Do not increase mud weight when the when the mud has a higher percent water then that desired at the final weight.
D. When oil is added , E MUL + E VIS + E TON + E WET, should be added so that the overall concentration of these materials in
the mud is not reduced .
E. Determine the oil/water ratio and add proportionate amounts of oil and water. For example if O/W ratio is 75/25, then add the
volumes of diesel oil and volume of water per time period(hour) .
F. The amount of each oil mud product to be added in maintaining the mud is based on the total volume of new mud prepared .
The suspension additives can usually be omitted from new volume unless large volumes are prepared, or weight materials is
settling from the mud.
NB : This emulsion is generally adequate for bottom hole temperature up to 300 F 0 , with respect to filtrate control , and have good
rheology if the proper O/W ratio is used and maintained based on final mud weight .
NB : The treatments required to maintain an oil mud will vary widely depending on several factors :
 Drilling rate .
 Type of formation .
 Temperature.
 Weight.
 Type of solid control program being used.
 Water contamination .
 Extremely high bottom hole temperature .

Properties of Brine :
Mix brine slug pit or small tank .
# Preparing 100 bbl of OBM with O/W ratio 80/20
80 bbl diesel / 20 bbl H2O
Put 20 bbls of H2O over dead volume of tank (EG: dead volume = 10 bbls)
1. From drill program needed brine with 30% Ca Cl2 by wt .
2. From CaCl2 chart. 30%CaCl2 by wt  149.95 (ppb/H2O)
3. Ca Cl2 (ppb/H2O) * volume of H2O = 149.95*30 = 4498.5lb.
# Weight of one sack of CaCl2 = 110 lb.
# No of sacks to be added to 30 bbl of H 2O = [4498.5/110] = 41 sx.
NB: Keep always an excess lime of 5ppb in the initial emulsion.
I.E : If dead volume in the mixing tank = 30 bbl. For mixing 100 bbl of OBM 0f O/W ratio 80/20.
5 lb./bbl lime * 130 (total volume) = 650 lb.
Total volume =30 bbl dead volume +80 bbl diesel +20 bbl brine.
Weight of one sack of lime = 55lb.
No of lime sacks =650 /55 = 12 sx.
NB : On adding E VIS (5 lb./bbl).
130 * 5 = 650 lb. /bbl.
Weight of on sack of E VIS = 55 lb.
No of E VIS sacks = 650 / 55 = 12 sx.
Add E VIS very slowly, add one sack from 10-15 min, and keep gun together with mixing agitator on all the time .
NB : Still the new emulsion will not give the maximum good performance except when handling at least one complete cycle as the
maximum shearing will be at the bit together with the help of bottom hole temperature .
NB : Brine activates in OBM are most commonly adjusted using common salt (sodium chloride and calcium chloride) sodium
chloride is most often used when salt sections and high activities are expected .
For lower activities calcium chloride is most commonly used .
In general for all adjustments to activities for sections calcium chloride is preferred because the greater versatility it offers .

Oil Mud Calculations :

To determine and calculate the amount of materials required to prepare a given

volume of OBM
Preparing 100 bbl of OBM :
 15 lb./bbl E MUL
 8 lb./bbl E TON (To be mixed in diesel.)
 2 lb./bbl E WET
1. Determine density of oil/water mixture being used.
If O/W ratio is 75/25 for example,
Set up the following material balance ?
0.75(6.7) + 0.25(8.3) =1 x
x = density of mixture PPG .
6.7 = density of oil PPG.
1. = density of water PPG.
x = 7.1 PPG.
This is the initial density of oil/water mixture.
2. Determine the volume of liquid and amount of barite needed to prepare 100 bbl of mud ?
Using the starting formula :
SV = [ (35.4-W2) /(35.4-W1) ] * Diesel volume(bbl)
SV =starting volume.
W1 = initial density of oil/water mixture.
W2 = desired mud weight (EG : 16 PPG)
SV =[ (35.4-16) / (35.4-7.1) ] * 100
SV = 69 bbls of liquid.
Of these 69 bbls , 75% or 51.7 bbls is the volume of oil required, and 25% or 17.3 bbls is the volume of water required to make
100 bbls of mud of weight 16 PPG.
The amount of barite is found by :
Diesel volume – required volume.
X no of sacks of barite to make one bbl by volume(15 sx) = no of sacks to be added to rise up volume to 100 bbls.
(100 – 69 ) * 15 = 465 sx
3. Determination of amount of other oil mud materials .
Determine the amounts of other materials by multiplying the concentration of additives times the number of bbls to be prepared.
 15 lb./bbl (E MUL) * 100 = 1500
 8lb./bbl (E TON) *100 = 800
 2 lb./bbl (E WET) * 100 = 200
NB: The mud weight will approach 16 PPG before all the barite is added because of the volume and density contributed by OBM
materials . About 900 lbs of these materials will occupy one bbl of volume.
4. Determination of oil/water ratio from retort data :
The significance of the O/W ratio has been previously started . To determine the O/W ratio it is first necessary to measure oil and
water percent by volume in the mud by retort analysis .
From the data obtained the O/W ratio is calculated as follows :
% oil in the liquid phase = [% oil by volume / (% oil by volume+H 2O by volume)] * 100 .
% water in the liquid phase = [% H2O by volume/(%H2O by volume +% oil by volume)]*100
The O/W ratio = % oil in liquid phase / % H2O in liquid phase .
For example :
Retort analysis :
51 % oil by volume .
17 % H2O by volume .
32 % solids by volume .
So % oil in liquid phase = [51/(51+17)] * 100 = 75 %
% H2O in liquid phase = [17/(17+51)] * 100 = 25 % .
NB :
# To change O/W ratio :
It may become necessary to change the O/W ratio of an oil mud while drilling. If the O/W ratio is to be increased add oil, if it is to be
decreased add water.
To determine how much oil or water is to be added to change the O/W ratio, the following calculations are made :
a. Determine present O/W ratio as mentioned before .
b. Decide whether oil or water is to be added.
c. Calculate how much oil or water is to be added for each 100 bbls of mud .

To increase O/W ratio 80/20:

O/W ratio = 75/25
51 % oil by volume
17 % water by volume
32 % solids by volume
Using base of 100 bbls of mud . Here are 68 bbl of liquid (oil & water). To get the new O/W ratio we must add oil.
The total liquid volume will be increased by the volume of oil added but the water will not change. The 17 bbls of water now in the
mud representing 25 % of liquid volume , will not represent only 20 % of the final new liquid volume.
Therefore :
New liquid volume – original liquid volume = bbls of liquid (oil in this case)to be added.
0.2 X = 17
0.2 = new % of water volume.
17 = old % of water from retort.
X = new total final liquid volume.
So X = 17 /0.2 =85 bbls.
85 – 68 = 17 bbls of oil to be added.
Check the calculations as follows :
If the calculated amount of liquid is added what will be the result O/W ratio ?
% oil in liquid phase = [(original volume of oil + new oil added) / (original volume + new oil added)] * 100 .
= [(51+17) / (68+17)] * 100 = 68/85 * 100 = 80 %
so 100- 80 = 20 % water in liquid phase .
New O/W ratio =80/20
To decrease O/W ratio 70/30:
O/W ratio = 75/25 .
51 % oil by volume .
17 % water by volume .
32 % solids by volume .
using base of 100 bbls of mud .
There are 68 bbls of liquid in 100 bbls of mud . In this however water will be added and the oil volume will remain constant.
The 51 bbl of oil representing 75 % of the original liquid volume will now represent only 70 % of the final liquid volume .
Let X = final liquid volume .
0.7 X = 51.
X = 51/0.7 = 73 bbls
New liquid volume – original liquid volume = amount of liquid(H2O in this case)to be added.
So 73 – 68 = 5bbl of H2O to be added.
% of H2O in liquid phase=[(original H2O vol.+H2O added)/(original liquid vol.+H2O added)]*100
[(17+5) / (68+5) * 100 = 30 % water in liquid phase .
100 – 30 = 70 % oil in liquid phase .
So the new O/W ratio = 70/30 .
# For example : If the total volume to be changed from 75/25 to 80/20 is 585bbls, multiply the amount of oil to be added(17) by 5.58
to give the total bbls of oil to added to charge the whole volume.
5. Determine the amount of weight material due to effect of liquid additions on mud weight ?
When oil or water is added to change the O/W ratio, the density of the mud will change .
(Mud density PPG)(mud volume bbl) + (density of added liquid PPG)(volume of added liquid bbl) = [mud volume bbl + liquid
volume bbl)(new mud density PPG).
Using 17 bbl of oil to be added to 100 bbl of 16 PPG mud.
(16 PPG)(100 bbl) + (6.7 PPG) (17 bbl) = (100 +17 bbl) X
X = new mud density PPG .
X = (1600+114) /117 = 14.65 PPG.
The same calculations can be made for any liquid or solid which may be added to the mud as long as the material balance takes from
V1 D1 + V2 D2 = VR DR
NB : The volume and density units must be constant .
NB : V1 + V2 = VR.
Example : If we have two fluids of known volumes and densities .
The resulting volume and density can be calculated as follow :
Fluid # 1 Fluid # 2
Volume = 210 bbl Volume = 150 bbl
Wt =16 PPG. Wt = 14.5 PPG.
(16) (210) + (14.5) (150) = VR DR
VR = 210 +150 = 360 bbl.
[16] [210] + [14.5] [150] = 360 DR
DR =[3360 + 2175] /360 = 15.375 PPG.
The volume of the mud of known density required to change of another mud to a desired value
can be calculated as follows :
How much 13.6 PPG mud must blended with 410 bbls of 16 PPG mud so that the resulting mixture will have a density of 15.2 PPG?
[410][16] + V2[13.6] = [410 + V2][15.2]
6560+ V2[13.6] = 6432+ V2][15.2]
6560-6232 = V2[15.2-13.6]
V2 =328/1.6 = 205 bbl .

Displacement procedures :
1. When ever possible displace the water base mud with OBM whilst in the casing.
2. If allowable , the OBM should have a density heavier than the water base fluid to be displaced.
3. Decrease the viscosity of the water base fluid if in casing dilution and treatment with a deflocculant (such as ferrochrome ,
lignosulphonate) FCl can be used . If the hole is open, heavier treatments with (FCl) will be necessary in general the weight
reduction from a large dilution can not be treated .
It is desirable the gel strength and yield point of the water based fluid be as low as possible to provide for the cleanest and
sharpest interface between the two fluids .
4. With about 20 bbls of OBM prepare a viscous spacer and pump this first .
5. Pump the OBM slowly (5 bbl/min) to produce the least inter merging of the two fluids .
6. Rotate the drill pipe at + , -,(60 RPM) while displacement. This will prevent the water based fluid from gelling and will also aid
in removing the water based fluid from all parts of the hole.
7. If the spacer has not been not contaminated it may be incorporated back into the OBM .
NB : If the changeover of fluid has taken place in the open hole the filter from the water based fluid may plug the shale shaker during
the first circulation . If this happens the screens should be with oil and brushed .
Also the OBM should be carefully observed for signs of water wet solids and treated with E WET if required.

Recommended Properties and Control :

Rheological Control :
The polar interaction between charged clays and polymers that take place in a water based fluid are absent in the non polar oil phase
and only the relatively weak hydrogen bonding can occurs. These weak forces are readily broken by heating the medium. So the
viscosity tends to be substantially reduced by temperature increases.
NB : The optimum range of the factor of a properly maintained OBM is normally in the range of 0.75 – 0.85 .
The plastic viscosity is affected by
1. Quality of oil and water .
2. Quality of solids , and size of the solids .
3. The temperature .
High values of PV and YP are mainly due to excessive solid concentrations or an unfavorable
O/W ratio.
The solids may be removed by fine screens or centrifugation . If this have no effective results
dilution with either diesel or fresh volume of OBM is recommended .
The YP is less affected by temperature than PV , but is related to the solids content and water content.
Very high values of YP may be due to water wet solids in the drilling fluids. This will result in high yield and high gel .
Oil wetting agents used to reduce the YP. derived from water wet solids.
Dilution may also be required to lower YP .
Settling of barite may also occur , this is treated by adjusting gel strength with oil wetting agent
(E WET). Also temperature will have an effect on suspension properties.
# Separation of the lighter oil to the surface of emulsion fluid might occur need to add emulsifiers with presence of good mixing and
maximum shearing.
NB : Always density is measured of the top and bottom halves of the fluid .
The settling factor is (SF) given by the following formula :
SF = (Wt of the bottom half) / (Wt of the bottom half + Wt of the top half)
If no settling is taking place the value will be within o.5 .
The values of less than o.55 are satisfactory for packer fluids and volume of 0.55 is acceptable for drilling fluids.
Gel strength of 4-5 lb./100 ft3 initial and 6-8 lb./100 ft3 10 minutes gel. Will suffice normally for barite suspension in most mud
densities. These vales can be obtained by addition of E VIS (3-5 lb./bbl).
The viscosity effect on oil base mud depends on several factors :
1. Concentrations of emulsifiers .
2. Emulsion stability .
3. Mud density.
4. Solid distribution.
NB : Emulsifiers or oil wetting additives should be added at the same time while adding E VIS to obtain the required YP .
Hydraulic Control :
The effects of temperature and pressure on the rheological properties of the OBM, have to be taken into account before the normal
equations are used .
To calculate the critical velocities , swab and surge pressures, and pressure losses in the drill string and annulus .
As a first approximation is assumed that the viscosity changes of diesel oil with temperature and pressure can be applied to the oil
based emulsion. This assumption has more accurate applications in systems with high O/W ratio and low solid concentrations .
The relationship between viscosity and temperature and pressure is given in figure 7.
From this data a correction factor can be calculated that can be applied to the rheological data determined at the flow line . To do this
the down hole temperature and pressure have to be estimated .
 Maximum circulation temperature = {[(BHT – Ambient temperature) * 3] /4} + Ambient temperature.
 The hydrostatic pressure at the point of highest temperature occurs three quarters of the way down the hole.
Hydrostatic pressure at maximum temperature = depth(ft) * Mwt(PPG) * 0.039  psi
Or = depth(ft) * Mwt(kg/l) *0.075.
This data of temperature and pressure is then used with figure 7 to obtain the viscosity of the diesel oil at these conditions .
Average viscosity of diesel oil = [flow line viscosity +down hole viscosity] / 2
This average viscosity of diesel oil is then compared with viscosity of diesel at the temperature at which the measurements were
taken to drive the correction factor.
Correction factor =average viscosity of diesel / viscosity of diesel at measurement temperature.
EG : Flow line temperature = 75 Co (167 oF).
Bottom hole temperature = 182 Co (360 oF).
Ambient temperature = 20 Co (68 oF).
# Step 1 Maximum circulation temperature = (182-20)*0.75 +20 =141.7 Co (287 oF).
# Step 2 At depth 20,000 ft (6096 m)
the mud density = 18 PPG ( 2.16 kg/l).
So pressure at a maximum circulation temperature = 20,000*18*0.039 =14,040 psi.
Viscosity of diesel @ 141.7 Co = 14.04 psi.
From figure 7 = 1.3 cps .
# Step 3 Rheology determined @ 50 Co (122 oF).
viscosity of diesel @ 50 Co = 1.9 cps .
from figure 7 viscosity of diesel at flow line.
From figure 7 @ 75 Co and o psi =1.25 cp
Average viscosity = (1.25 + 1.3) /2 = 1.28 cps.
Correction factor for VG data =1.28 / 1.9 = 0.67 .
Trouble shooting
One of the most important parameters of a drilling fluid is the rheology .
However it is affected by many other parameters such as solids, O/W ratio and oil wetting of
solids.
# Solids :
solids do not present such a problem with OBM as in water based fluid for two main reasons :
1. The solids in OBM can not be hydrated and thus soften and disperse into the fluid .
2. In oil continues fluid ,polar interactions between charged solid particles can not take place because the medium will not polarize
or conduct electricity .
Solids behave as essentially inert and OBM has a higher tolerance to solids than water based fluids.
Operational aspects :
In general the contamination of any mud with solids will cause :
1. Increase drilling fluid maintains cost .
2. Difficulty in maintaining proper rheological properties.
3. Reduce penetration rates .
4. Decrease bit life and increase wear of pump parts .
5. Increase frequency of differential sticking .
6. Increase circulation pressure losses .
Effect of Solids on PV :
The increase of solids increases PV due to mechanical friction between solid particles in the drilling fluid . PV depends primarily on
size shape and number of solids in the fluid.
Effect of Solids on YP and Gel Strength :
As YP and gel strength the degree of attractive forces between particles in the fluid. These attractive forces are related to the distance
between the particles . Therefore the increase of solids increases YP and gel strength .
However chemical treatment , dilution , and mechanical removal of solids are done to overcome the continuos of PV and YP and gel
strength due to build up of percentage of solids.
The removal of very fine particles produces a greater reduction in viscosity than does the removal of an equivalent volume of coarser
solid due to the difference area.
NB :
1. The smaller the particle size the more pronounced the effect on the fluid properties .
2. The smaller the particle size the more it is to remove or control its effects on the fluid.
NB : In general high PV , YP and gel may result in thick filter cakes which by turn will result in over pulls in trips . Also high pump
pressure due to high pressure losses.
High annular pressure losses may result in severe hole erosion.
NB : The drilling fluid has a tendency to thicken when left for a long time period without circulation .

Treatment

A. By mean solid removal equipments remove drilled solids as soon as they are generated .
1. Use small shaker screens (120 mesh if possible) it is recommended not to use small mesh screen for a long period.
2. Desilter .
3. Desander .
4. Mud cleaner .
5. Centrifuge .
B. If excessive solids do build up then the whole mud volume must be diluted .

Water wet solids :

 The OBM drives many of its advantages from the fact that the formations only contacted with oil.
 A rule of thumb : the vapor pressure of the emulsified water droplets is also adjusted so that the water remains in the emulsified
fluid .
 However , sometimes drilling formations with very high porosity and at the same time impermeable and keeping in its pore
spaces high percentage of water . That kind of formations will produce water wetted cuttings , that can interact into mud if there is
any lack in the percentage of emulsifiers or oil wetting agent in the mud .
This result in polar interactions between water wetting particles and associated brine droplets in the mud .
That will give rise to :
1. Viscosity , YP and gel strength.
2. Decrease emulsion stability .
3. Increase filtration .
4. Mushy structure of cuttings which will cause blinding and plugging shaker screens .
5. Severe settling fills after trips .
6. Mud has a dull lock .
7. Thicking of the fluid may occur depending on solid concentrations .

Treatment :
1. the problem can be overcome addition of higher levels of emulsifiers (E MUL + E CON) which increase combination between
diesel and water , also make an oil film around wetted cuttings , thus retain stability of fluid and give rise to the basic filtration
control of the drilling fluid.
2. Add oil wetting agent to give the drilling fluid extra stability and surrounds (wet) the water wet particles resulting from wet
formations . Also oil wet the formation itself and thus decrease the invasion of water wet particles from getting into drilling fluid.
It also acts as a thinner and thus helps the dispersion and suspension of invaded water wet particles . thus retain good rheology to
drilling fluid .

Electrical stability :
The inert nature of the fluid is derived from the fact that the water present is tied up in the form of droplets , stabilized by a complex
layer of surfactants . The stability is affected by the size of the droplet which in turn is related to the concentration of emulsification
reagent and the shear imparted into the system. The smaller the droplet the greater the stability and resistance to coalescence of drops.
- The stability is measured by application of a DC voltage across two terminals immersed in the fluid to pass a certain current.
The stability is often measured in volts. A value of 400 volts is generally considered adequate , but higher is easily obtained and
characteristic of the strong emulsification system .
The emulsification stability can be increased by addition of E MUL and E CON either single or together in conjunction with mixing
under maximum shear conditions .

Filtration control :
The emulsified water droplets act as colloide sized solids that combines with the other solids in the fluid to form a very effective filter
cake .
The good filter cake and filtration control are highly affected by :
1. The strength of emulsion .
2. Type and nature of solids .
3. Viscosity of oil emulsion .
To obtain a measurable quantity of filtrate , this is done under high temperature(300 F o) and high pressure (500 psi).
The HT HP fluid loss should be free of water or traces of emulsion and is usually low .
- The filtration rate will be lowered by addition of E CON and filtration reducer (E TON)
- However this product is used when required an extremely low filtration for low density fluids
Alkalinity :
The alkalinity of drilling oil fluids should be kept in the range of 2-4 cc. Is important to maintain this range , regardless of the other
parameters required due to ionic nature of the various electrolytes and because of different additives especially E CON emulsifier
which functions more effectively in that range .
This is maintained by adding lime .
Drilling different salts , KCl, Na CL, Mg Cl2, Ca Cl2 and encountering brine water flow :
Effects :
1. Decrease stability .
2. Salt is very hygroscopic and tends to coagulate the water droplets which in turn accelerates water wetting of barytes and certain
other mud constituents .
3. Salt also affect the oil –mud emulsion chemistry .
4. Lower viscosity .
5. HT HP fluid loss may increase ,and water show up in the filtrate .
Treatment :
1. Add emulsifiers which ensure that the oil emulsion show a good resistance to salt contamination.
I.E : Higher levels of E MUL and E TON may be required and attention should be paid to removal of salt crystals by screening .
2. If a brine flow is encountered the O/W ratio should be restored by addition of diesel oil and further emulsifiers .
3. Lime additions may be required to counter the acidity of the brines .
Cementing / Cement Contamination :
Can only be a problem if lot of wet cement is drilled.
Effects :
1. Viscosity (PV & YP) increases .
2. Water wetting .
Treatment :
Addition of E MUL + E TON + E WET .
Cementing Procedures :
 Cementing with an oil mud in the hole requires special precautions as the mixing oil mud and cement slurries can produce a
highly gelling un pumpable mass .
This problem necessitates a neat separation of these two systems , and that is done by an effective spacer which has two main
properties :
a. separate completely between OBM and cement .
b. Remove the oil film on the casing and convert the surface to a water wet state, and thus improving the cement bond .
 The soccer can be mixed from fresh ,sea, or brine .
 The viscosity can be adjusted to produce a turbulent flow if required .
 The cement should be replaced at the maximum possible pump rate (regardless of whether turbulent floe can be achieved ).
Reciprocating and rotation of the casing will also significantly improve the displacement efficiency .
H2S contamination :
An oil base fluid is normally suited to accept invasion of H 2S .
In water base fluids . Such invasion creates a problem due to hydrogen sulfide embrihelmentof steel work and drastically changes to
chemistry of the fluid due to reaction of alkalis .
In OBM the steel work is protected by the continuos oil phase and H 2S dissolve in oil phase(to be removed by degaser) .
Side Effect :
1. Darkening of the mud .
2. Decrease alkalinity due to the acidic nature of H2S and its reaction with lime .
3. Possible decrease emulsion stability .
Treatment :
Addition of lime to maintain alkalinity above 2 cc .
CO2 Contamination : (acidic gas)
Effect :
1. Decrease in alkalinity .
2. Decrease emulsion stability .
3. Continuos intrusion will increase viscosity (YP & Gel strength) .
Treatment :
Addition of lime to maintain alkalinity in the optimum range .

Gas Cutting :
Effect :
1. Settling of barytes .
2. Weakening of the emulsion stability .
Treatment :
1. Addition of E MUL + E CON .
2. Addition of E TON .
3. Addition of E WET .
4. Replace by degaser .
NB : Overtreating with surf-cote can destroy viscosity beyond repair. Prior to treatment pilot testing is imperative .
 Problem Indications Cause Treatment

1. Low Dull grainy appearance to 1. Low emulsifier. 1. Add CARBO-MUL. Add CARBO-TEC and lime if
emulsion mud. High HTHP fluid loss. CARBO-TEC system
stability Free H2O in HTHP filtrate. 2. Super-saturated 2. Dilute back with fresh H2O and add CARBO-MUL.
Barite settling out. Blinding with CaCl2.
of shaker screens. Extreme 3. Water flows 3. Add CARBO-MUL. Can also add CARBO-TEC and
cases can cause water wetting lime if CARBO-TEC system.
of solids 4. Mixing mud at 4. Maximize shear. Check electrolyte content(the higher
mixing plant the content, the harder the emulsion is to form)

2. Water Flocculation of barite on sand 1. inadequate 1. Add CARBO-MUL and SURF-COTE, and diesel
wetting of – content test. Sticky cuttings. emulsifier
solids. Blinding of shaker screens. [Link]-base mud 2. Same as 1.
Settling of barite. Dull, grainy contamination.
appearance of mud. Low ES. 3. Super-saturated 3. Dilute with H2O and add CARBO-MUL.
Free H2O in HTHP filtrate. with CaCl2.

3. H2O Weight drop, change in O/W Add diesel, CARBO-MUL HT, barite.
contamination ratio

High filtration High HTHP filtrate with 1. Low emulsifier 1. Add CARBO-MUL. Add CARBO-TEC and lime if a
increasing free H2O. low ES. content CARBO-TEC system
Fill on connections and trips. 2. Low concentration 2. Add CARBO-TROL A-9 and/or CARBO-TROL.
Sloughing shale. of fluid loss control
additives.
3. High bottom hole 3. Add more CARBO-MUL. Add CARBO-TEC and
temperature lime. Convert to CARBO-TEC system. Add more
CARBO-TROL A-9 and CARBO-TROL.

4. High High PV, high YP, increasing 1. Low emulsifier 1. Dilute with oil, maximize solid control equipment .
viscosity funnel viscosity. Increasing content
retort solids. Increase in water 2. Water 2. Add emulsifiers. If severe, also add SURF-COTE.
content. contamination.
3. Over treatment 3. Dilute with oil.
with emulsifiers,
especially CARBO-
TEC.

5. High solids Retort analysis, calculations 1. Reduce of shaker screens, dilute with diesel

6. Oil Oil on surface 1. Agitation, add CARBO-GEL or CARBO-VIS

separation

7. Emulsion Water in filtrate, low 1. Add CARBO-MUL, CARBO-MUL HT, lime.

breaking electrical stability.

8. Low Low stability, CO2 & H2S 1. Maintain 5-7 lb./bbl lime.
alkalinity intrusion

9. Sloughing Fill on connections and trips. 1. Drilling under- 1. Increase mud weight.
shale Torque and drag. Increase of balanced.
cuttings across shaker. 2. Excessive filtrate. 2. Add emulsifiers. Add CARBO-TROL A-9 and/or
CARBO-TROL.
3. Inadequate hole 3. Add CARBO-GEL to increase YP.
 cleaning.
4. Activity too low 4. Adjust CaCl2 content of internal phase so match
formation activity.

10. Barite Low YP and gels. Settling of 1. Poor oil wetting of 1. Add emulsifiers and/or wetting agents. Slow addition
settling barite in heating cup or barite. of barite.
viscosity cup. 2. Inadequate 2. Add CARBO-GEL or viscosifing polymer.
suspension.
3. Low ES, high 3. Add emulsifier.(i.e.; CARBO-GEL, CARBO-VIS or
HTHP. water )

11. Drilled Shale cuttings absorbing 1. Increase salinity to 350000 PPM with CaCl2.
solids appear water by hydration forces
gummy

12. Un- Drop in ES, high Cl content in 1. Add H2O to dissolve Salt, then add CARBO-MUL +
dissolved H2O phase. CARBO-MUL HT + lime. New mud without salt in
CaCl2 or NaCl H2O phase may be blended.

13. Lost Pit volume decrease, loss of 1. Hydrostatic 1. Add mica or plug. Never add fibrous or Phenolic-
circulation returns. pressure is greater resin materials. If possible, reduce mud weight. Add
formation pressure MILFIBER, or calcium carbonate.

14. problem Poor emulsions stability. 1. Inadequate shear 1. Maximize shear

mixing mud at Barite settling. Dull, grainy 2. Very cold 2. Lengthen mixing time
mixing plant appearance to mud. Mud very 3. Poor wetting of 3. Slow additions of barite. Add CARBO-MUL if
thin with no yield or gel barite severe, add small amount of SURF-COTE.
strengths. 4. High electrolyte 4. Dilute back with fresh H2O. once emulsifier is
content. Normally formed, can add additional CaCl2 to obtain desired
greater than 350000 activity .
PPM.
5. Surface 5. Pilot test with known CaCl2 brine to determine if
contamination problem does exist.
possible if using
CaCl2 brine that has
been used as
completion or work
over fluid
Lost Circulation :
Lost Circulation material like mica or nut plug (fibbers in the worst case)can be added directly to the mud.
 Lost circulation materials weaken the emulsion and cause water wetting tendencies . Therefor it is required to add a sufficient of
emulsifiers (E MUL + E CON) and oil wetting agent (E TON) to a system containing lost circulation materials .
Diesel M plug :
prepare slurry of 50-60 bbls (8-10 m3) with flowing materials .
A. Diesel M barite plug :
Mixing order is as follows;
Diesel, Diesel M, Barytes, and E TON (SG of barites 4.25) .

TABLE
B. Diesel M-Siderite plug :
Consideration concerning the pay zones , may require an acid soluble weighting material, a siderite (Fe CO 3) .
The mixing order is as follows;
Diesel oil, Diesel M, I Dwate and E MUL +E CON .
In both system s, ensure that adequate mixing has taken place before either weighting agent is added .

Spotting the Pill :

1. Determine the thief zone .
2. The pipe should be pulled to the casing while mixing the pill if possible.
3. The pill is mixed to the desired weight .
4. The slurry is pumped into the open hole or above the thief zone .
5. Allow a setting time for pill .
6. The blow out presenters are closed and a slight squeeze press is applied [200-400 PSI (13.5-25 atm)] .
7. By pumping slowly and hesitating for press build-ups and bleed-off a successful squeeze can be accomplished .
8. After a back pressure sufficient to withstand proposed mud wt is obtained and held for 2-4 hours .
9. Drilling can be resumed , circulation should be restored with a very slow pump rate after getting back to bottom .
NB : This technique is used where partial or complete losses are occurring to induced fractures .
Blow Out / Flow :
Setting of a Barytes in oil plug :
This technique is used in oil mud against underground blow outs or to plug the bottom of a hole quickly without cement .
1. Calculate the volume(bbls or m3) for 300 ft or 100 m receptively of settled barite in the oil plug including estimated hole wash
outs .
2. If it is flowing down hole use E MUL + ECON as oil wetting dispersants .
3. Barytes is added to increase the weight of oil plug up to 21 PPG (2,52kg/l)
Preparation of an oil plug slurry :
In bbls :
E MUL Oil wetting agent Barite Slurry volume
(Lb.) (lbs.) (lbs.) (bbls)
2 2 1060 1.52

In m3 :
E MUL Oil wetting agent Barite Slurry volume
(Lb.) (lbs.) (kg) (m3)
5 5 3025.24 1.52

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF OBM :

Whole Mud Alkalinity :
1. Add 100 cm3 of 50/50 xylene /IPA solvent to a 400 cm3 beaker or titration vessel.
2. Fill a 5 cm3 syringe with whole mud past the 3 cm3 mark .
3. Displace 2 cm3of whole mud into the titration vessel .
4. Swirl the mixture until it is homogenous .
5. Add 200 cm3disttled water .
6. Add 15 drop Ph Ph indicator solution .
7. While stirring rapidly , slowly Titrate with O.I.N sulfuric acid until pink color just disappears . continue stirring and if no pink
color reappears within one minute , stop stirring .
8. Let the sample stand for five minutes. If no pink color reappears , the end point has been reached . Record the volume of acid
used. If oink color returns , Titrate with acid a second time .If a pink color returns after the second titration , Titrate with acid a
third time and call a total volume of acid used for all three titrations the end point .
9. Calculate the whole mud alkalinity :
Pom =0.1 N sulfuric acid, cm3 / mud sample cm3
 = 0.1 N sulfuric acid, cm3 / 2 cm3
To convert this volume to lb./bbl , Ca (OH) 2 lime multiply by 1.295 .
If CaO (quick lime) is used to activate the emulsifier, the conversion factor to lb./bbl is 0.98 .
Whole Mud Chloride :
1. Using the same sample that used for the alkalinity, procedure, make sure the mixture is acidic by adding 1-2 or more 0.1 N
sulfuric acid.
2. Add 10-15 drops of potassium chromate indicator solution .
3. While stirring rapidly , slowly Titrate with o.282 N silver nitrate until a salmon pink color remains stable for at least one minute.
If a question exists as to if the end point has been reached , it may be necessary to stop the stirring and allow separation of the
two phases to occur .
4. Calculate the whole mud chloride using the volume of 0.282 N AgNO 3 :
Clom =10,000(0.282 N AgNO3 , cm3) / oil mud sample, cm3 .
= 10,000(0.282 N AgNO3 , cm3) / 2 .

Whole Mud Calcium:

1. Add 100 cm3 of 50/50 xylene /IPA solvent to a titration vessel.

2. Fill a new 5 cm3syringe with whole mud past the 3 cm3 marsh .
3. Displace 2 cm3 oil mud into titration vessel .
4. Cap the jar tightly and shake vigorously by hand for one minute .
5. Add 200 cm3 distilled or deionized water to the jar .
6. Add 3 cm3 1N sodium hydroxide buffer solution .
7. Add oil to 0.25 g calver 2 to indicator powder .
8. Recap the jar tightly, shake vigoursouly again for two minutes, set jar a side few seconds . If a reddish color appears in the
aqueous phase (lower) calcium is present. Continue the test.
9. Begin stirring without mixing upper and lower phases .
10. Titrate slowly by adding EDTA (versenate). When a distinct color change from reddish color to blue-green color occurs , the end
point is reached. Read the volume of EDTA titrated.
11. Calculate the whole mud calcium using the volume of EDTA :
Caom = 4,000(0.1 M EDTA cm3) / oil mud sample cm3.
= 4,000(0.1 M EDTA cm3) / 2 cm3

A) WHOLE MUD CALCULATIONS

THE WHOLE MUD ALKALINITY
0.1N sulfuric acid, cm3 0.1N sulfuric acid, cm3
Po m = = (1)
Mud sample cm3 2 cm3

THE WHOLE MUD CHLORIDE

10000 (0.282 N silver nitrate, cm3)

Clo m = (2)
Oil mud sample

10000 (0.282 N silver nitrate, cm3)

Clo m =
2.0 cm3

THE WHOLE MUD CALCIUM

4000 (0.1 M EDTA cm3)

Ca o m = (3)
Oil sample, cm3
 4000 (0.1 M EDTA cm3)

Ca o m =
2.0 cm3

1. Total lime content:

The total lime content represented as lime hydrate , Ca (OH)2, is :
Lime lb./bbl = 1.295 (Po m) (4)
If quick lime, is CaO is used to activate the emulsifier, the total quick lime is:
Lime lb./bbl = 0.98 (Po m) (4a)
2. Total calcium content:
The total calcium content is:
Ca o m = 4000 (VEDTA) (5)
Where
Ca o m = mg Ca++/ L
VEDTA = cm3 0.1 Molar EDTA/cm3 of mud.
3. Total chloride content:
The total chloride content is:
Clo m = 10000 (VSN) (6)
Where
Clo m = mg Cl-/L
VSN = cm3 0.282N silver nitrate/cm3 of mud.
4. Total CaCl2 and NaCl content:
The chloride ion associated with CaCl2 based upon the Cao m analysis is:
Cl CaCL2 = 1.77 (Cao m) (7)
Where
Cl CaCL2 = mg Cl/L of mud from CaCl2
NOTE: If CaCl2 ≥ Clo m then assume that only CaCl2 is present in the mud and no NaCl is present, proceed
to Eqn. 13 and skip Eqn. 8 through 12.

CaCl2 o m =2.774 (Cao m) (8)

Where
CaCl2 o m = mg CaCl2/L of mud
CaCl2 salt = 9.17 X 10-4 Cao m (9)
Where
CaCl2 salt = lb. calcium chloride per barrel of mud
ClNaCl = Clo m – ClCaCl2 (10)
Where
ClNaCl = mg Cl/L of mud from NaCl.
NaClo m = 1.65 (ClNaCl) (11)
Where
NaClo m = mg NaCl/L of mud
NaClsalt = 3.5 X 10-4 (NaClo m) (12)
Where
NaClsalt = lb. sodium chloride per bbl of mud.
Omit Eqns. 13& 14

If the test Eqn. 7 indicates that all of the chloride ions generated from CaCl2 , the following equations are used:
CaCl2o m = 1.57 (Clo m) (13)
Where
CaCl2o m = mg CaCl2 / L of mud.
CaCl2 salt = 3.5 X 10-4 (CaCl2 o m) (14)
Where
CaCl2 salt = lb. CaCl2 per bbl of mud.

B) AQUEOUS PHASE SALT CALCULATIONS

Accurate salt calculations prevent the super saturation of the brine with CaCl2, which can lead to severe water
wetting. The percent by volume solids, as determined by the distillation retort, should be adjusted for the
calculated salt volume which will be retained in the retort assembly. This correction can be accomplished with
simple calculations, assuming that accurate chloride and reading data are used.
The following equations are designed to calculate the quantity of NaCl and CaCl2 in the aqueous phase of the
CARBO-DRILL Systems.

100 (CaCl2 o m)
Wc = (15)
CaCl2 o m +NaClo m + 10000 (Vw)

Where
Wc = wt % CaCl2 in brine.
Vw = volume % retort water.
CaCl2 PPM = 10000 (Wc) (15a)

100 (NaClo m)
WN = (16)
CaCl2 o m +NaClo m + 10000 (Vw)

Where WN = wt % NaCl in brine.

NaClPPM = 10000 (WN) (16a)
Check mutual solubility of NaCl and CaCl2 or use Figure 2.
WN max = 26.432 – 1.0472 (Wc) + 7.98191 (10-3) (Wc)2 + 5.2238 (10-5) (Wc)3 (16b)
Where
WN max = maximum wt % NaCl in CaCl2/ NaCl brine at 25C (77F)

1. MUTUAL SOLUBILITY
Check figure 2 or Eqn 16b to determine the weight percent of sodium chloride, WN, that is totally soluble in the
CaCl2 /NaCl brine solution at 25 C (77F). if the calculated WN is not totally, the results a portion of the NaCl is
a solid in the oil base fluid.
Also, if the WN is not totally soluble. The results of the Eqn 15 and 16 are not correct. They must be
recalculated using a fraction of WN as the NaCl o m , until the ratio of WNmax / WN is greater than 0.95. the
following steps are used to determine more accurate salt solubilities .
Calculate the NaCl ratio to determine the accuracy of WN :
WN max
NaCl ratio = (16c)
WN
Where
NaCl ratio = the ratio of the maximum wt % NaCl to the calculated wt % NaCl in the brine.
If NaCl ratio is greater than 0.95 proceed to Eqn. 17. Otherwise, the value for Wc (Eqns. 15 & 15a), WN (Eqns.
16 & 16a). and WN max (Eqn. 16b) must be recalculated using the value NaClo m as a new value calculated by:
NaClo m n = NaCl ratio (NaClo m) (16d)
Where
NaClo m n = the new NaCl o m to be used in Eqns. 15 through 16b.
After substituting the new NaClo m n in Eqns. 15 through 16b, recalculate the NaCl ratio (Eqn. 16c) using the
new values. If NaCl ratio is still less than 0.95 the above procedure must be repeated, as shown in the example
on page 334.
Use only the soluble NaCl portion from the graph or equation iterations as the value of WN in future equations.
The remaining salt will be calculated as a solid in the following analysis:
PB = 0.99707 + 6.504 (10-3) (WN) + 7.923 (10-3) (Wc) + 8.334 (10-5) (WN) (Wc) + 4.395 (10-5) (WN)2 + 4.964 (10-5) (Wc)2 (17)
Where
PB = brine density, g/cm3.
NOTE:
The density of single -salt brine can be found using the values or equations found in the engineering data
chapter, section 4 (salt tables)
a. mg/L salt
weight percent units are based upon the density of the brine, as well as the salt content. The salt concentration ,
expressed as mg/L is:
CaCl2mg/L = 10000 (Wc) (PB) (18)
NaCl mg.L = 10000 (WN) (PB) (19)
**************************************FIGURE*******************************************
C) SOLID CALCULATIONS
As mentioned previously, the solids content, measured from the retort distillation procedure, must be corrected
for the salt content of the brine that remains in the retort assembly.
The corrected volume % brine is:
100 (VW)
VB = (20)
PB [ 100 – (WN + Wc)
Where
VB = volume % brine
The corrected volume % solids are:
Vs = 100 – (VO + VB) (21)
Where VS = volume percent % corrected solids.
VO = volume retorted oil.
The solids in CARBO-DRILL Systems consist of low density solids, usually drill solids, and high density
solids, generally MIL-BAR or DENSIMIX.

[ 100 (MW)] – [(VO) (PO) ] – [ (VB) (8.345) ]

PS = (22)
8.345 (VS)
Where
PS = average density of solids, g/cm3
PO = oil density, lb./bbl
MW = drilling fluid density, lb./gal.
The average density of suspended solids can be divided into the volume and weight of high density and low-
density solids.
The volume % high-density solids are:
 PS - PLDS
VHDS = X VS (23)
PHDS – P LDS

Where
VHDS = volume % high density solids.
PHDS = destiny of high solids, g/cm3
P LDS = density of low-density solids, g/cm3

The concentration of high density is:

MHDS = 3.5 (PHDS) (VHDS) (24)

Where
MHDS = high density solids lb./bbl
The volume of low-density solids is:

V LDS = VS - VHDS (25)

Where
V LDS = volume percent of low density solids.
The concentration of low-density solids is:
M LDS = 3.5 (P LDS) (V LDS) (26)
Where
M LDS = low-density solids, lb./bbl.

D) OIL/WATER RATIO CALCULATIONS

The oil/water ratio relates the oil and fresh water fractions as a percent of the liquid retort fraction. The oil/brine
(salt-content corrected water) ratio relates the liquid fraction of the mud as ratio of oil and brine fractions. The
oil/brine ratio is the most meaningful ratio. Since it relates more closely the liquid fractions of the drilling fluid.
Oil/brine ratio is important when engineering most CARBO-DRILL Systems, in that it can have a major effect
on viscosity and/or filtrate loss.
The oil/water ratio is calculated as follows:

100 (Vw)
WR = (27)
VO +Vw

Where
WR = water % in the ratio.
OR = 100 – WR (27a)
Where
OR = oil % in the ratio.
The more accurate and useful ratio is the oil/brine ratio . the oil/brine ratio is calculated as follows:

100 (VB)
BR = (28)
VO +VB
Where
BR = brine % in the ratio.
OR = 100 – BR (28a)
1. Changing Oil/Brine Ratio:
it may be necessary, at some time , to change the oil/brine ratio of the CARBO-DRILL System. The simplest
calculation to make is increasing the oil/brine ratio , since only oil is added.
To increase the oil/brine ratio with additions of oil:

RO [ VO + VB ] - VO
100
FO = X Volsys (29)
RB

Where
FO = volume of oil, bbl.
RO = required oil ratio.
RB = required brine ratio.
Volsys = system volume.
To decrease oil/brine ratio with the addition of brine:

RB [ VO + VB ] - VB
100
FB = X Volsys (30)
RO

Where
FB = volume of brine, bbl.

Addition of fresh water will increase the controlled activity of the system . if brine is not available , CaCl2 salt
should be added to the drilling fluid when decreasing the oil/water ratio with fresh water . the quantity of
calcium chloride necessary to maintain a constant activity when adding fresh water is as follows:

H2O, gal/bbl X FB
FW = (31)
42

CaCl2 add = CaCl2, lb./bbl X FB (31a)

Where
FW =volume of water, bbl.
H2O, gal/bbl = water gal/bbl for given %
CaCl2 (see calcium chloride table in the engineering data chapter, section 4)
CaCl2 add = additions of CaCl2 to system volume.
CaCl2, lb./bbl = CaCl2 concentration of wt % from the calcium chloride table in the engineering data chapter ,
section 4

Important Equations Used For Mud Calculations :

1. Volume =[(diameter)2 * depth] / 1029.415 .
2. Lag stks = volume / POP.
3. Lag time = lag stks / SPM .
4. Flow rate (GPM)= POP * SPM *42 .
5. Fluid velocity (ft / min)
a. In pipe :
V = 24.51 GPM / d2 .
b. In annulus :
V = 24.51 GPM / dh2 – dp2 .
OR = POP (bbl/min) / annular volume (bbl/ft) .
= ft/min .
6. Critical velocity (ft/min) .
a. In pipe :
V = [64.57PV + 64.57 { (PV)2 +12.3d2 YP W}] / Wd .
b. In annulus :
V =[64.57 PV + 64.57 { (PV)2 + 9.26(dh-db)2 YP W}] / W (dh-db) .
7. Slip velocity Vs (ft/min) :
a. Laminar flow = [3210(Wc-W) * D2V2] /339YP(dh-db) + PV V .
b. Turbulent flow = 60 { D(Wc-W) /W }
Where :
V =fluid velocity (ft/min) .
GPM = gallon per minute .
d = internal diameter (in) .
dh = hole diameter (IN) .
dp = pipe diameter (IN) .
D = cutting diameter (IN) (average diameter of sieve) .
Wc = cutting density (PPG) .
L = section length (ft) .
W = mud weight (PPG) .
Vc = critical velocity (ft/min) .
PV = plastic viscosity (cp) .
YP = yield point .
TVD = total vertical depth .
SIDP = shut in drill pipe pressure .
KMW = kill mud weight (PPG) .
OMW = initial mud weight (PPG) .
KRP = kill rate pressure (psi) .
F = fanning friction factor dimensionless .
Pd = pressure loss .
8. pressure gradient = D * PPG*0.0519 .
Density of fresh H2O = 8.33 PPG
= 0.433 psi/ft .
Density of salt H2O = 8.6 PPG .
Density of over saturated H2O = 8.9 PPG
=0.465 psi/ft .
9. Equivalent mud wt :
We = Wo + P / 0.0519 * D .
We =equivalent mud weight .
Wo = actual mud weight .
P = surface pressure .
D = total vertical depth .
10. Maximum allowed mud weight (PPG)
= leak of pressure(psi) /0.0519 [TVD(ft)*(test mud weight) .
11. Kill mud weight (KMW)
Mud weight needed to balance a kick
= W1 + [SIDP / 0.0519*depth]
W1 = initial mud weight (lb./gal) .
# Initial circulation pressure (psi) = SIDPP + KRP .
# Final circulation pressure (psi) = (KMW /OMW) * KRP .
12. pressure drop (psi) = [(L*YP / 225*D)] + [PV (L*V) / 1500 D 2]
L = length of string .
V = velocity of mud (ft/sec)
D = diameter of hole – OD of drill string (in)
YP =yield point .
PV = plastic viscosity .
13. Pressure Loss :
a. In laminar flow V  Vc .
 IN pipe pd =[(PV * LV) / 90,000d2] + YP L / 225 d.
 In annulus = (PV * LV) / 60,000(dh-db)2] + YP L / 200(dh-db) .
b. In turbulent flow V > Vc .
 In pipe pd = FLWV2 / 92880 d .
 In annulus = FLWV2 / 92880 (dh-dp) .
14. Equivalent circulation density
We = = W + [pd(annulus) / o.o519* L(TVD)] .
15. Reynolds number :
a. In drill pipe: Nr = 15.46 dvw / PV .
b. In annulus : Nr = 15.46(dh-db) Vw / PV .

Oil Mud Calculations :

If you want to raise the percent of diesel from 3% to 8% without reducing the mud weight how many sacks of barite are to be added in
order to maintain the same mud weight ?
1. Calculate how many bbls of diesel oil equivalent to 5% difference to be increased .
EG: System volume = 1,000 bbl .
[Link] = 9.5 PPG .
X(bbls of diesel) = V(E2- E1) / 1-E2 = 1,000*(0.08-0.03) / 1-0.08
= 50 / 0.95
= 52 bbls of diesel.
E1 = 3/100 fraction of % of diesel present .
E2 = 8/100 fraction of % of diesel required .
2. Adding 52 bbls diesel to system will reduce the [Link] ,so calculate the new [Link] after adding 52 bbls of diesel ?
V1W1 + V2W2 = (V1 +V2) W3
(1,000*9.5) + (52*7) = (1,000+52) W 3
W3 = 9.3943 PPG .
V1 = volume of system before adding diesel .
W1 = [Link] before adding diesel .
 V2 = volume of diesel added .
W2 = wt of diesel added .
W3 = wt reaching after adding diesel .
3. How many sacks of barite needed to get back [Link] up to 9.5 PPG ?
X = 1490 (W2-W1) /( 35.5-W2)
= 1490(9.5-9.3943) / (35.5-9.5)
X = sax / 100 bbl .
Total no of sax = (X*1052) / 100 .
Oil-Water Ratio :
% of oil in liquid phase =[ % oil by volume / (% oil by volume +% H 2O by volume)]*100.
% of H2O in liquid phase =[% H2O by volume(from retort) / (% of H2O by volume + % of oil by volume)] * 100
EG: [Link] = 18.1 PPG
% of oil by volume % from retort = 52 %
% of H2O by volume % from retort = 10 %
% of solids = 38 %
% of oil in liquid phase =[52 /(52+10)]*100 = 84 % .
% of H2O in liquid phase = [10 / (10+52)]*100 = 16 %.
O/W ratio = 84 / 16 .
1. To increase the O/W ratio to 90/10 :
O/w =% oil(retort) + X / % H2O (retort) .
90/10 = (52 + X) / 10
X = 38 bbls diesel / 100 bbl of mud
= 0.38 bbl diesel / one bbl of mud
Resulting volume = original volume + new volume
= 1 bbl + 0.38 = 1.38 bbl
2. To convert to one bbl volume
1 (bbl of mud) / 1.38 (resulting volume) = 0.725 bbl mud .
0.38 (bbl diesel) / 1.38 (resulting volume) = 0.275 bbl diesel needed to be added to the system .
I.E: Add 0.275 bbl diesel to every 0.725 bbl mud(of O/W ratio 84/16) to get mud of O/W ratio90/10 .
3. Increase [Link] up to 18.6 .
(Vm Dm +Vo Do) X + 35 (1-X) = Vf Df .
Vm = volume of mud .
Dm =density of original mud .
Vo = density of oil .
Vf = final volume .
Df = final density .
X = unknown .
Let Vf = 1 bbl .
[(0.725*18.1) +(0.275*7)]X + 35(1-X) = (1) (18.6)
X = 0.822bbls of liquid .
1-X = 0.178 bbls of solids to be added to increase mud weight .
EG: Active system
Wt = 18.6 PPG .
10 % H2O by retort
48 % oil by retort
42 % solids .
3. On adding certain volume of mud with a 90/10 O/w ratio on active system and need to get O/W ratio 85/15 for both and present
mud .
The final volume should be 1300 bbls
(O/W)1 X + (O/W2) (1-X) = (O/W3) Vf
Let Vf = one bbl
(83/17) X + (90/10) (1-X) = (85/15) (1)
4.882X + 9-9X = 5.667 (1)
4.882X – 9X = 5.667 – 9
4.118X = 3.333
X =0.809 bbl from (83/17)
1-X = 0.191 bbl from (90/10)
For1300 bbls the needed volume from each mud to be mixed together to get the (85/15) mud are:
0.809 *1300 = 1052 bbl of 83/17 O/W .
o.191 * 1300 = 248 bbl of 90/10 O/W / 1300 bbl of 85/15 of O/W.
Begin blending the mud in the active system by transferring 248 bbl of the active system to a reserve pit and add evenly the 248 bbl of
90/10 mud to the active system .
The final bbls of new mud in the active system is composed of ;
(0.822) (0.725) = 0.596 bbl mud .
(o.822) (0.275) = 0.226 bbl diesel
= 0.178 bbl
So o.178 (1490) = 265.22 lb. To be added .
# To change O/W ratio from 85/15 to 80/20 , water must be added.
(% H2O + X) / % oil = O/W
then substitute Xo with Vw and Do with Dw in previous equation .
Vw =volume of water .
Dw = density of H2O .
OR :
% of oil to be added:
% of H2O by vol. From retort /% of oil (retort) +% of H2O(retort) + vol. Of oil to be added] = new H2O by fraction
# Needed to cut [Link] 13.3 PPG to 12.3 without affecting volume .
vol. = 1425 bbl .
fresh mud = 8.4 PPG
W 1 V1 + W 2 V2 = W 3 V3 .
13.3(1425- V2) + 8.4 V2 = 1425 *12.3
V2 = 290 bbl .
Add 290 bbl on one complete cycle and at the same time dump another 290 bbl of the mud .
V3/POP = 1425/0.138 = 10326.086 stk. .
Result / SPM = 10326.086 /75 = 138 min .
Added vol. / 138 = 2.1 bbl/min .

HYDRAULICS:
 GENERAL HYDRAULICS:

1. Unit of pressure = psi = pound per in2.

2. PPG  psi * 0.0519.
3. Weight of 1 gallon of fresh water = 8.33 PPG = 0.433 psi/ft.
4. Weight of 1 gallon of oversaturated water = 8.9 PPG = 0.465 psi/ft.
5. Hydrostatic pressure = Wt(PPG) * 0.0519 * depth.
6. Unit of density = gm/cm3.
7. Density = psi/ft * 0.434.
8. Density = PPG * 8.33.
9. Hydrostatic head (psi) = PPG * 0.0519 * TVD.
10. Weight of sea water = 8.5 PPG.
11. Weight of diesel = 7 PPG.
12. Total pressure = hydrostatic pressure + surface pressure.
13. Pressure gradient: this is the change of hydrostatic pressure with depth for any given unit of the fluid weight
= P/D = 0.0519 * W.
14. Equivalent mud weight: is that mud weight which the hydrostatic pressure equal to the sum of the imposed
pressure and the hydrostatic pressure
We = Wo + [ P/ (0.0519 * TVD)].
Where:
We = equivalent mud weight.
Wo = actual mud weight.
P = surface pressure.
15. Maximum allowed mud weight(PPG):
= Leak off pressure (psi) / [0.0519 (TVD + test mud weight).
16. Mud weight needed to balance a kick
= W1 + [ SIDP / (0.0519 * depth) ].
W1 = initial mud weight .
SIDP = shut in drill pipe pressure.
17. Pressure drop (psi) = {L*YP/225 D}+{PV(L*V)/1500 D2.
L = length of string .
V = velocity of mud. (ft/sec).
D = diameter of hole – OD of drill string (in).
YP = yield point.
PV = plastic viscosity.
18. Pressure losses:
NB: Maximum pressure is at flow line which is after pumps straight away part of this pressure is lost in flow
line, another part in drill pipe, another at pit, another part in annulus until it reaches its minimum pressure at
flow out line which is zero psi.
The summation of this lost pressure is the pressure losses.
c. Pressure in laminar flow:
 In pipe (pd)
Pd = (PV L V / 90000 d2) + (YP L / 225 d)
 In annulus
= [PV L V / 60000(dh – dp)2] + [YP L / 200(dh – dp)].
d. Pressure loss in turbulent flow:
 In pipe
= [FL W V2] / 92880 d2].
 In annulus
= [FL W V2] / [92880(dh – dp).
Where:
V = fluid velocity. d = internal diameter (in) dh = hole diameter dp = pipe diameter.
Wo = equivalent [Link] PV = plastic viscosity YP = yield point L = section length.
W = mud weight.
19. Effective Circulating Density (ECD):
Is that equivalent mud weight for the summation of hydrostatic pressure and pressure loss in the annulus.
NB: Pump pressure is affected by :
 Diameter of nozzles.
 Flow rate.
 SPM.
 Pump linear diameter

 BIT HYDRAULICS :

 Bit pressure drop (  P)

= [flow(GPM) / {0.95{(  A2+B2+C2)/642 TFA}] * (Mwt/12031).
 Hydraulic horse power (energy expended on bit) (BH hP)
BH hP = [bit pressure drop * flow rate] / 1714.
BHhP/in2 = HhP /  [bit diameter/2]2.
To clean out cutting from around bit this method though be used when  Pbit = 65% from  Ptotal.
 Jet Impact Force(lb.) (force expended by jets in the bottom of the hole).
= 0.0173 * flow rate(GPM) * (bit  P * [Link])
And result/ (bit diameter/ 2) *  .
2

 Pbit should be = 48%.

OR
JIF = ([Link] * GPM * V)/ 1930.
 To calculate total flow area of bit (TFA)
= [nozzle size / (32/2)]2 = ?.
E.g1; [(7/32)2 / 2] = 0.0119628.
Area =  r2
= 3.14 * 0.0119628
= 0.0375.
N.B: This is done for all nozzles I.E each one by its own so if three nozzles are of the same size * 3.
In our E.g. *3 = 0.1125
E.g 2:
We can calculate nozzles size from TFA.
Nozzle size for three nozzles = 0.1125
 0.1125 / 3 = 0.0375
 0.0375 / 3.14 = 0.01196 – r2
r= 0.01196 = 0.1094
D=r*2
= 0.1094 * 2 = 0.2188
D * 32 = 0.2188 * 32
=7
 AREA 0F JET NOZZLES (seq. in)

NO NOZZLE SIZE AREA OF ONE

1 7/32 0.03575
2 8/32 0.0491
3 9/32 0.06213
4 10/32 0.0767
5 11/32 0.0928
6 12/32 0.1104
7 13/32 0.12963
8 14/32 0.1503
9 15/32 0.17257
10 16/32 0.1963
11 18/32 0.2485
12 20/32 0.3068
13 22/32 0.37123
14 24/32 0.4418
15 26/32 0.6013
16 28/32 0.6903
17 30/32 0.7854

44 X FLOW RATE
JET VELOCITY =
22 (A)2+(B)2+(C)2
448.8 X
7 (64)2

 To calculate the neutral point : OR in other words the max WOB, so as the maximum WOB will represent
90 % by length of DC weight in mud , so as to keep neutral point within DC.
 Max. WOB = length X weight X B.F X 0.9.
B.F = Bouncy Factor = 1 – ([Link] /65.4).
Weight DC in air = 2.67 X (OD2 – ID2).
0.9 = 90 % by length of weight DC.
NB: The increase of WOB will lead that neutral point will rise up, after deciding the length and weight of DC
versus maximum WOB to represent 90 % of DC weight (neutral point).
 Leak off Test
This test is done to determine the maximum pressure the formation can stands, and thus determine the
maximum mud weight above which the formation will break down.(NB: differ from one area to another).
Leak off test only recommended for exploration wells, not important for production wells.
As the maximum mud weight for production areas are already known from exploration wells drilled before in
that area.
This is done as follows:
 Drill cement, wash pocket and then drill 10 m or 30 ft of new hole, circulate for a few minutes.
 Pull to shoe, circulate and condition mud. Make sure that the system is in balance and accurately measure
the mud weight, make sure that the hole is filled up. then close the pipe rams.
 Pump mud slowly, using the cementing unit until the pressure builds up. measure the volume pumped. Use a
calibrated pressure gauge for pressure.
 Pump ¼ or 1/8 bbls and wait for one minute or the time required for the pressure to stabilize.
 Plot on a graph, the commulative mud volume pumped to the final static pressure. Repeat this for each
volume increment.
 Continue the procedure until the plotted graph starts to bend off.
 Keep well closed to verify that a constant pressure has indeed been obtained.
 Bleed off at slow and constant rate, still plotting
 volumes and pressures, and establish volume of mud lost in the formation.
 Start circulation.
Leak off pressure
 Maximum allowed [Link](PPG) = = (PPG).
0.0519X [TVD(ft) X Test [Link]

Pressure
(psi)

Pumped volume
(bbl)

Pressure Integrity Test

This is a pressure test same as leak off test. But in this case we do not need to break formation .
I.E: We test the maximum required mud weight we are intending to work with following the same steps as leak
off test, and when reading this value we stop the test and do not continue until breaking formation. This
required mud weight is determined from previous tests in the previous exploratory wells done in this area.
 Stuck Pipe
A. Key-Seating.
B. Caving.
C. Under gauge hole.
D. Differential stuck.
A. Key-Seating:
This usually occurs in deviated holes when the drill pipe wears into the wall of the hole. Since the drill pipe is
the smallest diameter in the drill string, the larger diameter tool joints and drill collars can get stuck when
making a trip.
Key-Seating is recognized by the following characteristics:
1. Still having circulation.
2. Can rotate pipe.
3. May be able to move drill pipe down.
Solution:
Once the Key-Seating has been formed, the smallest diameter portion of its configuration must be reamed out
with some sort of reaming device.
B. Caving in:
Causes:
1. Insufficient mud weight.
2. Wetting shales causing sloughing.
3. Insufficient carrying capacity of the drilling fluid.
4. Tectonically stressed and brittle shales.
Caving is recognized by the following characteristics:
1. Can not circulate.
2. Can not move the pipe(sometimes the pipe can be moved down words but not up.
3. Can not rotate the pipe.
Solution:
1. Increase mud weight to balance formation pressure if possible.
2. Use drilling fluid that will not wet or hydrate the shales and at the same time stabilize shales such as Kcl-
Polymer Mud.
3. Increase the carrying capacity of the drilling fluid by increasing YP.
C. Under gauge hole:
Causes:
1. Under gauge drilling assembly.
2. Plastic following formations(such as salt or soft formations) caused by overburden pressures.
3. Flocculated mud and aggregated mud causes thick filter cake.
4. Wall cake build upon a porous formation in an already gauge hole.
5. All of these can be complicated by additions of drilled solids to the drilling assembly, commonly refereed as
(Bit Balling).
Solution:
1. Check the gauge of the drilling assembly.
2. Increase mud weight to control formation pressures.
3. Reduce filtration to form a smaller wall cake.
4. Reduce bit balling by :
 Change to inhibitive mud.
 Add surfactants (detergent).
 Slugs (having nut plug + caustic soda + spersene).
 Redicoat.
NB: When bit is balled, getting high torque, no progress.
D. Differential Sticking:
Differential sticking is defined as the sticking of pipe at one side of hole against a permeable formation because
the drilling fluid pressure exceeds the pore fluid pressure of the formation, which causes break of the formation,
which by turn will cause a complete loss. And thus the tendency of sucking of drill string to any side of pore
hole is possible. Differential sticking may occur in any area of drilling but mostly occurs where deep wells are
drilled with high density mud.
Differential sticking is characterized by:
1. Drill with lowest mud weight practical.
2. Maintain low filtration rate.
3. Use lubricant.
4. Do not allow the pipe to remain motionless for any period of time.
5. Use square, hexagonal, or spherical drill collars.
6. Change to INVERMUL.
7. USE a spotting fluid (ENVIRO-SPOT).

ENVIRO-SPOT spotting fluid formation for 100 bbls

WEIGHT 7.3 10 12 14 16 18
(PPG)

OIL 65 58 54 49 51 44
(BBL)

ENVIRO-SPOT 6 6 6 6 6 6
55 gal Drum

WATER 28 26 22 21 11 10
(BBL)

BARITE _ 140 250 350 465 570

100 lb. bag

Start with required volume of oil, add ENVIRO-SPOT, water and barite in that order
 DRILL PIPE CORROSION

Corrosion is the destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical action between the metal and its
environment.
I.E: Corrosion occurs as a result of interaction between iron steel of drill string and water base mud.
Four conditions must be met ,however , before wet corrosion:
1. Anode and cathode must exist.
2. The anode and cathode must be immersed in electrolytic medium.
3. A potential difference between anode and cathode exists.
4. There must be a coupling to complete the electrical circuit.
 The anode and cathode exist on the drill pipe itself.
 The drilling mud may serve as electrolytic medium.
 The coupling is creating by the drill pipe steel .
 The potential difference is due to the crystalline structure and different metal used in the drilling pipe alloy.

Factors affecting corrosion rate:

1. Oxygen:
Oxygen reacts with metal of drill string forming (Fe2O3 & Fe3O4), which accelerates corrosion on metal.
Oxygen acts to remove protective films on drill string which accelerate corrosion action and increase pitting
deposits ( reddish brown rust of Fe(OH)3 .
Oxygen scavengers, passivating inhibitors and filming inhibitor treatments are used to mitigate oxygen
corrosion attack.
2. H2S:
Fe + H2S FeS + 2H+ .
The increase of H+ atoms in mud will result in retaining acidic medium which will increase corrosion effect.
H2S, cause severe pitting embattlement and stress cracking also a black sulfide coating.
 Treat with sulfide scavenger as ZnO. Also Film-forming inhibitors are used.
 Keep pH between 8-9.
3. CO2:
CO2 is an acidic gas that results in pH reduction and thus increases corrosion effect and pitting attack.
CO2 + + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic acid).
H2CO3 + Fe FeCO3 +H2.
I.E: FeCO3 deposits indicate CO2 attack.
 Increase [Link] to stop gas influx .
 Keep pH between 8-9.
 Add filming amine
4. Bacteria:
 the by-product of bacteria is CO2, H2S and SO4(leads to H2SO4).
 Microiobacids are use to control bacterial effect in drilling environments.
5. Dissolved Salt:
As salt concentration increases, conductivity between charge poles raises, also electrical resistance of drilling
fluid decreases . also increase the solubility of corrosive by-products and thus increase corrosion effect.
6. Velocity of Drilling Fluid:
the higher the mud velocity the higher the rate of erosion of films around the drill string and thus the higher the
rate of corrosion (Treat with oil mud , amines).
7. Temperature:
Rule of thumb : Corrosive rate doubles with every 55 ft increase. As the increase of temperature increases the
solubility of corrosive gases(O2, H2S & CO2).
8. Pressure:
the increase of pressure causes an increase in trapping effect of gases in mud such as O2 and thus causes
increase in corrosion effect.
9. pH:
Corrosive is much slower in alkaline medium than in acidic medium.
So corrosive rate decreases as pH increases.
NB: The best medium of pH to minimize corrosion rate is a pH between 8.5-10.
10. Solids:
Increase of abrasive solids in mud accelerates removal of protective film around drill string due to increase of
friction action causing pipe washout.
Also removal of protective film helps corrosive elements attack to drill string steel and thus accelerate corrosion
rate.
See pages 7, 8, 9
 Interview questions
types of mud, function of the mud, annular and slip velocity,flow regime,PV,YP,GEL,THIXTROPIC PROPERITIES
1- What are the types of mud?
- Water base mud
oil base mud
- Air base mud
2- What is the function of the mud?
- Remove cuttings from the well.
- Control formation pressures.
- Suspend and release cuttings.
- Seal permeable formations.
- Maintain wellbore stability.
- Cool, lubricate, and support the bit and drilling assembly.
- Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit.
3- What is the annular and slip velocity and the relation between them?
- Annular velocity: The net velocity at which a cutting moves up the annulus.
- Slip velocity: The rate at which a cutting settles in a fluid.
The relation: If the annular velocity of the drilling fluid is greater than the slip velocity of the cutting, the cutting will be transported to the surface.
4-What`s the Optimum Value Rate Of Annular Velocity Ft/Min??

5- What are the types of the flow regime?

Laminar flow: Is generally associated with low flow rate, low fluid velocities
Turbulent flow: In generally occurs at high flow rates, high fluid velocities
RHEOLOGY
6- What is the plastic viscosity (PV)?
Plastic Viscosity is a electro mechanical attraction forces between particles so PV it`s a fuction of solids it`s incres with solids increasing
PV depends on the concentration of solids, size and shape of solids. PV= Read600-Read300 Centi Powaz
- The finer solids, higher PV due to the increase of surface area which surrounded by more Volume of water.
7- What`s a definition Of YP
Yeald Point is a electro chemical attraction forces between particles in a Dynamic Mode(carring capacity of mud in a dynamic mode )circulation
and it`s function of hole cleaning while YP= [Link]/ft2
8- What is the gel?
Gel Strength|:-is the electro-chemical attraction forces in a static mode (carring Capacity for Mud in a static mode 10minutes&10 sec lb/ft2
9- What are the types of gel strength?
Fragile or flat:Gel strength of 10 minute is slightly higher than 10 seconds gel even if 10 seconds gel reading is high.
Progressive or elevated:Gel strength increases significantly after 10 minute, even if 10 seconds gel is low.
10-What`s Optimum Value of LSYP in below deviated well ??
In Aramco Policy LSYP= 2READ3 – READ6
READ 6=1.2TO 1.5 Hole size
Read 3 = more than hole size & less than 1.5 holesize
LSYP = HOLE SIZE
11-What`s a Thixotropic Properties?
It`s a Mud capability to carry the solids in a static Mode(Gel ) , and to keep the same properties and same Parameters
12- What will happen if the Drilling Fluids have`nt ability to form revirsable Gel Structure?
The gel structure is responsible for carring cuttings in a static Mode and If not gel structure the solids cutting will build upper bit and beside BHA
and will finally lead to Mechanical stucking in a vertical well
And also if in devieated well it`ll lead to Key Seat Stuck .
PH AND CONTAMINATION
13- What is the PH?
- The negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration.
14- Why do you make PF and MF test?
- To determine CO3, HCO3 and CO2 contamination in the mud.

15- What is the relation between PF and MF and what is the contamination of each case?
- PF = MF…………… OH
- 2PF > MF……....….. OH & CO3
- 2PF = MF………….. CO3
- 2PF < MF………….. CO3 & HCO3
- PF = 0 ...…………... HCO3 & CO2
16-Please Complete with The Reason Of Contamination ?

17- What should you do if you don’t have PHPH indicator to make PF and MF test?
- Use PH meter to determine the end point of PF & MF.
18- How to Calibrate PH meter.?
By make a caliplaration by Ph4 and Ph7
19- What is the end point of PF and MF?
PF end point is 4.3
MF end point is 8.3
20- If you have CO3 contamination, what is the test can you do to know it? Not pf and mf test?
Ca test, if the concentration of Ca decrease, it means that the mud has CO3.
21-Complete with Correct Answer :-
CO2 &H2S are Acidic Gases
A hi ph that mean I ve afree OH Ions
At High Ph we Minimize A Bacterial Degradation
Accepted Carobnate In Mud (500-2000)mg/
A solid Problem is Look Like CO3 Problem
In Case Of Co2 In Mud Treat With LIME
Solubility of Ca Increase By Low Ph , Causing Floculation of Mud.
Clay Or shale become highly sensitive to Mud when the Ph Over 9.00 and causes Mud Flocculation
Hi Ph more 11 may burn Polymers so best Ph betwwen (8.5-10 )
Low Ph less than 7 causes Deactivation of Polymers
Ligno sulphonate may cause foaming at Ph below 8 so we `ve to add Caustic
To precipitate Ca we use Soda Ash Or Sodium Bi Carbonate to Precipetate as CaCO3 And Mg Ions
Precipetate By Caustic Soda NaOH As MgOH
To Adjust PF &MF ratio we have to Add Lime Or Caustic Soda
22- What are the common chemical reactions in mud?

23- Contamination sources and treatment?

Water, may come from leak, make short system, isolate, carry out chemical treatment
Cement,come from cement job, add NAHCO3 sodium bi carbonate or citric acid
Gases, come from formation, increase PH, add scavenger or lime for CO2.
Salts, come from formation, Dilute add caustic soda and thinner
24- What is the flash point of the fluid?
- It is the lowest temperature where enough fluid can evaporate to form a combustible concentration of gas.
25- What is the special about graphite materials, why are they used for high over balance drilling?
It is used as lost circulation prevention in water base and oil-based mud.
- Increases lubricity of water-based fluids.
- Does not adversely affect rheological properties.
It is used for high over balance drilling because It allows tightly packed particles under compression in pores and micro-fractures to expand or contract
without being dislodged by changes in differential pressure.
26- What are the characteristics of the filter cake?
- Impermeable
- Non Porous
- It must be thin to minimize well sticking and reduce friction forces between drill string and pore hole wall.
27-The Poor Filter cake and High Fluid Loss Can Lead to ?
Poor filter cake lead to stuck Pipes and will lead to a lot of filtrate losses that will Lead to well control problem because the losses will effect in the
hole Pressure Stability
28- What is tau zero?
- It is the shear stress at zero shear rate.
29- What are the bridging materials?
Chemicals added to a drilling fluid to bridge across the pore throat or fractures of an exposed rock thereby building a filter cake to prevent loss of
whole mud or excessive filtrate.
30- What is the PHPA?
- Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide Polymer.
- It is a co-polymer of anionic character and high molecular weight.
- It is a water-soluble polymer.
- It is used to

31- What are the types of shale inhibition and the mechanism of each type?
- KCL

- PHPA (New drill plus)

- Gilsonite (Black fury or black nite)

Sulphonated Asphalt (Soltex)

- Ploy amine (Max guard)

- Glycol
32- What is the effect of high PH in spud mud and why?
- Increase the viscosity because it increases dispersion of clay.
33-Chemicals used in drilling CMT
The CMt contamination is Ca and PH increasing In WBM so we are using Sodium bio carbonate and Soda Ash and citric acid to decrease ph
For OBM drilling cement it`s good because it`s increasing the Ca++ Ratio excess lime good for OBM
34-Source of carbonate?
limestone and dolmite formation sodium carbonat we add inert chemical
spud mud
35- How do you mix spud mud?
- Check ca and the salinity of the water
- Add caustic soda
- Add soda ash
- Add bentonite and leave it for 6-8 hours to hydrate
ca < 400 mg/L , cl <2000 mg/L
36- Why should you treat Calcium before mixing spud mud?
Because ca decreases the performance of bentonite hydration because the ca is divalent so it will replace the Na and increase the attraction force
between the bentonite layers.
37- What is the accepted concentration of Ca in the mud?
- Less than 400 mg/l.
38-What `ll Happen If we Use Low Quality of Bentonite with High Concentration in Hi Temperature Wells??
It will make a many Problems Such As the Hi Gel and hi Yp and hi Gellaation it Problem For Swaabing Pressure That may lead to Formation Damage
Also the rheology Parametrs of mud will not be good to make hole cleaning so that lead to Building up the solids and Mechanical sticking
39- What is the value of water loss in spud mud?
- It is uncontrolled and it is 14-16.
40- What is the maximum salinity of water that using for mixing bentonite?
- 2000 mg/l.
41- How do mix spud mud with saline water?
- Mix all concentration of bentonite in fresh water and leave it 6-8 hours to hydrate the bentonite after that add salt water.
42- What is the concentration of bentonite that you mixed before?
- 25-30 ppb.
43- If you drill a section that has total loss circulation zone and shale formation, what the mud type can you use?
- Spud mud and make fly mix.
44 - Do you have time to mix all chemicals if you use fly mix?
ifi have fly mixing i will put minimum concentration and keep the mud weight
45 - How many bags of bentonite can you mix in one hour during fly mix?
according to rig hoppers efficiency and how many hoppers in the rig and activity of all worker
46- How many pallets of starch can you use in one hour during fly mix?
in normal polymers add in 5 min but in fly we try to decrease the time to fast mixing without plugging hopper
47- If you have total loss what is the type of mud can you use in 16" section?
conventional lcm like nut plug mi seal and mica by all grades
48 - The test used to determine Bentonite in mud ? or, discuss MBT test ?
1 mL mud in 10mL of distilled water in flask
15mL 3% hydrogen peroxide
0.5mL 5N sulphuric acid
Boil on hotplate for 10 mins
Dilute to 50mL with water and allow to cool
Titrate by adding 0.5mL samples of methylene blue
Swirl each time for 20secs and apply blue halo test by one drop of mixture on white paper
End point when ring become like sun shine
Equivalent bentonite concentration (lb/bbl) = 5 x MBT (kg/m3 = 2.85 x lb/bbl)
49 - Why do you add hydrogen peroxide 3% in MBT?
- To remove the effect of organic materials such as CMC, lignosulfonates and lignites

KCL AND SHALE INHIBITOR

50 - Why do you use KCL polymer mud? Can we use bentonite with KCL ?
because KCL is shale inhibitor K+ ion plug shale pores, prevent swelling /We can use bentonite with KCL mud.
51 - Why is KCL shale inhibitor?
Because K is the only ion has diameter can fit the space between the shale layers due to ionic exchange as K is stronger than Na so replace it
and prevent shale hydration
52 - What the ionic diameter of K and Na?
K is 2.66 A and Na is 2.8 A
53- What are the types of shale?
1- Non swelling shale: Attapulgite and Sepiolite.
2- Slightly swelling shale: Illite, Chlorite and Kaolinite.
3- Swelling shale: Montmorillonite (Smectite)
54- Can you use KCL with all shale type?
with montomronolite only as it contains na while not use in illiet due to present of K ion in it
55 - Which types of shale that K is inhibitor?
montmorillonite, Illite and Mica because it has sodium.
56 - What are the shale types in KSA?
Montmorillonite, Kaolinite and Illite.
57- What is the typical concentration of KCL?
- 10% (wt) or 37 pbb
58 - What is the typical concentration of K in KCL polymer mud?
- 52000 mg/l.
59 - What is the test of KCL?
1- 7 ml filtrate
2- 3 ml sodium perchlorite.
3- Use the centrifuge and take the value to know the lb/bbl from the chart
4- Use the KCL table to know the % (wt)
60 - Can you calculate K concentration from CL?
- Yes I can, K= 1.103*CL
61 - Is this value accurate? Why?
- No, because the concentration of k will decrease during the drilling and the concentration of CL will be constant.
fluid loss reducer chemicals
62 - What are fluid loss reducer chemicals and what is the maximum temperature of each one?
_Starch………………………....(theoretical 250 f)
- Pac (pac-lv & mil pac-lv)………......300 f
- Resinex II………………………….. 400 f
- Tannathin……………………......… 400 f
- Dristemp…………………………... 400 f
63- What is the fluid loss reducer using in the reservoir?
Flotrol
OBM
64 - How do you mix OBM?
- Diesel tank: - Brine tank

- Diesel as OWR - Water as OWR

- Lime - CACL2 depend on WFS
Primary emulsifier (Invur-Mul – Versa-Mul)
Fluid loss reducer (Carbotrol-Duratone)
Secondary emulsifier (Versa Coat – NFS350)
- Transfer the brine to the diesel tank very slowly
- Mix it for 2 hours
Add viscosifer and weighting material (VG-69-GELTUNE)
65- why we using water while mixing heavy bariet mud?
To prevent settling and prevent flocculation
66 - What is the important factor in OBM?
- Electrical stability (ES).
67- Why do you use emulsifier?
- To make the emulsion between the oil and the water to be homogeneous phase
68 - Types of emulsion Emulsion ?
Emulsion : oil in water , water phase is cont, water ratio is higher than oil, ex 60 w/40 oil , 70 w/30 oil, 80 w/20 oil
Invert emulsion : oil in water , water phase is cont, water ratio is higher than oil, ex 60 w/40 oil , 70 w/30 oil, 80 w/20 oil
69 - Function & Types of Emulsifiers?
Mix un mixed heterogeneous phases into one phase
Types are Primary emulsifier (ex, versamul, inveramul) & secondary emulsifier (ex, versacoat, EZ mul )
70- Tests give indications about emulsion ?
Electric stability (high reading more than 700 refer to good emulsion)
Lime content. (constant high result more than 4 refer to good emulsion)
HPHT ( all filtrate is diesel refer to good Emulsion)
71 - Function of lime CA(OH)2 in OBM? Or Why excess lime must keep in OBM
Provide the OBM with calcium soap which responsible for emulsifying
React with gases contamination
72- What is mechanism of CA soap?
to decrease the surface tension between 2 immiscible phases‫لتقليل التوتر السطحي بين مرحلتين غير قابلة لالمتزاج‬
73 - What is the ES?
- It is the measure of the emulsion stability.
74- What is the mechanism of ES ?
Measure the conductivity of the mud. Or It detect resistivity of mud for electricity
- Decrease conductivity ………… increase ES.
- Increase conductivity …………. decrease ES.
ES for diesel is 2000 volt that means it needs 2000 volt to break bond and connect with electricity
ES for water is zero that means it don't need volt to break bond and connect with electricity.
75- How can you check any drop in ES without ES meter?
- From HPHT test, all filtrate should be oil, if you find water that mean ES decrease.
76- Why do you use Cacl2 not Nacl with OBM?
- Because CaCL2 give salinity more than Nacl to control the osmosis pressure and the water activity of Ca (0.4) less than Na (0.75)
77- What is the maximum salinity of CACL2 and NACL?
CACL……………….... 355000 mg/l
NACL………………... 190000 mg/l
KCL………………... 133000 mg/l
78- What is the osmosis pressure?
- The pressure results from transferring the fluid from low salinity to high salinity.
79- Osmosis effect from shale to mud to avoid swelling. ?
Osmosis effect from shale to mud is related to salinity of formation and mud it have to in balance together
if the mud salinity is less than shale salinity the fluid will transfer to the shale and
it will make shale swelling if the opposites happen we will get Caved shale
80- why use barin in OBM?
Due to osmotic pressure which decrease fluid transfer from fluid to formation
81 - What are the OBM tests?
-Add 1 ml OBM
-Add 25 ml Isopropyl Alcohol
-Add 25 ml Xylene
-Mix for 30 seconds
-Add distilled water to reach 100 ml
-Add 10 drops of Phenolphthalein (Pink Color will appear)
-Titrate with 0.1N H2SO4 till Color disappears.
-No of H2SO4 ml = POM (mud alkalinity)
-Excess Lime = POM * 1.295
-To Same Sample add:
-10 drop potassium Chromate (Yellow color will appear)
-Titrate with silver Nitrate 0.282 till red Brown color appears.

82- What is the equation of cacl2% wt in OBM?

- Whole Chloride Mud (mg/l) = ml of Silver Nitrate * 10000

- CaCl2 Mud (lb/bbl) = ml of Silver Nitrate *5.48
- CL% / WT =
(15.65*ml of Silver Nitrate *100)
((15.65*ml of Silver Nitrate) + (Water factor*1000))
83 - What is the effect on the hole if you have emulsion breaking?
- Shale Swelling.
- Barite and solid settling in the hole.
84- What is the contamination in OBM?
Solids, water Water Contaminations treated by dilution with Oil and using emulsifier and Limeand gases treated with Lime
85- How do you displace the hole fromOBM toWBM?
hi-vis obm *Surfactant pill to clean the casing*Hi –Vis Pill of wbm and dump it on shaker*I`ve to attend the all displacement on shaker
86 - How do you displace the hole from WBM to OBM?
use spacer hi-vis water then hi-vis obm
87- What is The advantage Of OBM?
Well bore stability
Good lubricant

Low corrosion and can we use it again many times

88- What`s the Dis-Advantage Of OBM ?
It`s environmental hazardous
If we have formation losses it`s so expensive

89- Why The Hole Clean Is Poor In OBM ?

Because there are many factors in OBM affect on Rheology because the O/w ratio is high in Obm so
the Viscosifire is Organophilic Clay need water so it`s work ad it`s affect into rheology also Obm Affect
from Temperature that will effect defiantly on Mud Rheology .
90- how to perform good hole cleaning in case of OBM?
good vis ,yp ,pv. gel, control ROP .high possible GPM good emulsion
91- How we Can Adjust O/w Ratio In OBM ?
By adding Oil or water as a dilution to the Active system to maintain the O.W Ratio in whole mud .
and we do that by calculating the Current o/w ratio and desired O/w
92- How to optimize 3 & 6 readings in OBM.?
The basic is by the viscosifier and by making pilot test and to maintain the Rheology and 3,6 reading
But Aramco have a new products for 3&6 reading is RM-63 they prefer us to USE it while drilling
93- What you do to increase Gel & YP
.in wbm prehydrated bentonite // in OBM used RM-63 while drilling by first make piolt test
94- What is the wetting agent?
- It is a chemicals used to wet the solid and the treatment chemicals by diesel.
95-Why use wetting agent
To make solids oil wetting, decrease viscosity and separate drilled solids @ shaker.
STUCK TYPES
96- What are types of stuck?
Differential stuck /Mechanicals stuck
97 - What are the indicators of each type?
Differential stuck: Full circulation, no RPM and no moving up or down
 Mechanical stuck: No circulation, no RPM, little moving up and down
98- What is the mechanism of differential stuck?
- High overbalance on the formation increases the water loss and the differential pressure between the mud and the formation so the stuck occur.
99- How Mud Engineer treat the differential stuck ?
a- Grease pill (Ez-mul or pipe lax +water+desiel)
b- Coastal,surfactant,glycol pill / WE pump brine before pump coastal to decrease differential pressure
c- Acid job (HCL+Citric acid)
100- What is types of mechanical stuck ?
a- Dog leg b- key seat c- under guage
101- Is there partial circulation with mechanical stuck? Which type?
Yes, key seat wellbore geometry While pack off no return .
102- What is the mechanism of key seat stuck?
when drilling in a deviated well so, due to the great tension between the drill string and low side it makes a narrow slot
but the dog leg occurs when drilling a succession of soft & hard fm.
103-What we use to avoid stuck Pipe to minimize Pore Pressure ?
Using Lcm *Steel seal*Soluflake Fine *Mica fine*Frac seal*Marble fine&Medium*Wall Nut- Nut Plug
*Take care about the concentration and sizes in a deviated wells
104- Why it`s rare to have a Differential Sticking while Using OBM ?
Due to combination of high lubricity with very thin filter cake.
And good shale stabilizers Asphaltine Material So no Over Balance.
105- balance problems?
a- Differential stuck when Over or under balance btwn pore pressure and fluid pressure
b- LC when Over balance btwn formation pressure and hydrostatic pressure
c- Flow , kick, blowout when under balance btwn hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure
106 - What are factors of mud cause stuck?
a- Bad hole cleaning, bit balling and formation swelling cause mechanical stuck.
b- Over or under balance btwn pore pressure and fluid pressure cause Differential stuck (bad bridging and sealing, bad fluid loss control)
107 - Why do you make sand content test?
- To detect the concentration of the sand in the mud because excessive sand causes:

centrifuge
108 - What is the important of the centrifuge?
separated solids less than 6 M and clear the mud from LGS
109 - Can you use it with high MWT?
- Yes, I can use barite recovery system.
110 - What is the mechanism of barite recovery?
Using two the first to separate the barite by working with high rate and low RPM and the second to remove the solids by
working with low rate and high RPM
111- What is the minimum solid size that centrifuge can separate?
- 6 micron
112 - What is the cabr2?
- It is a completion fluid.
113-What is the function of Completion /Work over fluids ?
Control pressure of down hole
Keep Hole Cleaning and minimizing the fluid loss into formation
114 - What is the corrected solid? and solids equation?
Corrected solids : total solids –dissolved salts
Un corrected solids : retort solids ( total solids in mud ).
LGS : corrected solids in mud - HGS
HGS : corrected solids – LGS (weighting materials )
Drilled solids : total solids in mud – (dissolved salts +weighting materials +chemical additives ).
115- What is optimum value of LGS?
4-6 ppb
116 - What is the maximum weight of cabr2? : 106 pcf
117 - Why do you use it?
- If I need high weight completion fluids, more than 86 pcf.
HOLE CLEANING
118- How can we control good hole cleaning?
Controlled by good rheology YP&GEL&LSYP also regular sweeping hole as following
pump Hi-Vis in vertical wells
pump Low vis & Hi-Vis in Deviated wells
pump Low vis & Hi weighted--Vis in Horizontal & lateral wells (higher density can carry more cuttings ((buoyant effect)) )
119- Function of using low-vis & high-vis
low vis cause turbilant current, turbulence move cutting around specially under the bit
high vis cause laminar current, sweep all the moved cutting
120- How do you make hole cleaning in horizontal well?
1-Good mud rheology:
RPM 6 = (1.2 - 1.5) hole size
RPM 3 = (1 - 1.5) hole size
LSYP = hole size
2-Good drilling parameter : High flow rate /High RPM /Low ROP
3-Pump tandem pill (low viscous pill and high weight pill)
121 - What is the mechanism of tandem pill?
- Low viscosity to make turbulent flow to move the cutting from the low side and high weight to push the cutting.
122 - Why do you use high weight not high VIS?
- Because I need force to push the cutting.
123 - If you have good rehology, good RPM and good flow rate but have bad hole cleaning, why?
Because of high ROP &mwt problem.
124 - What is TCT? How to calculate TCT and what depend ON
- True crystallization temperature.
Put 30 ml brine in flask inside ice box until the first crystal appear in solution FCTA and after temperatre increase the crstal dis appear LCTD
. It depend on temperature and pressure
125- what is the indicator o hole cleaning?
Pump Pressure & Torque & Drag and the good trapping
126 - What is the pilot test?
- It is a test used to make s simulation to the mud to make good treatment and to check any new chemicals.
We use calibrated digital balance, pipette, cup & patch mixer for mixing
- Put 350 ml the mud (equivalent 1 bbl) and put 1 gram chemical (equivalent 1 lb), start the agitator and check the mud.
127 - What is the bit balling and how do you prevent it?
- The bit is covered by clay.
- Add 3 % volume of penetrex or drill zone in the active during the drilling and put 1/3 can of the condet down the drill pipe every connection.
128 - What is the maximum weight of:
- Barite…………….. 152 pcf
- Hematite…..……… 187 pcf
- Marble……..……… 87 pcf
- NACl………..…….. 75 pcf
- KCL…………...….. 73 pcf
- CACL2…………..... 86 pcf
- CABR2…………....106 pcf
- CACL/CABR2…....112 pcf
- NA formate……….. 83 pcf
- K formate……….....98 pcf
- ZNBR2…………....143 pcf
129 - What is the specific gravity of:
- Hematite………………. 5
- Barite…………………. 4.2
- Marble…………..…… 2.75
- Bentonite…………….. 2.65
- Diesel………………... 0.84
- Safra oil…………….... 0.79
- LGS………………... 2.6-2.65
LCM
130 - What are the types of LCM?
- Non reservoir LCM:

- Reservoir LCM:
Non damadge materials like : Marble fine&medium, Baracarbs5,25,50, Soluflakes F&M – N-seal (acid soluble)
Maximum dose of LCM is 200 PPb
We cant use any other LCM which considered damaging reservoir
MWD tools, pit nossels, PBL sub, pump screens have concentration limitations per each, discuss this before mix
131 - Are Barite & bentonite used in reservoirs?
No, they are damage materials, also we can’t use any black chemicals in reservoirs

132- What are the types of formation losses?

- Sea page……………….. < 10 bbls
- Partial…………………. 10-100 bbls
- Sever....………………... > 100 bbls
- Complete……………… No return
133 - Types of losses
formation
Surface
Solid control equipment
Dump
Leak
134 - What is the GGT?
- It is garret gas test and used to determine the concentration of H2S.
135- What is effect of H2S on mud?
Dark colour and decrease in PH and corrosion for pipes
136 - H2S treatment ? OR What is the H2S scavenger with WBM?
Increase PH
- Zinc Oxide
- Sourscav

137- What is the chemical name of sourscav?

- Iron gluconate.
138 - What is the ECD?
ECD means Equivalent circulation density represent total actual btm hole pressure
ECD equal mud weight during circulation @bottom , , in deep wills ECD is critical because narrow pressure window
ECD affected by a lot of factors like mud weight, hydrostatic pressure, gel strength , YP, PV.
ECD =(( annular pressure loss/( 0.052*TVD) )) + [Link] in ppg
139 - What is the source of PH in formate mud?
- Soda ash and sodium biocarbonate
140- Why don’t you make a retort in formate mud?
- Because the expansion force of the formate mud push the solid into the condensate bottle and plug it.
141- What is the using of glycol?
- It is shale inhibitor and lubricant.
142- What is the contamination in WBM?
- Solids
- Cement
- Anhydrite
- Salt
- Carbonate
- H2S
143-What`s the hydrostatic pressure definition and how can calculate?
Is the total pressure for fluids that `s result from the weight of mud column

144 - What is the equation of kill mud weight?

- Kill mud weight = (SIDP/ (TVD*0.052)) + MWT

145- Why do you double the result value from HPHT test?
- Because the filter paper area of the HPHT (3.5 in2) is half the filter paper area of API (7 in2).
146 - What is the chemicals mane of max guard?
- Poly amine
147 - For what is poly amine using?
- For shale inhibition.
148 - What is the accepted concentration of CO3 in the mud?
- (500 – 2000) mg/l.
149- What is the treatment you should add with CO2 contamination?
- Lime.
150- What is the mean of damage formation?
- Plugging the porosity of the formation and decrease the permeability.
151- What`s the Primary Factors that Causing Formation Damage?

152- What are The Factors Caused enterance of Particles Inside the formation ?
Bad filter cake not sealed and it permeable

153 - What is the definition of glycol cloud point?

Is the Temp where glycol starts to form micro bubbles and separate out from the water ,blocking formation pores to prevent filtrate invasion.
154- Report the factors That controlled the cloud Point Of Fresh water Glycol ?
It`s effecting by salanity , Down hole Temp and concentration of glycol
155- What the different between low molecular weight glycol and high molecular weight glycol
Low molecular weight are usually called PEGs are viscous and colorless liquids,
high molecular weight are usually called PEO are waxy, white solids with melting points
156 -What`s a Skin effect ?
Is a Pressure sudden drop according to formation Resistance
Plug permeability Test……………..Ppt test
157-Ppt test, how to run…….. Plug permeability Test
First fill the Cylinder with mud and put the ceramic filter disk then apply a required Temperature and pressure as per client request for 30 minutes and
then collect the filtrate and before collecting the first filtrate monitor the pressure increasing with temperature fast or not and this first filtrate is like
formation and the result os *2 also the acceptable ratio of filtrate is 0.5 cc or less if it`s greater that`s mean we have a problem in a bridging agent
158-How Can We Calculate PPT Differential Pressure ??
It`s a different between the hydrostatic Pressure and Bottom Hole Pressure
The pump pressure – upper regulator pressure
159- What are the characteristicts of spurt fluid of PPT ?
After applying the pressure for the mud the first filtrate that collected in a ceramic desk it`s indicator
of fluid loss to formation and the efficiency of the bridging agent while 30 minutes and how to minimize
the filtrate losses quantity under a hi pressures
160- PPT reading evaluation.?
I collect the first filtrate and evaluate it if it `s less than 0.5 cc that’s ok
If it more than 0.5 cc that`s mean that I’ve a problem is Bridging agents and it`s not sealed the formation well and before taking the first filtrate
I’ve to monitor the pressure and if it increase with temperature fast ly or not .
161- Osmosis effect from shale to mud to avoid swelling. ?
Osmosis effect from shale to mud is related to salinity of formation and mud it have to in balance together because the less of salinity is transfer to other so if
the mud salinity is less than shale salinity the fluid will transfer to the shale and it will make shale swelling if the opposites happen we will get Caved shale
162- How to weight up 90 pcf mud to 110 pcf mud with rough figure (without equation).?
If we are using Barite :- 8.9-9 lb/bbl will increase 1 bbl with 1 pcf
If we are using Marble Fine 11 lb/bbls will increase the 1 bbl with 1 PCF so we will calculate the volume according to the previous solution ,
163- What is your experience on Cacl2/Caco3 polymer, fluid loss…?
I didn’t work with Cacl2/CaCO3 Polymer , this mud have a high ratio of ca so i`ve to use the modified starch as a ca++ resistant
164 - Discuss API , HPHT, PPT tests?
All this tests measure (fluid loss) filtration & cake quality .
API measure filtration in low temp low pressure 120 F , 100 PSI pressure
HPHT measure filtration in HI temp HI pressure 250 F , 600-100 differential pressure
PPT (plugging permeability test) measure filtration in active reservoirs
Factors affecting filtration are Fluid loss additives, bridging materials and PH

165 - Uses of marbles?

Marble fine as weighting agent.
- Marble meduim as bridging agent.
- Marble coarse as LCM
166- What is chemicals are using on pickling job.?
It`s using mainly in gas wells to clean the casing and it`s in two stages
1 – casing cleaning first pump very cleaned water then mix A pickling Pill by using a pure water and Adding CCt 3000 D 5 drums
and pump it with Head and tail Pill hi viscous water Pill with Ph 11
2- Tubing Cleaning by adding CCt8051D 5 drums into a pill and also with Head and Tail Pill with Viscous Water Pill Ph=11
and also after every Pill check the water Purity test to know if the cleaning pill is succeeded or not after these pill
we make a reverse circulation to check the hole cleaned or not
167- What is the maximum mud weight you worked with it?
The maximum weight I worked by it 13.5 ppg equal to 100 pcf WBM and 1.5 sg OBM 12.5 ppg 98 pcf
mud weight in ppg = specific gravity (SG) x 8.33
Mud weight in lb/ft3 = specific gravity x 62.4
Pressure gradient in psi/ft = specific gravity (SG) x 0.433
168- what is the mean of layers?
monomer content to form polymer and chains content to form layers
169- what is depleted formation and How can deal in case of losses in aquiire and also resvoir?
it's a long [Link] many wells are drilled in, so it lost its original pressure,which cause subnormal fm. pressure so, losses occurs
170-Calculate the ASG of the solids in a 14 ppg mud with the following retort analysis:
6.5 ml water/0.5 ml oil with an SG = 0.83/3.0 ml of solids
ASGs = (Vm SGm - Vw SGw - Vo SGo )/Vs
ASGs = (10(1.68) - 6.5(1.0) - 0.5(0.83 ))/3.0 = 3.30
171- What is definition of Return permeability
the comparison of permeability after testing with the additive compared to initial permeability.
172- What Are The Main Factors in Clay Dispersion ?
it happen by physiochemical reaction between the cataions ( Monovalent-Di-valent)
It need the water to happen
ALSO Formation Salainity(if the formation Salainity is greater than the Mud salainity lead to caved shale
IF the Opposite condition lead to shale sweeling(Dispersion )
173- What are The Main Factor of clay Aggregation ?
Happened form solids increasing and ponding with thick plates together
NOTES
1- Kill mud is 25% wt higher than used mud, used in case of well control problems.
2- Mud cap is 10:15 PCF higher than used mud, used in case of complete loss.
3- Treatment for weight increase carried out by dump & dilution or increase shakers mesh or run mud cleaners and centrifuge or add new fresh mud.
4- Ionic Polymers work good in fresh water because it has wide surface area due to stretching by repulsive forces, while get coiled in saline water and lost efficiency.
5- Multivalent ions can react with a lot of charged ions in the polymer and act as flocculants and bridging agents. Ca++ react with –ve polymers and make good bridging and PH>7
6- Polymers are used mainly as viscosifier by add high molecular weight polymers to water, but natural polymers can work under temperature 100 C because it have low thermal stability.
7- Polymers used in deep wells must has high thermal stability to reduce thermal decomposition rate due to high temperature.
8- Reading of VG meter show shear stress in θ
9- VG rheological models are (Bingham-Power law- Herschel Bulkily)
10- Dispersed systems (deflocculates) reduce fluid loss & control viscosity
11- You can prepare dispersed mud system by increase repulsive forces & increase –ve charges (increase PH>9 – add defocculants or thinner like spercene
(chrome lignosulphonate) which nuetrlize +ve charges in clay edges with their –ve charge – fine particles like caco3, barite and fine drilled solids act as dispersants ) .
12- (flocculates) are clay free / fresh water mud switch solids into coiled groups and settle out .
13- Fluid loss to preamble formation reduced by increasing viscosity and add fluid loss agents

14- Flow is two types (Laminar – Turbulent).

15- Hydraulic energy: energy required to make good hole cleaning and prevent bit balling controlled by pump pressure and GPM and RPM .
16- Weighting materials are (Caco3 Marble fine2.6 till 96 –Baso4 Barite4.7 till 150 –Fe2o3 Hematite5.1 till 180 – Salts)
17- Bridging material : suitable particle sizes get inside porus formation and block its bores to prevent permability, after bridging the wall covered with mud cake.
18- Bentonite as fluid loss cause thick&permable mud cake, we add thinner or deflocculants to reduce cake thickness and decrease permeability of the cake .
19 Swelling of shale carried out by this reasons:
a- Entrance of water molecule in the distances beween the shale particles, through fissures, fractures and bedding planes which increase its volume.
b- Attraction between clay –ve charged in shale and polar water
c- Clays ions exchange Na+ K+
d- Osmothic pressure
20 OBM is used in shale because it has very high membrane efficiency .
21 In shallower depths shale occurs as montromonolite , but in deeper occurs as illite which well compacted due to high pressure and temperature . we can notice the following
a- Water can penetrate montromonolite due to hydration energy > electrostatic bonding energy.
b- Water can’t penetrate illite due to hydration energy < electrostatic bonding energy.
22 Swelled shale become soft and sticky
23 Swelling make tight hole , can determined by overpull while tripping or pack off while tripping with pumping
24 Swelling criteria for the MUD ENGINEER
a- Soft cuttings, Clay balls on shakers, shakers block.
b- High increase in low gravity solids conc (LGSC)
c- Increase in PV, YP, MBT, filter loss, LGSC
d- Over pull, Pack OFF, change in used WOB
25 Mesh size : no of opening per inch sq.
26 LSND : low solids non dispearsed mud, simply spud mud (water-caustic-bentonite-xc-barite)
27 XC and visosifiers cannot give viscocity in higher PH values & high hardness >400.
28 When you have CO2 in the mud (you can notice rapid drop in PH – and dark color of mud) add lime .
29 Starchs cannot work after temperature more than 250 Fahrenheit.
30- MIX OBM first we prepare brine in separate tank, then we mix desiel with lime + fluid loss + primary emulsifier then transfer brine , then add second emulsifier+
viscocifier then weighting material
31- Fresh water has 62.3 PCF , 8.33 PPG
32- On quart of fresh water 946 ml flow through marsh funnel in 26 sec
33 In WBM we carry out API in low Temp(120F)-Low Pressure(100PSI)
34 In OBM we carry out filtration test in HI Temp(250F)-HI Pressure(600-100=500PSI)
35 retort is used to determine the quantity of liquids and solids in the drilling fluid

Calculations
1- Hydrostatic pressure = [Link] in ppg *TVD*0.052
2- Pressure gradient = Hydrostatic pressure /TVD
3- Pressure drop = ([Link] in - [Link] out )*0.052 * TVD
4- ECD = annular pressure loss /( 0.052 * TVD ) +[Link]
5- Hole volume : [Link] / 1029.4 * TVD
6- Annular vol : [Link]-ODsq)/1029.4 *TVD
7- String capacity : IDsq/1029.4* L
8- Displacment : ODsq-IDsq/1029.4*L
9- LAG- Btm-up = annulas volume / P.O.P = Strks then we devide it by SPM it give us time in minutes
10- Complete cycle = annular vol + string capacity / P.O.P = Strks then we devide it by SPM it give us time in minutes
11- Apparent viscosity = rpm 600 / 2
12- LSYP= 2rpm3-rpm6
13- Ppg=7.48PCF
14- BBL=42 galon = 158 liters

Definations
- PH: Degree of Acidity of fluid. Indicate CONC of H+ in fluid.
- Bactericides: Formaldehydes, LIME or caustic soda or agents added to mud to reduce bactriea count and effect.
- Defoamers: used in water mud to reduce action of foam specially when use saline and brackish water
- Emulsifier: surface active agent used to mix heterogeneous phases of fluids (primary&secondry) and u can determine good emulsion by measuring electrical stability.
- Filtrate reducer: reduce tendcy of mud fluid to pass into formation, like bentonite and starches, it decrease permability and by time fluid loss into formation decreases
- LCM : different size materials used to plug areas of losses in the formation.
Lubricants: oil or graphite materials used to decrease torque and increase horse power transmitted to the drilling bit, easy RIH with BHA and Casing A688
and prevent mechanical stuck.
- Shale inhibitors: used to control shale swelling, prevent tight hole and mechanical stuck, like gypsum, salt, lime, silicates .
- Thinning agent : substance (deflocculants) added to get the mud cake thin and reduce the mud cake permability.
- Osmothic pressure : fluids move from regions of low salinity to regions of high salinity due to make equivalence
- Chemical diffusion: water move from high conc region to low conc region to make equivalence (opposite to asmothic flow direction)
- Cake efficiency: describe how it easy for the mud filtrate ions to pass through membrane into the formation.
- Mechanical strength or stability: describe shale ability and capability to resist swelling .
- LSYP : property of hole cleaning
- Thermal instability : decomposition of mud due to high temperature
 Aramco Questionair

Prepared By Ahmed Maher 23-12-2015

Reviewed By Khalid Faris 25-12-2015

Issued 1 Revised 2

Aramco Questionnaire Page 1 of 16

Table of Contents
2. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF GEL? DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM? CAUSES OF INCREASING GEL?.....................................................................................................................3
3. ECD? RELATION BETWEEN ECD, GPM & PV? WHAT IS PV? EFFECT OF INCREASING OF PV IN MUD PARAMETERS AND DRILLING OPERATION? .................................................4
4. WHAT IS YP & LSYP, AND WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM. .................................................................................................................................................5
5. D-10 D-50& D-90 FOR BARITE AND ALL MARBLE GRADES .................................................................................................................................................................6
6. WHY WE ARE ADDING WATER IN HIGH DENSITY MUD & THE DILUTION RATES? .......................................................................................................................................8
7. WHAT IS THE MECHANISM OF SHALE INHIBITION FOR KCL? ................................................................................................................................................................8
8. WHAT IS CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY?..........................................................................................................................................................................................9
9. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF STUCK PIPE AND WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM? WHAT CAUSES STUCK PIPE? .......................................................................................9
10. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PPT AND HTHP? AND WHY WE RUN BOTH OF THEM? ..............................................................................................................11
11. DEFINE BARITE SAG, WHAT ARE THE CAUSES AND INDICATIONS? ...................................................................................................................................................12
12. DEFINE DYNAMIC BARITE SAG AND IT'S RELATION WITH FLOW RATE & TEMPERATURE? .....................................................................................................................12
13. WHY WE USE BOTH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EMULSIFIER IN OBM, WHAT THE MECHANISM OF BOTH? .............................................................................................13
14. WHY WE USE WATER IN OBM, WHY WE USE CACL2 IN OBM?.....................................................................................................................................................14
15. WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF THICK FILTER CAKE AND IT'S RELATION WITH FLUID LOSS .............................................................................................................................15
16. IN SPUD MUD, YOU ADD SODA ASH IN THE BEGINNING TO PRECIPITATE CALCIUM THEN YOU ADD LIME, LIME CONTAIN CALCIUM? ..............................................................15
17. HOW TO CALCULATE HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND KILL MUD WEIGHT? .........................................................................................................................................15
18. FUNCTION AND SCIENTIFIC NAME FOR SPECIALTY CHEMICALS .......................................................................................................................................................15
19. PAC LIMITATION WITH CALCIUM ...........................................................................................................................................................................................16

Aramco Questionnaire Page 2 of 16

2. What are the types of gel? Difference between them? Causes of increasing
Gel?
Gel strength is the measure of drilling fluid attractive forces in static. It is important in the suspension of cuttings and weight
material, at the same time gelation should not be allowed to become Excessive to the extent where it may lead to drilling
complications like high pressures to break circulation that can lead to loss of circulation and excessive surge and swab.

The strength of the gel formed is a function of the amount and type of solids in suspension, time, temperature and chemical
treatment.

Flat Gels (Fragile gels)

Gel strength readings taken at 10-sec ,10-min & 30-min intervals are near in range this is most of the time seen in Polymer muds
with chemicals like DUOVIS (Branched polymer) as the polymers Link together by electrochemical forces forming a network in
static , once shear is applied the linking breaks easily .

So measuring the strength of gel structure over a period of time (10 sec/10 min/30 min) will give readings that are near in values.

Progressive gels
When there is a wide range (difference) between the initial (10 sec) and 10- or 30-min gel readings it is called progressive gels,
and is an indication of solids buildup. If the initial and 10-min gel readings are both high with little difference between the two, it
is called flash gels and may indicate that flocculation has occurred (in muds with clays added or drilled).
Depending on the mud type used progressive gels can be caused by solids build up in the system or contamination from calcium
source, salt or carbonate and bicarbonate.

N.B: Some fluid systems like FLO PRO are operated in the flash gels range for hole cleaning in deviated and horizontal drilling, in
this case the polymer network breaks easily applying shear so you have to differentiate based on mud system used.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 3 of 16

3. ECD? Relation between ECD, GPM & PV? What is PV? Effect of increasing of
PV in mud parameters and drilling operation?

ECD (EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY): The pressure on a formation while circulating is equal to the total
annular circulating pressure losses from the point of measurement to the bell nipple, plus the hydrostatic pressure of
the mud. This force is expressed as the density of mud that would exert a hydrostatic pressure equivalent to this
pressure.
ECD (lb/gal) = ρ (lb/gal) + Pa (psi)
0.052 x TVD (ft)

Relation between ECD and flow rate: ECD is directly proportional to annular pressure loss. And annular pressure loss is directly
proportional to square of annular velocity which also increases by increasing flow rate as per the below equations, when flow
rate increases, annular velocity and annular pressure loss increase and ECD increase.

fa = annular friction coefficient

va = Annular velocity
Lm = Length of Interval
D2/D1 annular diameter

In summary since ECD α Pa , Pa α Va2 , Va α Q so ECD α Q if Q then ECD

Relation between ECD & PV: Plastic viscosity is described as that part of resistance to flow caused by mechanical friction.
Primarily, it is affected by:
 Solids concentration.
 Size and shape of solids.
 Viscosity of the fluid phase.
 The presence of some long chain polymers (POLY-PLUS)
 The Oil-to-Water (O/W)

Pv as a physical property by itself only will not affect the ECD as seen in the above equations, Pv does not have a direct relation to
ECD in the equation.

Pv will reflect an increased pressure loss especially inside the drill string as if the Pv increased, this means that the 600 rpm reading
increased (it will increase the friction coefficient inside string and the eventually the pressure loss).

However an increase in plastic viscosity can mean an increase in the percent by volume of solids, a reduction in the size of the
solid particles leading to increased surface area of cuttings which will be reflected in increased plastic viscosity, if not controlled it
will eventually cause undesired overall viscosity of the mud system and result in significant changes in pump pressure in the field
this is very obvious in the ERD wells.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 4 of 16

4. What is YP & LSYP, and what is the difference between them.
Yield Point (YP) in (lb/100 ft2) is the resistance to flow in a
drilling fluid under dynamic conditions, It is measurement of
the electro-chemical or attractive forces in a fluid.

Another definition is the force required to initiate flow.

It is calculated based on extrapolation of 600 and 300 rpm

readings rheogram to the y axis.

Yp in general over estimates the actual low shear viscosity.

LSYP in (lb/100 ft2), sometimes named as the true yield point

or shear stress at zero shear rate in the modified power law, It
has more significance for hole cleaning especially in Horizontal
and Extended reach wells where low pump rate occurs .

In the above figure in the rheograph it is clear that the extrapolation of the 600 and 300 rpm reading to the y axis is giving higher
values than the LSYP.

Mud Rheology significance

Aramco Questionnaire Page 5 of 16

5. D-10 D-50& D-90 for barite and all marble grades

For SAFE CARB

General D90 size specifications with MWD

Barite API 13 A specifications

Aramco Questionnaire Page 6 of 16

 Example PSD for Barite
70
4.2 SG
60
4.1 SG
50

40
Micron

30

20

10

0
d10 d25 d50 d75 d90
120
Volume % Less Than

100

80
Volume (%)

60

40
4.2 SG
20 4.1 SG

0
1 10 100 1000
Patricle Diameter (μm)

Aramco Questionnaire Page 7 of 16

6. Why we are adding water in high density mud & the dilution rates?
High pressure wells require high density mud. As additional solids (both desirable weight material and undesirable low gravity
drilled solids) are incorporated into the system, water requirements become greater.
Additional solids rapidly increase the surface area to be wet, leaving less free water available. Consequently, the viscosity of the
mud increases. Colloidal particles which have a greater specific area are of particular concern because they bind up tremendous
amounts of water. The free water available in a high density mud can quickly become depleted leading to poor flow properties
and gelation. When the mud is subjected to high temperature, free water will be depleted more rapidly due to evaporation at the
surface. Replacement of evaporation water is the starting point when determining water addition requirements, in general
dilution rates ± 20 bbl per hour is required below 150 pcf, as the mud density go up to 150+ pcf the fluid needs a minimum of 20
to 25 bbl/hr water addition to avoid mud dehydration. This is not a rule it’s a field practice, dilution rates up to 30 bph were seen
in the field.

7. What is the mechanism of shale inhibition for KCL?

In general, potassium is used to inhibit reactive shales especially smectites. Clay layers have
a negative charge on surface and have positive charge on the edge.

The net negative charge is compensated by the adsorption of cations (positive ions) on the
unit layer surfaces. The cations that are adsorbed on the unit-layer surfaces may be
exchanged for other cations and are called the exchangeable cations of the clay.

The quantity of cations per unit weight of the clay is measured and reported as the CEC. The
cation may be a single charge ion such as sodium (Na+) or a double-charge ion such as
calcium (Ca2+) or magnesium (Mg2+).

When dry clays come into contact with water the interlayer Spacing expands, and the clay adsorbs a large “envelope” of water.
The water makes hydrogen bonding with clay surfaces and as a result the clay swells and well bore instability starts.
The thickness of the adsorbed-water film is controlled by the type and amount of cations associated with the clay. Water adsorbed
to the large, flat, planar surfaces comprises the major part of the total water retained by hydratable clays.

Divalent cations such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ increase the attractive force between platelets, thus decreasing the amount of water that
can be adsorbed (in formation clays), one cation will attract two negative ions. Monovalent cations such as Na+ give rise to a lesser
attractive force and allow more water to Penetrate between the platelets. That’s why smectites are always the most swellable
shales.

Illites have the same basic structure as montmorillonites (smectites), but they do not show interlayer swelling. The compensating
cations are primarily the potassium ion (K+). The spacing between unit layers is 2.8 Å. The ionic diameter of the K+ is2.66 Å.

This allows the K+ to fit snugly between unit layers forming a bond that prevents swelling in the presence of water. Since the unit
layers do not swell and separate when exposed to water, the potassium ions (K+) between
The unit layers are not available for exchange.

Increasing the concentration of any given cation will increase the probability that it will displace another cation , this is why using
high potassium ion concentration in drilling fluids makes potassium more exchangeable with other clay ions like sodium , thus
reducing the clay hydration effect (like transforming smectites to illites) .

Two ways that potassium can become associated with clay minerals (Eberl concept):

1. Ion exchange (by exchange with clay associated cations).

2. Ion fixation.

The ion exchange reaction is governed by the law of mass action; that is the rate of exchange depends on the concentration of
the ions (i.e. the higher the ratio of K ion to Na ion, the faster the rate of exchange of K+ for Na+). In addition to ion exchange, ion

Aramco Questionnaire Page 8 of 16

fixation will occur in clays with a high layer charge and once potassium is associated with the clay platelets, it is very difficult to
become exchanged as a result of fixation and it stabilizes smectites.

The fixation of potassium is a unique property for potassium only that once its fixed , its very difficult to become exchanged again
unless the other cations are significantly increased.

8. What is cation exchange capacity?

The compensating cations that are adsorbed on the unit-layer surface may be exchanged for other cations and are called the
exchangeable cations of the clay. The quantity of cations per unit weight of clay is measured and reported as the CEC, The CEC is
expressed in millequivalents per 100 g of dry clay (meq/100 g).

The CEC of montmorillonites is within the range of 80 to 150 meq/100 g of dry clay.

The CEC of illites and chlorites is about 10 to 40 meq/100 g, and for kaolinites it is about 3 to 10 meq/100 g of clay.

The Methylene Blue Test (MBT) is an indicator of the apparent CEC of a clay.

9. What are the types of stuck pipe and what is the difference between them?
What causes stuck pipe?
Types of stuck pipes
Mechanically stuck pipe can be grouped into two major categories:
1. Hole packoff and bridges.
2. Wellbore geometry interferences.
Packoffs and bridges are caused by:
 Settled cuttings
 Shale instability
 Unconsolidated formations
Wellbore geometry interferences are
Caused by:
 Key seats
 Under gauge hole
 Stiff drilling assembly
 Mobile formations (like plastic salt)
 Ledges and dogleg

Mechanical sticking is caused by physical obstruction or restriction. Mechanical sticking usually occurs when the drill string is
moving. It also is indicated by obstructed circulation.

Occasionally, however, a limited amount of up/down mobility or rotary freedom is evident, even when the pipe is mechanically
stuck.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 9 of 16

Differentially stuck pipe usually occurs because of one of the following causes/high-risk conditions:
 High overbalance pressures
 Thick filter cakes
 High-solids muds
 High-density muds
 The formation is permeable

Differential sticking is defined as stuck pipe caused by the differential pressure forces from an overbalanced mud column acting
on the drill string against a filter cake deposited on a permeable formation.

When a filter cake builds up on the formation, it increases the contact area between the wellbore and the drill pipe. Excessive
drill solids and high fluid loss increase filter-cake thickness increasing differential sticking probabilities.

It usually occurs while the pipe is stationary during a connection or when taking a survey, and is indicated by full circulation and
no up/down mobility or rotary freedom, other than pipe stretch and torque.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 10 of 16

10. What is the difference between PPT and HTHP? And why we run both of
them?
HTHP
The filtration or wall-building property of a mud is determined by means of a filter press. The test consists of determining the rate
at which fluid is forced through the filter paper. The test is run under specified conditions of time, temperature and pressure. The
thickness of the solid filter cake deposited is measured after the test.

It is a Standard API test done in HTHP wells to simulate the filtration and fluid invasion under HT HP conditions usually 300 F and
500 psi differential.

PPT test

The Permeability Plugging test or Apparatus (PPA) is designed to provide accurate simulation and measurement of down-hole
static filtration. PPT is ideal for predicting how a drilling fluid can form a permeable filter cake to seal off depleted/under pressure
intervals.

The PPT utilizes a conventional HTHP Heating Jacket to simulate reservoir temperature. The fluid cell is inverted, with pressure
applied from the bottom of the cell and filtrate collected out the top. Pressure is transferred to the mud by a small hydraulic hand
pump through a small floating piston within the cell.

The pressure applied can be simulating the same over balance applied on a depleted formation (ex: 3000 psi), also The PPT employs
a ceramic filter disc, which is available in varying porosities.

The disc offers a more authentic representation of the formation as it can be selected based on the formation porosity thus testing
the efficiency of selected bridging materials and it size combination in well bore strengthening.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 11 of 16

11. Define barite sag, what are the causes and indications?
Barite sag is the settling of barite, which causes significant variations in mud density. It is a
major concern, particularly when weighted muds are used in drilling directional and
extended-reach wells.

Sag is most often associated with well angles of 50 to 80° , low annular velocities and low
viscosity clean muds. Possible consequences include lost circulation, stuck pipe, packoffs,
wellbore instability and well-control problems.

Barite sag can happen on static or dynamic conditions, static sagging is usually noticed after
long trips typically, bed growth under static conditions (pumps off) is minimal, although
slumping is most likely to occur during Static periods.

For these reasons, drilling practices prior to and after trips can often prevent static sag-related problems, One of the practices is
tripping in stages and circulating BTMs up.

12. Define dynamic barite sag and it's relation with flow rate & temperature?
Dynamic barite sag is barite settling under dynamic conditions (while drilling or circulation), many factors contribute to dynamic
settling like fluid rheology, hole angle , interval length , flow rates ,pipe eccentricity, and rotation, and annular velocities.

From drilling fluids perspective maintaining adequate low shear rate viscosities minimize sagging the same concept of hole
cleaning in deviated and ERD wells applies.

High temperatures cause mud thinning and increased settling. HTHP testing is necessary To ensure that rheological properties are
adequate under well conditions, in crtical ERD wells, Fann Model 50 and 70 for WBM and oil/ synthetic-base muds is recommended
for LSRYP measurements at actual wellbore conditions (pressure and temperature).

Large annular clearances or low circulation rates promote sag due to low annular velocities. Higher flow rates will reduce sag
tendencies, but pressure limits and downhole tools can limit this as an option.

Long intervals sliding without rotation also promotes barite sagging, usually if high rpm is used in ERD wells sagging is greatly
minimized.

Well design may require compromises in order to minimize and control sag. Sag tendency generally increases with hole angle and
probably is most critical in extended-reach drilling under High Temperatures and High Pressures (HTHP).

Aramco Questionnaire Page 12 of 16

13. Why we use both primary and secondary emulsifier in OBM, what the
mechanism of both?
Non-aqueous drilling fluids are formulated using additives based on a broad group
of chemicals called surface-active Agents or surfactants.

These chemicals include emulsifiers, soaps and wetting agents. They act by
reducing the interfacial tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a
solid. Surfactants have a hydrophilic (water-loving) polar head and an organophilic
(oil-loving or lipophilic) non-polar tail.

The balance between the strength and character of the hydrophilic end and lipophilic end can be measured using The Hydrophilic-
Lipophilic Balance (HLB) range. The HLB number can characterize the functionality of a surfactant. As shown in below Figure, oil-
in water emulsifiers have higher HLB values and water-in-oil emulsifiers have lower HLB numbers, with wetting agents in the
middle.

Primary emulsifier: Primary emulsifier us used to primarily emulsify water in oil, it exhibits low wetting properties such as
VERSAMUL (refer to the above HLB range).
In tight emulsion systems usually the primary emulsifiers are soaps that are formed by the reaction of a fatty acid ester with an
alkali (such as lime) where the hydrogen on the fatty acid is replaced by a metal, such as calcium from lime.

Secondary Emulsifiers: Exhibits more wetting characteristics for solids and also emulsifier for water in oil.
In tight emulsion systems 2ndry emulsifiers are used to supplement water in oil emulsion and change the wettability of solids to
oil wet (VERSACOAT).

A wetting agent is a surface-active agent that reduces the interfacial tension and contact angle between a liquid and
a solid. This causes the liquid to spread over the surface of the solid.

Wetting agents have one end that is soluble in the continuous-phase liquid and the other that has a strong affinity for
solid surfaces thus causing the solids to be oil wet and kept in solution, if the solids become water wet they will
aggregate and settle of the solution.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 13 of 16

14. Why we use water in OBM, why we use CaCl2 in OBM?
To understand this question first we need to understand what water activity is; Water activity (AW) is a measure of the chemical
potential for water to be transferred between mud and shales. Activity is measured using the vapor pressure (relative humidity)
of shale or mud.

Activity can also be estimated based on the chemical composition of the brine (salinity). Pure water has an AW of 1.0. Calcium
chloride brines used in most non-aqueous emulsion muds have an AW between 0.8 (22% wt) and 0.55(34% wt.), Lower values for
activity are more inhibitive.

The transfer of water between an emulsified brine and a shale is often compared to osmosis.

In osmosis, a solvent (water) diffuses through a semipermeable membrane from a low

concentration of solute or salt, to a high concentration of solute or salt, to equalize the
concentrations.

Shale control using this controlled (or balanced) activity is limited mainly to oil- and synthetic-emulsion muds.

Water-base muds containing additives (such as glycols and silicates) exhibit only weak semi-permeable membrane characteristics.

Consequently not only we can inhibit the shales by having lower activity of the water phase, theoretically the shales can be dried
under osmosis by using a high water phase salinity fluid with lower activity than formation water.

Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is normally used to obtain activities from 1.0 to 0.40 , due to the high salinity of calcium chloride
solution it can be used to give the least activity compared to other salts like sodium chloride .

Also using water in oil emulsion enhances the performance of organophilic clays thus giving better viscosities and higher carrying
capacity for oil base muds.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 14 of 16

15. What is the effect of thick filter cake and it's relation with fluid loss
Thick filter cake is formed by poor filtration control , Potential problems related to thick filter cakes and excessive filtration
include tight hole, increased torque and drag, stuck pipe, lost circulation, poor log quality, and formation damage.
Adequate filtration control and the deposition of a thin, low-permeability filter cake are often necessary to prevent drilling
and production problems.

16. In spud mud, you add soda ash in the beginning to precipitate calcium then
you add lime, lime contain calcium?
Calcium is precipitated at the beginning to allow proper prehydration of bentonite and water intake , if calcium is present it will
not allow proper hydration of clay platelets as discussed above in previous questions , then lime is added if desired to flocculate
the gel mud to give the highest rheology for hole cleaning.

17. How to calculate Hydrostatic pressure and kill mud weight?

Hydrostatic pressure = Mwt (ppg) x 0.052 x TVD (ft)

KMW = (SIDP) + Original mud weight

0.052 X TVD

SIDP: Shut in drill pipe pressure.

18. Function and scientific name for specialty chemicals

KLA STOP: additive is a liquid polyamine shale inhibitor that acts as a clay hydration suppressant by intercalating
And reducing the space between clay platelets so that water molecules will not penetrate and cause shale swelling.
Additionally provides a buffered pH in the 9.0 ‐10.0 range, eliminating any required additions of caustic soda or potassium
hydroxide.

POROSEAL: polysaccharide/latex copolymer technology, developed and used to seal shales and low permeability formations. This
product works through a plastering effect thus minimizing pressure transmission and for instance stabilizing the micro-fractures.
It provides supplemental fluid loss control in high temperature applications.

IDCAP D: Low molecular weight dry acrylic acid copolymer, designed for clay encapsulation and clay dispersion inhibition.
Its action is similar to PHPA but the low molecular weight makes it unique as it have minimal effect in viscosity with higher
concentrations that aid in clay encapsulation.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 15 of 16

SPERSENE CF: is a chrome free lingo sulfonate, Lignosulfonates are organic acids that supply anions (negative ions) to the fluid.
These anions reduce the yield point and gel strengths by neutralizing the cations (positive ions) on the clay
Particles (usually on the edges), thus deflocculating (as the clays are flocculated they are bound edge to surface) the clay slurry
causing clay particles to repel one another.

Flocculation + Deffloculant (-ve charge) = Deflocculation (by repulsion)

19. PAC limitation with Calcium

PAC chemistry is derived from polyanionic cellulose, it is anionic (-ve), thus in the presence of high concentration of calcium it will
bind and start to precipitate and its performance in up taking water will be suppressed.

Its mechanism is that it adsorbs a water envelop around the polymer chain aby hydrogen bonding thus reducing the free water.

Aramco Questionnaire Page 16 of 16

 MB/Aramco interview questionnaire
1) What is the maximum mud weight you worked with in both WBM &
OBM? What is the maximum depth? What is the maximum BHT?
- Max Mwt with WBM was 150 pcf for well control purpose. I remember that I
used Hematite to prepare slugs. We converted the mud system from LSND
Polymer mud to Dispersed Polymer mud by adding thinners such as
Spersene (Chrome Lignosulphonate) or lignite in order to ensure good mud
properties in such high solids content.
- Max Mwt with OBM was 95pcf while drilling with Al Furat oil copany in Syria.
- The maximum BHTI worked with was 350-375 oF. Stopped using PAC's, used
Resinex II instead to obtain a thermally stable fluid loss reducer. Added
oxygen scavengers (sodium sulfide) to the mud, in order to extend the
polymer efficiency in such high temperature environment. Added a constant
stream of water on the sand trap to compensate the water evaporation
value.
- Maximum depth I reached was 21,300 ft in exploration well in 7afr Elbaten.

2) What are the problems accompanied with high mud weight mud?
1) Barite sag:Especially in high deviated & horizontal wells. Maintain good
parameter for 6 RPM reading, LSYP & G/S.
2) High solids content:Increases EDC, drag & torque, and swab &[Link]
adding water dilution gradually and add dispersant if needed. Dump sand
trap periodically to discard fine solids.
3) Excessive viscosity &flocculation: Keep adding water dilution gradually
and add dispersant if needed.

3) What are the most challenges you faced?

- Well, there was a remarkable situation happened during drilling exploration
well in Hafr El Baten, we got a simultaneous loss of circulation and well
flow, the well is kicking and we increases mud weight to control it but at the
same time the formation is fractured and sucking all the mud. It was a
difficult task of multiple assignments, and for 8 consecutive days, I was
working non-stop and rarely slept, preparing mud continuously..preparing
mud cap .. increasing weight … preparing LCM pills to stop losses …
preparing mud caps … requesting chemicals … communicating with the
 client and changing strategies according to the updates. During these
difficult days, I was involved in almost all decisions, and I came up with some
good recommendations and modifications.

4) What is your challenge/experience in horizontal wells? Hole

cleaning?
- The most challenge in drilling horizontal well is "proper hole cleaning" due to
the frequent tendency of drilled cuttings to settle on the wellbore low side bed.
Proper hole cleaning can be achieved by the following items: 1. Good mud
rheology:6 RPM reading = 1.5 hole size & LSYP = hole size, and good gel
strength. 2. Good drilling parameter: such as highest applicable flow rate &
RPM, and controlled ROP if possible. 3. Pumping of tandem pills: That's low
viscous pill for turbulence followed by Hi weighted pill for cuttings removal.

5) Define dispersion? What chemicals that can disperse, and with what
theory? What do we mean by dispersed or non-dispersed fluids?
- Dispersion is the act of breaking up large particles into smaller ones and
distributing them throughout a liquid medium. This is usually accomplished by
mechanical shearing or by the addition of dispersants chemicals such as lignite
derivatives, lignosulfonate and tannins.
- Dispersion mechanism is via ion exchange over clay layers as will be illustrated
on the next question.
- WBM can be classified into two main categories: non-dispersed and dispersed
systems;
1. The LSND polymer systems rely on high- and low-molecular-weight long-
chain polymers to provide viscosity and fluid-loss control, they contain little
or no bentonite at all. Low-colloidal solids are encapsulated and removed at
the surface. In this system, there's no need to use dispersants include
lignosulfonates and lignitic additives.
2. The dispersed systems are treated with chemical dispersants that are
designed to deflocculate clay particles to allow improved rheology control in
higher-density muds. Widely used dispersants are lignosulfonates, lignitic
additives and tannins. Dispersed systems typically require additions of
caustic soda (NaOH) to maintain a pH level of 10 to 11. Dispersing a system
can increase its tolerance for solids, making it possible to weight up to 150
pcf.
6) What is the mechanism of Spersene? What happens if we add it to a
spud mud?
- Spersene is a chrome lignosulfonate that has a primary function as a
deflocculant.
- Spersene's mechanism, as any lignosulfonate, is a high anionic polymer
that neutralizes positive charges on clay edges and thus deflocculates clay
layers to become "face-to-face" bond instead of "face-to-edge" bond. In other
words, causing clay particles to lay on each another.
- Due to its low pH value, addition of caustic soda (or alternative alkaline) is
required.
- As it contains chrome, applicability of Spersene is restricted in some areas
depending on the environment regulation.
- Spersene will drastically reduce apparent & inner viscosity of a spud mud.

7) Talk about "Hole cleaning".

- Definition, hole trajectory, factors affecting hole cleaning, hydraulic items
evaluating hole cleaning, solids removal on the surface (SCE).

8) Define "Flocculation".
- Flocculation occurs due to the attractions between negative face charges and
positive edge charges of a clay layer or plate. Presence of Ca accelerates
flocculation occurrence due to its divalent positive nature forces a positive edge
of one layer of clay to attach a negative face of another layer. This "edge-face
attraction causes flocculation phenomena.
- The most obvious example of flocculation is in flocculating pre-hydrated spud
mud with lime in order to gain the highest apparent viscosity.

9) Define Reynold'snumber, n & K.

- It's the number that separates or defines the flow regime to either laminar
steady flow (when it's below RN), or turbulent flow (when it's higher than RN).
RN = 2,000 – 2,100. If the fluid velocity lies between "2,000 – 2,100", then the
fluid is in a transition regime zone.
- “n” and “K” are two "non-Newtonian rheological terms" that can be calculated
from any two shear-rate/shear-stress data points.
- “n” is the”Power Law Exponent". It describes the shear thinning properties of a
fluid, and its degree of non-Newtonian behaviour. It also defines the velocity
profile in the annulus.“n” values are always less than 1. “n” values near 1
indicate fluids that immediately Shear-Thin which is desirable and easier to
force into turbulent flow
- “K” is a "consistency constant" that gives a measure of mud thickness
compared to other fluids. K = (300 RPM reading)/511(n). K defines viscosity at a
low shear rate (around the casing). Higher K generally improves hole cleaning
but means higher annular pressure loss.

10) Define D50? Particle Size Distribution? What's the D50 of

BarCarb 25 &BarCarb 50?
- D represents the diameter of powder particles, D50 is a "Particle Size
Distribution term" and D50 means a cumulative 50% point of diameter, or 50%
of particles will pass the mentioned particle size. D50 is also called average
particle size or median diameter. For example, a D50 for marble medium is 200
micron means that 50% of marble medium particles will pass through a 200
micron mesh.
- PSD: The net volume of solid particles that fall into different size ranges. PSD is
an important term to describe bridging materials and LCM pills. Particle size can
be determined by sieve analysis, and is represented by D50 term.
- 20 & 50 respectively.

11) Define the ECD? What are the 3 main factors affecting on EDC?
- ECD stands for the "Equivalent Circulating Density". It's the effective density
exerted by a circulating fluid against the formation that takes into consideration
the pressure loss in the annulus due to the upward movement friction above
the point being considered.
- The ECD is calculated as: Hydrostatic mud wt + (Annular Pressure
loss/(0.052*TVD)).
- The ECD is an important parameter in avoiding kicks and losses, particularly in
wells that have a narrow window between the fracture gradient and formation
pressure gradient.
- The 3 main factors affecting on ECD are the 3 main factors that increase
annular pressure loss: 1) Mud viscosity, YP & PV values. 2) Solids
content and characteristics. 3) Annular clearance & annular velocity.
12) Define the Poor boy degasser.
- It's a Mud Gas Separator or a degasser that locates on rig floor in order to
immediately capture and separates large volume of free gas inside the mud. It's
used in gas-kick situations. It differs from the regular degasser located on mud
system as this one is vertically placed, not horizontally.

13) Define "End Point".

- Represents the end of a specific chemical reaction, and mostly is indicated by a
color change. It's the point at which titration process should be stopped
immediately, and the volume of used reagent to be recorded.

14) Define shear thinning fluid?

- Shear thinning is the non-Newtonian behavior of fluids whose viscosity
decreases under shear strain or shear stress. Shear thinning is seen when the
mud comes out of the bit nozzles with a high velocity or a high shear rate.
- Shear thinning is desirable as it indicates that the fluid can be easily forced into
turbulent flow. It also reduces the annular pressure loss.

15) Define tau zero?

- It is the shear stress value at zero shear rate. On a Bingham shear stress/ shear
rate plot, shear stress shows as the Y-axis while shear rate shows as the X-axis

16) How to mix 0.5 gal/bbl in a pilot test?

- In a pilot test, 1 gm is equivalent to 1 lb, and 8.33 ml (350/42) is equivalent to 1
gal.

17) What are Pf& Mf? Why we perform a test to measure them?
- Pf stands for the phenolphthalein alkalinity of the mud filtrate. P f is different
from the Pm because it tests the effect of only dissolved bases and salts while
Pm includes the effect of both dissolved and non-dissolved bases and salts in
drilling mud.
- Mf stands for the methyl orange alkalinity end point of mud filtrate.
- We perform a test to measure them to determine CO3, HCO3 and CO2
contamination in the mud. In other words, to determine where the pH
alkalinity comes from, OH group, CO3 group, HCO3 group or a combination of
 those. This determination is important as the alkalinity comes from CO3 and
HCO3 group makes the mud unstable.

18) Can differential stuck happen in a Shale formation?

- No, because shale is impermeable (although it has a high porosity). Regardless
the overbalance value, no differential stuck can happen in a shale formation.
On the other hand, mechanical stuck can be seen around a shale formation due
to shale instability.

19) What is the difference between "Retort solids" & "Corrected

solids"?
- Retort solids are the sum of all LGS, HGS and even dissolved salt concentration
value. That's because salt can't be evaporated through the retort device.
- Corrected solids are the retort solids minus the dissolved salt value. Corrected
solids are calculated through well-known solids analysis calculations. Corrected
solids value is the more important term over the retort solids as it represents
the real solids content value.

20) What is the kill line? What it's used for? Where is it located?
What about the chock line?
- Kill line is a high-pressure pipe line leading from an outlet on the BOP stack to
the high-pressure rig [Link] normal well control operations, kill fluid is
pumped through the D/S and annular fluid is taken out of the well through
the choke line to the choke, which drops the fluid pressure to atmospheric
pressure before going back to the mud system. When pumping through the D/S
is not applicable, the kill line is used to pump the heavy kill mud into the
annulus. The kill line is also used to pump corrosion cap or heavy mud capin the
annulus in case of drilling with partial or sever loss of circulation.

21) Write the mass balance equation for two different fluids
together.
- VtWt = V1 W1 + V2 W2
22) Why we use graphite materials? Why are they used for high
over balance drilling?

- Graphite is used as a bridging agent & a lost circulation preventive material

forWBM & OBM in porous and fractured zones. Most of graphite materials are
resilient, which make them excellent bridging materials&LCM.
- It increases lubricity of WBM, which subsequently helps reducing torque and
drag.
- What special about graphite materials that they are inert, so they don't
adversely affect rheological properties. No chemical reactions are involved.
- Graphite is less formation damaging when compared to most of inert mud
additives and non-acid soluble LCM's.
- The reasons of using graphite materialsfor high over balance drilling are:
1)Under compression, graphite resiliency allows it to re-shape inside the
formation pores and micro-fractures, which reduces the possibility of
differential stuck occurrence and/or loss of circulation.2)High graphite level had
a positive effect on fluid loss reduction by improving filter cake
characteristics.3) Lubrication in WBM. 4) Less formation damaging effect.

23) If you've all parameters are good and ROP is controlled, still
hole is not clean, what could be the problem and how to fix it?
1) The Hole is highly deviated while drilling without pumping any tandem pills.
2) Low flow rate, or/and low RPM.
3) Unconsolidated formation delivers solids in the hole (caving). Consult the
company man to gradually and slightly increase Mwt.

24) Why Hi Wt sweeps/mud shouldn't be Hi Wt Hi Vis at the same

time? Why we use Hi Wt pill? What's its mechanism?
Because of the following reasons:
1) I need force to push the cutting and not allowing them to settle or
accumulate on the wellbore bed.
2) Hi Vis pill increases the overall mud viscosity, and increases the ECD.
3) Also Hi Wt sweeps helps transmitting hydraulic energy to the down-hole
motors during sliding or steerable drilling.
25) What's the difference between Zinc Oxide and SourScav?
- They are both Hydrogen sulfide scavengers, the difference is in the chemical
reaction.
- Zinc Oxide is a strong alkaline that reacts with H2S to precipitate Zinc sulfate
(ZnS - Salt) and water.
- SourScav is "iron gluconate", free from Zinc. It reacts almost immediately with
H2S in solution to form stable" iron sulphide".

26) Talk about PPT, GGT&Hach kit.

- PPT stands for "Permeability-Plugging Test". It's a test performed in a
specialized filtration-type apparatus, to determine the static filtration rate, and
the effectiveness of additives, mostly bridging agents, to prevent or
reduce fluid filtrate loss into a permeable medium in a condition that resembles
downhole condition.
- The PPT is designed to provide accurate simulation and measurement of
downhole static filtration quality.
- The immediate filtrate produced once the test starts (before the filter cake
forms) is called "Spurt loss". It's an important indication of downhole static
filtration quality, especially the quality of fluid loss agents. The final filtrate
volume is doubled, same as for HPHT filtration test, due to the fact that filter
paper size is half of API standard size. PPT uses a ceramic disk instead of filter
paper.
- GGT is an instrument used for quantitative analyses of sulfides and carbonates
in the mud. The OBM procedure uses whole mud samples, whereas the
WBM procedure tests filtrate. The GGT unit is a clear, plasticblock that
contains three interconnected chambers. A carrier gas is used to flow an inert
gas through the chambers (CO2 or N2 for H2S analysis, and NO for carbonate
analysis). The filtrate sample is placed in chamber #1 and is acidified by Sulfuric
acid to release sulfides as H2S, and carbonates as CO2. The appropriate Drager
tube is used to measure the gas that is evolved from the sample. I watch for
changes in the appearance of the Dräger tube, note and record the maximum
darkened length in units marked on the tube. Continue flowing for a total of 15
minutes even if no change happens meanwhile. A floating ball will show if the
applied pressure is enough or not during the test period.
- Sulfide (mg/L) = {(Darkened tube length) X (Tube Factor)} / Sample Volume
(mL)
 - The maximum readable sulfide value is 7,500 mg/l, which shall require 10 ml of
filtrate sample. Selection of filtrate sample volume depends on the estimated
concentration of sulfide in the mud.
- Another device to qualitatively measure H2S is "Hach kit". Its advantage is that
it's less complicated and easier to use over the GGT, but its limitation is that it
can be used only to determine the presence or absence of H2S in the mud, no
quantitative value is achieved.
- CO3 test: Acidified filtration convert CO3 & HCO3 to CO2 gas, collect that gas
into a 1 liter plastic gas bag, a dragger tube at the end of the bag will be
darkened, staining a purple length. Carbonate (mg/l) = {2.5 X Darkened
length}/ Sample volume (ml).

27) For PPT, what does it mean if spurt loss is high and final volume
is relatively low? How about if spurt loss is low and final volume is
high?
- Spurt loss is the immediate filtrate produced once the test starts and before the
filter cake forms, that's why if spurt loss is high and final volume is relatively
low, it means that the fluid loss reducer/agent is not good enough while the
bridging agents & filter cake characteristics are good.
- On the other hand, if spurt loss is low and final volume is high, it means that the
fluid loss reducer/agent are good while the bridging agents & filter cake
characteristics are not good enough (thick & permeable filter cake).

28) What are the differences between HPHT &PPT?

HPHT PPT
Measures the static filtration rate Measures the static filtration rate in
in limited condition adjustability a high condition adjustability of
Objective of pressure & temperature (+/- pressure & temperature that can
500 psi & +/- 280 oF) resemble the real downhole
conditions
Filter Uses a standard 3.5" size filter Uses a ceramic disk that has a
Paper paper that has a fixed variable permeability values, so the
permeability value exact formation permeability can
be resembled
Pressure The pressure source is a standard The pressure source is a Nitrogen
Source CO2 cartridges bottle
29) How to calibrate the VG meter?
1) Fluid calibration checks using 50 & 100 CP calibration fluid.
2) Fresh water can be used to check the VG meter performance. Water has a
PV=1&a YP=0.
3) Dead weight calibration.

30) What is the flash point of a fluid?

- Flash point is the lowest temperature at which application of a flame to the
fluid causes its vapors to ignite.

31) What is the effect of high pH in spud mud and why?

- Increase the viscosity because it increases dispersion of clay particles.

32) Why do you add hydrogen peroxide 3% in MBT?

- To remove the effect of organic materials such as lignites, lignosulfonates.

33) Can you calculate K concentration from CL?

- K= 1.103 X CL. However, this value is not accurate because the concentration of
k will decrease by shale consumption during the drilling while the concentration
of Cl should remain constant.

34) What is the maximum weight of:

- Barite…………….. 152 pcf
- Hematite…..……… 187 pcf
- Marble……..……… 87 pcf
- NaCl………..…….. 75 pcf
- KCl…………...….. 73 pcf
- CaCl2…………..... 86 pcf
- CaBr2…………....106 pcf
- CaCl/CaBr2…....112 pcf
- Naformate……….. 83 pcf
- K formate……….....98 pcf
- ZnBr2…………....143 pcf

35) What are the types of losses?

 - For WBM:
Seepage……………….. < 10 bbl/hr
Partial…………………. 10-100 bbl/hr
Sever....………………... 100 - 200 bbl/hr
Complete……………… No return
- For OBM:Less values of loss falls into the previously mentioned categories.

36) What are the main topics in basic/advanced mud schools?

- Basic Chemistry of mud chemicals, Rheology, Contamination, Shale Stability &
inhibition, corrosion, SCE, solids analysis, hole cleaning, hydraulics, drilling
problems related to mud (such as kicks, loss of circulation, stuck, barite sag),
Brines and OBM.

37) Why we using "Pipe Lax" or "EZ Spot" to free stuck pipe?
- PIPE-LAX is used in diesel or in OBM to form a highly effective stuck-pipe
spotting fluid. PIPE-LAX enables spotting fluids to penetrate and “crack” the
filter cake. These features allow the PIPE-LAX and oil solution to pass through
the waterbase mud filter cake between the stuck pipe and wellbore wall to
facilitate freeing differentially stuck pipe.
- EZ SPOT fluid is a concentrated blend of emulsifiers, lubricants, and viscosifiers.
When added to baseoil and mixed with water, EZ SPOT fluid forms a stable
invert emulsion that can be added to help free differently stuck pipe. It can be
easily weighted with any weighting agent.

38) What is the using of glycol?

- Primary function: Shale inhibitor (cloud point mechanism).
- Secondary function: 1. Lubricant. 2. Anti-freeze fluid. 3. Bit-
balling preventer.

39) What are the types of WBM, OBM & Brine you worked with?
1. Regular Water-Base Mud: Spud mud, Emulsion mud, LSND mud (with
CaCO3 or Barite), Inhibited KCL Polymer mud, Inhibited
PHPA/DriltexPolymer mud, Inhibited glycol mud,Inhibited Poly Amine
Polymer mud, Salt saturated Polymer mud, heavy weight dispersed Barite
mud and CaCl2/CaCo3 Polymer mud.
 2. Oil-Base Mud: Conventional Oil-Base Mud, Invert Emulsion Mudand Low
Toxic Oil Based Mud (LTOBM).
3. Brine and completion Fluid: KCL Brine, NaCl Brine, CaCl2 Brine, CaCl2/CaBr2
Brine and CaBr2/Zn Br2 Brine.
4. Especial Drilling Fluid Systems:
- Bariod Hydro-Guard:Provides maximum shale stabilization in highly reactive
clays by both coating and encapsulating shale cuttings and doesn't allow its
hydration, and provides shale inhibition to mud. Clay Encapsulator
&Inhibitors are used in the system such as CLAY-GRABBER, CLAY-SYNC,
CLAY-FIRM & CLAY-SEAL.
- Baker MAX-BRIDGE:A customized bridging system designed to drill a high
abnormal pressure formations with a high overbalance pressure(such as
KHUFF),and to minimize the possibility of getting differential stuck. Max-bridge
uses a selected bridging particle sizes to ensure good wellbore strengthening
and re-enforcement.
- Na/KFormate:Formate is a non-damaging reservoir drilling fluid & completion
fluid that's almost solids-free as it gain the desired weight from the base fluid
itself up to 98pcf using a blending of sodium formate with potassium formate,
or potassium formate with cesium formate.
- Special LCM; Fuse-It, X-Link,Truplug, EZ-Squeeze &SwellLCM:
Fuse-It: A temperature tolerant, non-fermenting special Bariod LCM that
rapidly reacts upon contact with water.

X-Link: Is a synthetic cross-linking polymer composition, specially-designed to

produce strong, durable, temperature-tolerant cross-linked gels.
Truplug: is an acid soluble blend of borate salt and polymers, used to cure sever
loss of circulation by squeezing off water and leaving a durable rigid plug which
still easy to drill.
- Baker BIO-DRILL: Enhances ROP especially when drilling sticky shale or any
formation with historically low penetration rates via regular water-base mud. It
prevents bit balling & adds lubricity to the mud system.
- Baker PYRO-DRILL:Thermally stable and resistant to contaminants mud system.
Weighted fresh and salt water fluids have been used at temperature
approaching 500 oF.
40) If you have two different formation low and Hi-pressure what
you will do to control formation pore pressure?
- The well control priority states to select a mud weight that's high enough to
control the Hi-pressure zone, but it's equally important to avoid fracturing the
low pressure zone which can be done by adding good bridging & micro-fracture
sealing agents in order to re-enforce/strengthen the low pressure or weak
formation. Max-Bridge system is a good example to withstand such high
overbalance pressure surged on the low pressure formation. Select the shale
shaker screens as coarse as practically possible in order to maintain as much
bridging agents as possible in the circulating system.

41) Why don’t you make a retort in formate mud?

- When heated, the thermal expansion force of the formate pushes the solid into
the condensate bottle and plugs it, causing a fire hazard.

42) What's formate & why we use it?How much ppb of Caustic
Soda used in it, how to calculate solids in it?
- Formate is a non-damaging reservoir drilling fluid & completion fluid that's
almost solids-free as it gain the desired weight from the base fluid itself up to
98pcf using a blending of sodium formate with potassium formate, or
potassium formate with cesium formate.
- Formate is very expensive, but it has the advantage of:
1. Serving as botha reservoir drilling fluid & completion fluid.
2. It greatly minimizes reservoir damage.
3. It has a high lubricity.
4. Environmental friendly.
- Formate is non-corrosive, but if it converted to "Formic Acid" then it becomes
very corrosive. That's why pH is maintained 10+ by adding a
carbonate/bicarbonate buffer. Soda Ash & Sodium Bicarbonate are used with a
1:1 or 1:1.5 ratios. Caustic can be used if higher pH value is required.
- Retort can't be used for solids determination due to the fact that when formate
is heated, the thermal expansion force of the formate pushes the solid into the
condensate bottle and plugs it, causing a fire hazard. Solids are calculated
through a certain formula using the mud weight & filtrate specific gravity as
inputs.
43) What is the typical concentration of KCL? Typical salinity value?
What is the test of KCL?
- 10% by wt or 37 pbb.
- 51,000 mg/l.
- Test procedure is as following:
1) 7 ml filtrate + 3 ml sodium perchlorite in a tube.
2)Counterbalance the centrifuge tube with another tube (and 10 mL of liquid of
a similar weight).
3) Operate the centrifuge at a constant speed of approximately 1,800 RPM for
one minute and read the precipitate volume immediately.
4)Plot the volume of precipitate in milliliters Vs ppb of KCl (or % of KCL)using a
graph paper, or get the ppb of KCl from a standard graph.

44) In milling operation, what is the main product added on the Hi-
Vis sweeping pill?
- It's "Super-Sweep". Super-Sweep is a non-corrosive, non-magnetic, chemically
inert and thermally stable fiber that is used in small concentration in the Hi-Vis
sweep pills in order to greatly increase the mechanical carrying capacity of the
mud with a minimal effect on the overall viscosity.
- At normal/high flow rates, Super-Sweep is rapidly dispersed in the mud with
100% flow-ability. At low flow rates, Super-Sweep starts to gather around,
holding steel shavings and cuttings, and removing them on the shale shakers.

45) What are the fields you worked with & types of wells in Saudi
Arabia?
- Hafr El Baten, Harad, Mdrek, Uthmania, Shaiaba&Qatif.
 Shale inhibition, Fluid loss reducers & Stuck
Shale inhibition
46) What is PHPA? What are its limitations?
- Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide Polymer.
- It is a water soluble co-polymer of anionic character (-ve charge) and high
molecular weight.
- It is used for:
Shale inhibition by coating and encapsulating shale.
Minimizing the occurrence of tight spots, as well as preventing bit balling.

- Limitations:
1. During the initial treatment, sever flocculation and subsequently excessive
hump viscosity may occur until all of the reactive solids are coated.
2. At high pH values, it may release Ammonia gas.
3. Very sensitive to Calcium. PHPA starts to precipitate when the calcium
concentration exceeds 300 – 400 mg/l. Cement contamination is catastrophic.
4. High solids content causes undesirable consumption of PHPA. It coats and
encapsulates inert solids as well as clay particles.

47) What are the types of shale inhibition and the mechanism of
each type?
1. KCl: KCl is an excellent shale stabilizer because Potassium ion is highly
reactive ion that replaces Na ion in Sodium montmorillonite clays. Inhibition
mechanism is provided through ion exchange; the potassium ion has the
proper size to fit into the spaces between clay layers, thus enters between the
individual clay plates in the shale and held them together, eliminating entry of
water from the drilling fluid.
The Cl- part of KCl provides high salinity which in return ensures the
"Osmosis Effect" that prevents shale swelling and causes its desirable
dehydration.
2. PHPA (New drill plus): Inhibitor by coating and encapsulating clay
particles.
3. Gilsonite (Black fury or Blacknite): Seals micro fractured shale when
drilling with water-base fluid and thus restricts water invasion and reaction. It
also adds lubrication in the mud.
4. Sulphonated Asphalt (Soltex or Driltex): Seals small and micro-fractures in
stressed shale and thus restrict water invasion and reaction. It also adds
lubrication in the mud and improves filter cake characteristics.
 5. Ploy Amine (Max-Guard): Produces a lattice around clay minerals
(isolation), therefore electrostatically minimizing the absorption of water, and
subsequently prevents shale hydration or swelling.
6. Glycol: At certain degree of salinity and temperature, glycol clouds out, thus
coating the surface of clays and preventing shale absorption, hydration or
swelling. A careful selection of Glycol type will depend on mud salinity &
BHT in order to reach "Glycol Cloud Point" at downhole conditions.
7. Hydro-Guard system: A Bariodshale inhibition system that combines shale
encapsulators/grappers and shale inhibitors, such as CLAY-GRABBER,
CLAY-SEAL, CLAY-FIRM & SYNC.

48) What are the shale types in KSA?

- Montmorillonite, Kaolinite and Illite.

Fluid loss reducers

49) How to control fluid loss in WBM? What are the main chemicals
used for this purpose? What are its limitations?
- Starches (either potato or corn starches) up to 250 oF (theoretical). PAC's up to
300oF. Resinex II (resin & lignite complex) &Hosta drill up to 400 oF. Baker Pyro-
Drill system up to 500 oF. Addition of polymer extenders and/or oxygen
scavenger will prolong PAC &Resinex II life & efficiency at high temperatures.
- Limitations of Starches are 1)Low temperature withstand 2) Bacterial
degradation sensitivity 3) Fermentation tendency at low pH environment.
- Limitation of PAC's is due to its anionic nature (-ve charge), thus in the presence
of high concentration of calcium it will connect and start to precipitate and its
performance in up taking water will be restrained.

50) Can you use PAC-LV with CaCl2 Polymer mud? Why?
- No, because of PAC's calcium limitation. Limitation of PAC's is due to its anionic
nature (-ve charge), thus in the presence of high concentration of calcium it will
connect and start to precipitate and its performance in up taking water will be
restrained.
Stuck

51) What are the indicators of each type of a stuck?

- Mechanical stuck: No circulation, no RPM, little moving upward or downward.
An exception would be around a "Key Seat" when a partial circulation should be
seen.
- Differential stuck: Full circulation, no RPM and no upward or downward
movement.

52) What is the mechanism of differential stuck?

- High overbalance pressure on the D/S due to the differential pressure between
the mud column from one side, and the "permeable" formation pore pressure
from the other side so the stuck occur. A presence of a thick filter cake will
enhance the impeding of D/S into the permeable formation, and subsequently
will increase the possibility of differential stuck. Absence of spiral D/C, absence
good bridging & micro-fracture sealing agents increases the possibility of
differential stuck, so does a presence of loss of circulation.

53) Define the "Key Seat".

- A small-diameter channelor groove worn into the side of a larger diameter
wellbore. Once the D/S is inside the "key seat", the overbalance or differential
pressure will work on the D/S from only one side, thus forces the stuck
occurrence. This can be the result of a sharp change in direction of the wellbore
(a sever dogleg, especially in the presence of a stiff BHA), or if a
hard formation ledge is left between softer formations that enlarge over time.
 Contaminants

54) What are the common mud contaminations?

1) Anhydrite: It's CaSO4, partially soluble in WBM so it increases Ca content,
increases mud rheology, increasesF/L, and decreases all alkalinity components
(that's pH, Pm, Pf & Mf). It can be treated by adding Soda Ash to precipitate Ca
and maintain pH within acceptable range, and adding Caustic Soda if needed.
Rheology can be adjusted by gradually adding water for dilution, or by using
thinner in extreme conditions.
2) Cement: While clean out cement after a cement job or drilling a CMT plug.
Cement increases all mud properties such as rheology, F/L, alkalinity and Ca
content. Before drilling cement, mud should be pretreated with sodium
bicarbonate or SAPP (sodium acid pyrophosphate) and addition of Citric acid
while drilling cement is essential to control the increasing pH value.
Cement setting or solidification degree is very important factor in determining
the contamination degree (hard cement is much easier to treat over green
cement).
3) Carbon Dioxide: It can enter the mud from the formation drilled, and also from
the atmosphere through mixing hopper if it operates for a long time, it will
dissolve into the mud.
Carbon dioxide can be treated out with lime addition.
4) Carbonate and Bicarbonate: Main sources of Carbonate are: 1)Carbonate
formations such as Limestone & Dolomite (although they are considered to be
insoluble but carbonates may occur due to grinding action of bit plus high jet
velocity). 2) Overtreatment of Soda Ash or Sodium Bicarbonate used to treat
out calcium. 3) From Carbon Dioxide coming from formation gases. 4) From
Carbon Dioxide coming from air through mixing hopper 5)Thermal degradation
of lignosulfonate and lignite at temperatures above 325°F.
Carbonate increases mud rheology and F/L. It also reduces alkalinity
components (except Mf which will increase), and causes alkalinity to be
unstable as the alkalinity source is not coming from the OH group.
Carbonate and Bicarbonate contaminations can be treated out with Lime in
order to precipitate CaCO3.
GGT can be used to quantitatively determine CO3 concentration in the mud.
5) Hydrogen sulfide: Is a deadly gas that increases mud rheology, F/L and
drastically decreases all alkalinity components.
 H2S can be treated by adding proper concentrations of either Zinc Oxide or
SourScav. Zinc Oxide is a strong alkaline that reacts with H2S to precipitate Zinc
sulfate (ZnS - Salt) and water. SourScav is "iron gluconate", free from Zinc, that
reacts almost immediately with H2S in solution to form stable" iron sulphide".
Lime can also be used to treat out H2S intrusion in some cases.
Accurate measurement of H2S concentration in the mud is essential to
determine the proper concentration of the scavenger. A Hach kit can be used to
determine the H2S qualitatively, in other words to determine the presence or
absence of H2S in the mud, but GGT is the most important device to
quantitatively determine H2S concentration.
6) Massive Salt sections: Salts contamination has 4 main effects: 1)Will flocculate
free clays in the mud. 2) Will dramatically increase Cl content and subsequently
will slightly reduce polymer performance. 3)Slightly increases Mwt. 4)When
mud reaches total salt saturation degree, salts will stop dissolving and will
settle as crystal solids.
The solution is to add fresh water or "saline-free mud" gradually to the active
system.
7) Formation water flow: Will dramatically affect mud properties as it'll decrease
mud weight, rheology and alkalinity, increase F/L, and change its salinity &Ca
content. The solution is 1) Isolate as much volume as possible of water influx, 2)
Treat the circulating mud with the required chemicals to regain the desired
parameters and weight.
8) Solids: Solids can be considered as a major type of contaminants as it affects
mud properties dramatically. Solids increase mud rheology, especially PV & Gel
Strength, solids produce a thick filter cake which increases the possibility of
differential stuck, solids increase ECD value which if not controlled sooner, may
cause formation induced fracture and subsequently a loss of circulation,
excessive solids can erode surface and downhole equipment, excessive solids
can also damage the reservoir by invading pore spaces and thus reducing the
formation permeability (skin damage). Operating all SCE is essential for solids
removal.

55) From where mud gets carbonate contamination? How you

know you've carbonate contamination (test)? What is its effect on
the mud? How can you treat it in low & high concentrations?
- Main sources of Carbonate are1)Carbonate formations (although they are
considered insoluble but carbonates may occur due to grinding action of bit
plus high jet velocity). 2) Overtreatment of Soda Ash or Sodium Bicarbonate
used to treat out calcium. 3) From Carbon Dioxide coming from formation
gases. 4) From Carbon Dioxide coming air through mixing hopper 5)Thermal
degradation of lignosulfonate and lignite at temperatures above 325°F.
- Carbonate and bicarbonate can be determined by performing Pf &Mftests, then
comparing the results will determine carbonate presence. GGT can be used to
determine carbonate value more accurately.
- Carbonate increases mud rheology (FV, YP & GS), and fluid loss value. It also
reduces alkalinity components (except Mf which will increase), and causes
alkalinity to be unstable as the alkalinity source is not coming from the OH
group.

56) If you have CO3 contamination, what is the test can you do to
know it?
- GGT test is quantitatively determines CO3 contamination value accurately.
- A comparison between Pf &Mf results shall show a presence of CO3 and/or
HCO3 contamination.
- If the Pf &Mf test is not applicable, due to absence of PhPh for example, then a
regular Ca test can indicate CO3 contamination. That's if the Ca content
reduced without addition of Soda Ash or equivalent.
 Hydro-guard & Max-bridge systems

1. Hydro-guard system:
- Baroid’s HYDRO-GUARD water-based drilling fluid system provides maximum
shale stabilization in highly reactive clays. This system can provide wellbore
stability, high rates of penetration, and acceptable rheological properties over a
wide range of temperatures, up to 300°F and up to 120pcf. It also provides
good lubricity, and more environmental friendly cuttings disposal. HYDRO-
GUARD encapsulates shale cuttings and doesn't allow its hydration, and thus
maintains good mud rheology and properties.
- Its' a non-dispersed/inhibited fluid system utilize ions such as chloride (Cl¯),
sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) in the continuous phase to prevent clay
hydration by ionic replacement and by decreasing the activity of the fluid &
formation water exchange. Additionally, chemical thinners or dispersants are
not used. Instead, polymeric flocculants and encapsulations are employed
along with inhibiting amines to prevent clay from dispersing in the system. This
prevents the breaking up of drill solids into smaller particles and thus improves
the efficiency by which the solids control equipment (SCE) can remove them.
- Main components for HYDRO-GUARD:
1. Flocculant/Encapsulator CLAY-GRABBER
2. Clay Inhibitors CLAY-SYNC, CLAY-FIRM & CLAY-SEAL

2. Max-bridge systems
- A customized Baker bridging system designed to drill a high abnormal pressure
formations with a high overbalance pressure (such as KHUFF), and minimize the
possibility of getting differential stuck. Max-bridge uses a selected bridging
particle sizes to ensure good wellbore strengthening and re-enforcement for
the weak or low-pressure zone.
- Keep shale shakers as course as practically possible in order to maintain as
much bridging materials as possible in the circulating system.
 OBM

1) How do you mix OBM?

Diesel tank: Brine tank
- Diesel as OWR - Water as OWR
- Lime (for alkalinity and "Calcium - CaCl2 depend on WPS (for high
Soap" the primary emulsifier in conventional salinity & less water activity)
OBM system)

- Primary emulsifier (surfactants, less wetting properties)

- Fluid loss reducer
- Secondary emulsifier (surfactants,higher wetting properties)
- Mix diesel tank for 30 min.
- Transfer the brine to the diesel tank very slowly.
- Mix it for 2 hours on a high agitation shearing hopper.
- Add viscosifer (amine treated organophylic bentonite or clay)
- Add weighting material to the desired weight.

2) Why we use O/W ratio 70-80/30-20 in Aramco?

- Because these water ratios provide the following advantages:
1. Optimum rheology.
2. Less water activity.
3. Acceptable PV values.

3) What is the mechanism of ES meter?

- It Measure the electrical conductivity of the mud. The lower electrical
conductivity, the higher the resistance, the higher the emulsion stability. That's
because higher electrical resistance indicates well distribution of water droplets
in the OBM.
- The electrical stability is recorded in volts.
- A trend of electrical stability is very important indication of emulsion stability. A
mud with a high but declining electrical stability may not be as stable as a mud
with a lower but stable electrical stability.

4) How can you check any drop in ES without ES meter?

- From HPHT test, all filtrate should be oil, if you find water that mean ES
decreased.

5) If you found water in HPHT filtrate (OBM) when you checked ES and
found it good, what could be the problem?
- Emulsification is not good enough, especially wettability. Solids are still water-
wet. Add wetting agent or secondary emulsifier.
- It may mean that the ES meter needs to be calibrated. Calibrate it and
meanwhile add more secondary emulsifier.

6) What is the effect on the hole if you have emulsion breaking?

1. Separation of water & oil phases.
2. Shale Swelling.
3. Barite and solid settling in the hole.

7) What are the contaminations in OBM?

- Solids, water & gas influx.

8) How to detect H2S in OBM?

- Sudden and significant reduction in excess lime value (Pom), especially when the
ES value is good. H2S value is measured using GGT (use mud sample, not filtrate
sample as for WBM).

9) How do you displace the hole from WBM to OBM?

- Use spacer (20 bbl diesel and 30-50 bbl Hi Vis OBM).

10) What's the wetting agent?

- Wetting agents are a surfactants, substances that reduce the surface tension
between liquid phase and solids phase, thus it's used to wet the solid and the
treatment chemicals by diesel. In other words, wetting agents are surfactants
that changes solids wettability to become oil-wet.

11) What is the emulsifier?

- Emulsifiers are surfactants that reduce the surface tension between the water
droplets and oil. They stabilize the mixture by being partially soluble in water
and partially soluble in oil.
- There are two types of emulsifier, primary & secondary.
- Emulsifier particles form a coating around the water droplets to keep them
from accumulation or interconnection.
- A good OBM emulsion is called "tight emulsion".
- The test that measures OBM stability is called "Electrical Stability" test.

12) What is the water activity?

- The water activity or Aw is a measurement of the chemical potential of water
to be transferred from mud to shale. Activity is measured using the vapor
pressure (relative humidity) of mud.
- Pure water would have an activity of 1.0; higher salinity reduces the activity.
That's why we use CaCl2 in OBM instead of NaCL, in order to increase the
salinity for osmosis effect purpose and subsequently reduces the "Aw" (Awof
CaCl2= 0.55 A at high concentration of 35% by wt).

13) Define normality, molarity, calcium soap & buffer solution?

- Normality:A 1.0 normal (N) solution is defined as a solution with a
concentration that contains 1 gram-equivalent weight of a substance per liter
of solution.
- Molarity:The number of moles of solute divided by the number of liters of
solution.
- Calcium soaps:Are some emulsifiers that are formed by the reaction of a fatty
acid ester with an alkaline (such as lime) where the hydrogen on the fatty acid
is replaced by a metal (that's Calcium in the case of lime).
- Buffer solution:Is a solution that has the ability to resist a large pH change
when an alkaline or acid is added to the solution.

14) Define "tight emulsion"?

- A stable emulsion with small and closely distributed water droplets. A tight
emulsion is difficult to break, which is desirable.

15) Why we use both primary and secondary emulsifier in OBM,

what the mechanism of both?
- Primary and secondary emulsifiers are both surfactants. Surfactants act by
reducing the surface tension between two liquids, or between a liquid and a
solid. Surfactants have a hydrophilic (water-loving) polar head, and an
organophilic (oil-loving or lipophilic) non-polar tail.
- Primary emulsifiers:Are used to primarily emulsify water in oil, it has low
wetting properties.
- Secondary emulsifiers: Are also used to emulsify water in oil, but has more
wetting characteristics for solids. Secondary emulsifiers change solids
wettability to become oil-wet.

16) Why we use water in OBM?

- For two main reasons:
1. The shale can be dried under osmosis effect by using a high salinity water
phase with lower activity than formation water. CaCl2 can provide both the
high salinity & the low water activity Aw.
2. Also using water in oil emulsion enhances the performance of organophilic
bentonites thus giving better viscosities and higher carrying capacity for oil base
muds.

17) What's the indication on shakers that you've a good wetting for
solids in OBM?
- When the cuttings are surrounded with oil instead of water. That means that
solids phase is oil-wet.

18) In OBM, why we use CaCl2, not NaCl?

- For two main reasons:
1. Because CaCl2 provides more salinity than NaCl (almost double), which is
important for the osmosis pressure application. That's the transfer of free
water from the lower saline medium to the higher one through a semi
permeable membrane.
2. The water activity of Ca (0.55 A at high concentration of 35% by wt) is much
less than Na (0.75 A).

19) What is the viscosifier in OBM?

 - Amine treated organophilic bentonite. It provides viscosity and gel strength as
primary objective, and fluid loss reducer as a second objective.
- Product examples are VG-69, VG-Plus, VG-HT&RHEMODL.

20) Why PV for any OBM is higher than its equivalent in WBM?
- From rheology perspective, the non-continues phase acts as solids. In most of
OBM systems, water friction is high (usually 20-30%), that's the main reason
why PV is high for most OBM systems.
 Brine
1) What are the brine types you worked with?
- When low weight brine was needed, I used NaCl brine up to 75 pcf. When
higher weight was desired, I used CaCl2 Brine up to 86 pcf. These low weights
were used in Qatar. In Saudi Arabia, I usually used CaCl2/CaBr2 Brine to reach a
weight up to 112 pcf. I mix the CaCl2 JB first on water, ensures good solubility,
then I add CaBr2 Dr to reach the desired weight and volume. In the deep water
drilling in the Mediterranean Sea, I used once CaBr2/ZnBr2 Brine to reach a
weight up to 143 pcf.

2) What is the turbidity?

- It's a measurement of brine cleanliness or purity.
- The unit of measurement for turbidity is the "NTU" (Nephelometer Turbidity
Unit). NTU shouldn't exceed 20.

3) What is more important factor for brine, NTU or TSS?

- It's turbidity, because it's a measurement of brine cleanliness or purity. As a
result, any kind of impurities will be taken into consideration, including solids.
On the other hand, TSS measures only the "Total Suspended Solids".

4) How to use Hydrometer?

- Hydrometer is a weighted, hollow glass bulb, with a long graduated tube, used
for measuring the density of a non-viscous liquid or brine. A hydrometer is
placed in the liquid and the bulb sinks according to the density of the liquid.
Graduations on the tube indicate the density. Hydrometers are used in fluids
that have no gel strength, that's why it can't be used for regular WBM or OBM,
but can be used accurately for all type of Brines.

5) Define TCT? Does TCT changes with density? If two solutions of70
pcf& 86 pcf, which one has higher TCT? Why?What you do if you
work in a surface degree the same as TCT? What shall you do?
- TCT is the "True Crystallization Temperature". The crystallization point is
determined by cooling brine until salt crystals [Link] Crystal to
appear doesn’t actually indicate the TCT, as the formation of salt crystals
 generates a small amount of heat, which causes a slight rise in the solution’s
temperature, so this crystal dissolves again. The subsequent formation of salt
"stable" crystal in a certain temperature represents the TCT of the brine. Every
single salt brine has a unique composition and a unique TCT for a given
density.
- For low brine weights, the higher the brine density, the lower the TCT, which
means it's going to be difficult to reach crystallization temperature. When a
certain critical density is reached (eutectic point), it becomes the higher the
brine density, the higher the TCT (V shape relationship). That's because of the
lower available free water presence when the brine density increases, which
will accelerate the crystallization process and subsequently will increase the
TCT. Multi-salt brines can be blended to a specific density several different
ways, giving a wide range of TCT. However, a TCT should be chosen that is
below the minimum expected average ambient temperature through the
circulating system.
- The solution is to prepare multi-salt brines blendin order to geta lower TCT over
the minimum expected average ambient temperature through the circulating
system. In all cases, if the TCT equals the surface temperature, no salt
crystallization will occur as the wellbore temperature is higher than the surface
temperature.

6) Define the eutectic point.

- It is the lowest temperature at which a solid-free brine can exist before
crystallization happens. It's the lowest possible TCT. It's the critical temperature
located in the bottom of the V-Shape relationship between brine density & TCT.

7) If you've Cl contamination in CaBr2 brine, how to measure it

without Cl test?
- The total weight will be reduced due to the difference in mud weight between
CaBr2 brine and formation water.

8) Displacements operations to brine?

- A recommended spacer/pill train for displacement from OBM to brine:
First spacer – base oil.
Second spacer – viscosified water spacer with surfactant.
Third spacer – chemical wash.
 Fourth spacer – viscous brine.

Follow by clean filtered brine.

9) A recommended spacer/pill train for displacement from WBM to brine:
First spacer — viscosified water with surfactant.
Second spacer — chemical wash.
Third spacer — viscous brine.
Follow by clean filtered brine. For both
Viscous Brine

WBM & B Wash

Chemical
OBM
Brine
Viscosified Water
+ Surfactant
Aurfactant
Oil

Gehad Mohamed
1-Mixing spud mud?
Water +soda ash +caustic soda +bentonite
ca < 400 mg/L , cl < 2000 mg/L
2- What is corrected solids and solids equation?
Corrected solids : total solids – dissolved salts
Un corrected solids : retort solids ( total solids
in mud ).
LGS : corrected solids in mud - HGS
HGS : corrected solids – LGS ( weighting
materials ).
Drilled solids : total solids in mud – ( dissolved
salts +weighting materials +chemical additives
).
3- What is pilot test and when using it?
Pilot test used for detect chemical efficiency
and chemical for treatment. Put 350 ml water
in batch mixer ( total volume of mixing ). We
use gram instead of ppb. We use ml by syringe
from lubricant instead of % divided by 350 ml.
4- Why use emulsfier?
Substance that mix heterogeneous phases to
be one phase.
5- Why K is inhibitor ?
Because K replace Na( Cation exchange
Capacity ) and enter between enter layer and
convert semictite to illitic form which is non
swellable.
Note : K ion size is 2.6 A and enter layer ion
size is 2.8 A .
6- What is max salinity of Nacl, Calc2, Kcl?
Nacl 190, 000 Calc2 355, 000 Kcl 133,000
7- Why use Cacl2 instead of Nacl in OBM?
Because Aw for Cacl2 is 0.4 , AW for Nacl is
0.7. Saturation of Cacl2 is 355, 000 mg/lt and
saturation of Nacl is 190, 000 mg /lt.
8- What is optimum value of LGS?
4-6 ppb.
9- Why pump brine before pump coastal pill?
Because to decrease differential pressure.
10- What is ECD?
The mud weight during circulation @ bottom
ECD= annular pressure loss/Tvd×0.052 + mud
weight.
11- If we drill by Nacl polymer mud in pay zone
Can we use Cacl2 brine?
No, we use Nacl brine.
12- How to calculate TCT and what depend on?
Put 30 ml brine in flask inside ice box until the
first crystal appear in solution. It depend on
temperature and pressure.
13- What is mechanism of ES?
It detect resistivity of mud for electricity.
ES for diesel is 2000 volt that means it needs
2000 volt to break bond and connect with
electricity.
ES for water is zero that means it don't need
volt to break bond and connect with electricity.
14- How to detect Fm size?
By using particle distribution size size By mesh
screen , we detect bridging material size.
15- Why use wetting agent?
To make solids oil wetting, decrease viscosity
and separate drilled solids @ shaker.
16- What is effect of H2S on mud?
Dark colour and decrease in PH and corrosion
for pipes.
16- What is source of carbonate?
Formation, soda ash & sodium bi carbonate.
17- What is max weight for KCL, Nacl, Cacl2,
Cabr2, Cacl2 /Cabr2, barite, hematite, Marble?
Kcl 74, Nacl 76, Cacl2 86, Cabr2 106, Cacl2
/cabr2 112
18- What is abbreviation of Pf, Mf, Pm?
Pf: phenol phthalien of filterate
Mf : methyle Orange of filterate
Pm : phenol phthalien of mud.
19- What is relation between Fm & Hp?
HP= FM+ SIDP
What is another test detect carbonate,
.ca test detect carbonate, if Ca decrease means
carbonate increase.

20- Why use Hi weighted mud?

Because Hi weighted mud push cutting from
low side, I need force not yp.
21- What is the fluid loss reducer using in the
reservoir?
Flotrol.
22- Can you use kcl with all shale type?
I can use kcl with montmorillonite, illite and
Mica, because it has sodium.
23- What is the type of shale?
Shale type:
Illite, chlorite, kaolinite, sepiolite and
montmorillonite.
24- How do you measure k from cl?
K = 1.103 * cl .
25- What is the minimum size that centrifuge
can separate?
Minimum size of solid can be removed is 6
micron.
 General Questions
1- How do you run the MBT test?

1 ml Mud + 10 ml distilled water + 15 ml Hydrogen peroxide 3% + 0.5 ml 5N H2So4

Boil it gently for 10 min’s, add 50 ml distilled water + 0.5 ml Methylene blue

Use a filter paper to drop on it, the end point is a Greenish-blue dyed ring.

Methylene blue capacity of mud = (ml of methylene blue * 5) / ml of mud

2- At what temperature do you measure pH?

75 F

3- What is the relation between pH and temperature?

Reverse relationship

4- What is the API ( not the test)?

API = American Petroleum Institute.

5- At salinity 50000 how do you measure pH?

By PH Meter

6- What is the types of shale geologically?

Based on their clay minerals:

A- Needle Shaped Non-swelling clays: Attapulgite/sepiolite.

B- Plate like, Non-swelling clays: illite, chlorite, kaolinite.

C- Plate like, Swelling: Montmorillonites/smectite.

7- Why potassium make inhibition?

The small size of the potassium that fits between the clay sheets with its positive charge

attracts the sheets closer together decreasing the interlayer spaces decreasing the

tendency of swelling.

8- Does the potassium always works as a shale inhibition?

 No, some shales contain clay minerals like illite that already contain the potassium ion.

9- Why don't you use sodium in OBM?

Because of Sodium’s Water activity, salinity.

10- Why calcium is better in OBM?

Water activity of Cacl2 = 0.4, Nacl = 0.75

Salinity of Cacl2 = 355k mg/l, Nacl= 188k mg/l

Ca++ helps to form the calcium soap.

11- What is the hardness?

Dissolved ions in water such as Calcium and Magnesium.

12- What is the value we get from EDTA in hardness test?

Amount of participated Ca++ in the muds water phase.

13- Why do you add caustic soda in hardness test?

To participate the Mg++ ion.

14- What is the worst contamination in WBM from your point of view?

Solid Contamination.

15- What is Pf?

Phenolphthalein of Filtrate.

16- How to mix OBM?

A- Base fluid (Diesel, Safra oil)

B- Primary Emulsifier

C- Lime

D- Brine

E- Organophilic clay

F- Secondary emulsifier
 G- Filtration control additive

H- Weighting agent

17- What is the wetting agent?

It’s the secondary emulsifier it’s a surfactant liquid additive main function used to wet the solid

and coat it with the oil and also improves thermal stability and HTHP filtration control, reduces

effects of water contamination.

18- What happen if solids get wet?

If it’s wetted with water it will show an increase in viscosity and PV, high gel, low E.S and free

water in HTHP filtrate, Barite (weighting agent) will separate off on the shakers.

19- Do you need wetting agent if the OBM is solid free?

Yes, the wetting agent not only wet the solid but also the water it is treated as a solid.

20- What is the formate mud?

It’s a organic salt contains C and Hydrogen strengthens polymers c and H bonds such as

Viscosifier’s and starch, its used as a solid free drill in reservoir fluid, spotting fluid for logging,

packer fluid and completion fluid.

Used to drill sections with high over balance, solid free, slim slick sections, high lubricity for its

low solid.

Formate muds such as: K (98 pcf), Cs (143 pcf), Na (83 pcf).

21- Why we use formate not KCL solid free mud?

Na and Potassium formate have higher densities than KCL.

Kcl = 72 pcf

Na Formate= 83 pcf

K Formate= 98 pcf.

22- What is the most important test in formate mud?

The Brine Content.

23- What is the starch?

Naturally occurring polymers with complex structures they have higher molecular weights than s

ynthetic polymers and they are less temperature stable and have a low tolerance to

Bio-degradation, they are composed of a class of compounds called Polysaccharides (sugar).

When temperatures exceed 225 F they start to break down.

Examples: Potato and corn starch, polysal, (the starches are non-ionic)

24- What is modified starch?

They are natural starch but modified to be polyelectrolytes, most of them are negatively

Charged, when increasing of the ionized sites on the polymer it elongates and uncoils.

Examples: CMC, PAC, Polypac, HEC, Flo-trol.

25- What is the hole cleaning in both vertical and horizontal wells?

In Vertical wells the YP,

Horizontal wells the LSYP,

6 reading = 1.2-1.5 * hole size,

3 reading < 1.5 * hole size

Lsyp >= hole size

26- What types of sweeps do you use in each?

Vertical wells Hi-Vis sweep YP > 35- 40

Horizontal wells Tandem pill = low-vis (base fluid) + high weight (15-30 pcf+)

27- What is the LSYP? And why at flow rate 300 or 400 gpm we need it?

It’s the carrying capacity of the fluid exerted at the low side of the wellbore, expressed as the low en

d or the lowest speed.

@ flow rate 300 or 400 gpm at the deep sections such as 5 7/8” or 6 1/8” with the long depth of the

section and the longer residual time of the cutting its slip velocity might be higher to utilize this

by using the LSYP to remove the cutting from the sides of the well during its lowest speed.

28- What are the other parameters control hole cleaning?

RPM, Controlled ROP, Flow rate, Well bore geometry.

29- Does the annular velocity change with hole size?

Annular velocity is controlled by GPM for each section,

optimum Annular velocity = 130-150 ft/min

30- What is the RPM and its counted by bit or drill pipe rotation?

RPM = Rotation per minute, its counted by the drill pipe rotation.

31- Why RPM helps in hole cleaning?

It helps the pipe to move and turbinate (form a turbulence motion) the cutting beds on the low

side.

32- How to displace oil base mud to water base mud and vise-versa?

OBM to WBM:

Hi-vis OBM -> Surfactant Pill -> Hi-vis WBM -> WBM (some mud specialist doesn’t want to hear

pump diesel, so this a political answer)

WBM to OBM

Hi-vis WBM -> Hi-vis OBM -> OBM.

Dump contaminated phase.

33- Talk about pipe stuck and which one is the easiest from your point of view?

None of them are easy, slightly easy is differential stuck, there are a lot of stuck pills to use to fre

e the pipe, in the comparison to most mechanical stuck’s which have a lower possibility to

become free.

34- What is the PHPA?

Partially Hydrolyzed polyacrylamide.

35- How to perform salinity test in OBM and what the ml of silver nitrate means?

1 ml of mud + 25 ml of Xylene + 25 ml of Isopropyl + 50 ml distilled water

10 drops of potassium chromate, Titrate w/ Silver nitrate (0.282 N) 10,000.

The ml of silver nitrate of the test represents the salinity of the whole mud.

36- How to calibrate retort?

For WBM, calibrate with water, fill up the cell heat up and collect the water in the 10/50 ml

Tube.

For OBM, calibrate with diesel/safra oil, fill up the cell heat up and collect the base fluid in the 10

/50 ml Tube.

37- What is the limitation of PHPA?

Are Cationic surfaces and ions such as: Ca++

Definition of PHPA is Partially Hydrolyzed polysaccharides insoluble in water but its co-polymer is

sodium polyacrylate which makes it water soluble, it also has the AMP’s it’s anionic polymer whi

ch it is effected by cationic ions.

38- What will happen if the pH of formate drops?

To avoid the forming of formic acid cause it is extremely corrosive.

39- What do you prefer high or low salinity in WBM and why?

In my opinion High salinity WBM, much easier to weight it up to its required density and its

solid free.

40- Why you use OBM?

Troublesome section with swelling shale.

Drill section on gauge.

High lubricity, reduced torque.

Drill horizontal and ERD section with no problems.

 Easy to control its solids by solid control equipment.

With stand high bottom hole temperatures.

41- Why water doesn’t contact shale in OBM?

Because its water activity, salinity, emulsified in oil as the inner phase.

42- Because the water is emulsified in oil, becoming the inner phase?

The salinity of the inner phase preventing the water to go towards the shale by the osmosis

pressure.

43- What is the emulsified water?

It’s the inner phase of the OBM (invert emulsion)

44- What is the LSND mud?

Low Solid Non-Dispersed Mud: it’s a polymer mud does not contain any dispersants (clay

particles are dispersed in its aqua phase in a equilibrium) , depends on low MBT content by

maintaining dilution rates of water, the weighting agent are HGS to minimize the % of the LGS.

45- How to calculate CaCO3 content in formate mud and what if you drill in carbonate formation?

1 ml formate mud + 9 ml 5N HCL, shake well to dissolved all the CaC03, add 90 ml of distilled

water, shake well, take 10 ml sample + 0.5 ml of 8N NaOH + caliver 2 indicator.

Titrate with EDTA.

% CaCo3 = Amount of EDTA by ml / 0.27

If drilling in carbonate formation will increase the % CaCo3, while drilling with formate mud

the amount of CaCo3 used in premix is usually 50 ppb any other increase will represent the

amount of carbonate drilled.

46- What is Pom?

 Phenolphthalein of Oil Base Mud.

47- What is max weight of kcl and potassium formate?

KCL = 72 pcf

K Formate= 98 pcf

48- What is the pilot test? And 1 pound equal what?

Is to know the right amount of dose to be used while at premix of the fluid or the dose of a

product for treatment purpose to identify the products behavior and concentration on the

fluid by further tests, also to reduce the cost of treatment to use the right doses and

concentration.

49- Who to treat co2 gas?

Treat W/ Lime.

HCO3 mg/l * 0.00021 = Ca(OH)2

CO3 mg/l * 0.00043 = Ca(OH)2

50- How to treat calcium from cement and from formation?

Cement treat w/ Sodium Bicarbonate or Citric acid.

Formation such as Anhydrite or gypsum treat w/ Soda ash.

51- Which one is better to deal with swelled or sloughed shale?

Sloughed Shale, it is just the matter of increasing mud weight but for swelling shale have a high

possibility to cause stuck pipe.

52- Why brine content in formate mud is important?

To determine the amount of carbonate and % drilled solids in the mud.

It’s very important to maintain the brine concentration and content of the formate.

53- Why pH is important in formate mud?

To avoid the forming of formic acid cause it is extremely corrosive.

54- How to prove that you have a good hole cleaning?

Good mud rheology readings either yp or lsyp depending on well geometry.

Mud weight not increasing, % drilled solids is less than 5%, pv not high or have excessive or

progressive gels.

Decent amount of cuttings on shakers, not too much increase in cuttings after the sweeps.

The torque is steady not fluctuating, while tripping no drags or overpull.

55- What is the water activity Aw?

is the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided by the standard state partial vapor

pressure of water.

Its effected by the amount and content of the dissolved ions and cations in the water, common

tests to give an idea about the water activity hardness test and salinity.

56- What is the value of Aw of calcium and sodium chloride at saturation?

Cacl2 = 0.4 and Nacl = 0.75

57- Why Aw is important in shale inhibtion?

When the water activity is low it will help to hydrate and swell the shale.

The higher the water activity the less the tendency the shale will absorb the water between its in

terlayer spaces between its sheets.

58- What sweep will you use if you are drilling with 66 degree?

The Tandem pill low-vis + high weight.

EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

1-What are the functions of drilling fluids

 Hole cleaning by Removing cuttings from the well , suspend and release cuttings
 Control formation pressure
 Seal permeable formations
 Maintain well bore stability
 Minimize formation damage
 Cool , lubricate , support the bit and drilling assembly
 Transmit hydraulic energy to tool and bit

2-What’s the hydrostatic pressure definition and How you can calculate

 hydrostatic pressure is the total fluid pressure created by the weight of a column of
fluid, acting on any given point in a well
 calculated by > HP = mud weight, ppg x 0.052 x true vertical depth (TVD) ft

3-What are the main 2 reason to control down hole pressure

 The drilled rock must be supported and stabilized.

 The pressure of gases and fluids in the rock must be exceeded so they do not enter
the wellbore. This is particularly important for safety, As the mud density supports the
rock, excessive down hole pressure can also damage it by fracturing it in the manner a
hose pipe can be split by too high pressure

4-What’s the definition of equivalent circulation density ECD

 The additional pressure used to overcome frictional losses and viscosity Effects
generates additional pressure, and the sum is referred to as Equivalent Circulating
Density (ECD)

ECD = Hydrostatic Head + ΔP

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

5-What’s the definition of the YP,PV and gel strength

 PV is the resistance to flow caused by mechanical friction of solids and its affected by
solid concentration, size, shape and the viscosity
 YP is the attractive forces in a fluid which is a result of negative and positive charges
located in or near particle surfaces which is dynamic attractive forces so it is the
ability of the fluid to suspend the cutting in the dynamic status.
 Gel strength is the attractive forces in a fluid which is a result of negative and positive
charges located in or near particle surfaces which is static attractive forces so its the
ability of the fluid to suspend the cuttings in the static status.

6-What is optimum value of low sheer yield point in below deviated hole

 LSYP ( 2 X 3 READING – 6 READING ) MUST BE > = Hole size

 12 ¼” hole ( 12 – 15 )
 8 1/3” hole ( 8 – 11 )

7-What is the relation between Annular velocity and sleep velocity

 Fluid velocity must be high enough to overcome the slip velocity of the cuttings, this
means fluid velocity can be lowered in a highly viscous and cuttings still effectively
removed so the relation is inversely proportioned

8-What is the optimum value rate of Annular velocity ft/min

Optimum annular velocity for the proper hole cleaning is 80-120 ft/min.

9-What is the Thixotropic properties

 Thixotropic properties of the drilling fluid , the drilling fluid have the ability to form a
reversible gel structure when circulation is stopped so that the cuttings and weighting
material remain suspended. Upon resumption of circulation the fluids revert to their
initial flow properties

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

10-What will be happen if the drilling fluids have not ability to form revisable gel structure

 The fluid won’t be able to suspend the solids in the static phase and all solids will be
settle down the hole , like in barite sag problem.
 building up of cuttings beds in deviated wells.
 Increased of the water loss.

11-What is the amount of filter loss depended on

 Bridging reduces filtration rates and permeability by plugging or blocking

The pore spaces
 Pressure difference between mud column and pore pressure
 Bonding of solids together , filter cake permeability
 fluid Viscosity
 Temperature

12-What is the optimum characteristic filter cake

 Compatibility of filtrate with formation.

 Thin, impermeable, and deformable filter cakes.
 Lubricious and shearable filter cakes

13-The poor filter cake and high fluid loss can lead to

 Stuck pipe due to the hydration of formations like clays and excess drag and
differential sticking of pipe
 Undergauge hole due to thick filter cake
 increase in the surge pressures while moving the drill string in and
Out of the hole. In gas wells, this cause well control problems and blowout
 Invasion of the fluid into the formation will lead to formation damage

14-What will be happen if you use high concentration of poor quality of Bentonite in high
temperature well?

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

 Low quality of Bentonite at high temperature can cause gelation problem which will
lead to increase in Yp and Viscosity
 Increasing applied pressure to the formation while running in hole
Might break down formation, causes mud losses
 Increase of water loss
 Settling of solids such as barite at the static status
 Swabbing while pull out of hole.
 Poor cement jobs

15-What are the main factors in clay dispersion

 electrolyte content of the water, time, temperature, the exchangeable cations on the
clay and the clay concentration.
 Lower salinity, longer times, higher temperatures and lower hardness.
 combination of both mechanical and chemical forces is used to disperse bentonite

16-What are the main factors in clay aggregation

 the introduction of divalent cations to the drilling fluid, such as Calcium This could
occur from additions of lime
 face to face linking and form thicker plates This decreases the number of particles and
causes a decrease in the plastic viscosity

17-If 1470* w2-w1/35.5-w2 so calculate how many PPB you will need to raise up 1000 bbl’s
from 90 PCF to 100 PCF in 12 ½” hole

1470 x 13.37 PPG - 12.03 PPG / 35.5 -13.37 PPG = 89 ppb

For 1000 bbl = 89 lb X 1000 bbls /5000 lb = 18 bags of barite

18-From previous question calculate the final volume after raised up mud weight

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

 1 bags of barite with S.G 4.2 , 4.2 x 8.34 = 35 LB/Gal , 5000 / 35 = 142 GLS
 142.85 GLS / 42 = 3.4 bbls , so 1 bag of barite will increase the volume with 3.4 bbls
 So 18 bags x 3.4 bbls = 61 bbls + 1000 bbls , so final volume will be 1061 bbls

19-From previous question calculate the slug mud wt if you want to pump 25 bbl’s to Pooh

 Considering we are using 5.5 DP and its capacity = 0.02057 bbls/ft and we want to get
300 ft dry of drill pipe.
 25 / 0.02057 = 1215 ft which is the slug height
 Mud weight of slug = Height of dr pipe x Mud weight / height of slug + mud weight
 Mud weight of slug = 300 ft x 100 pcf / 1215 ft + 100 pcf = 124.7 Pcf

20-from previous question calculate how many bbl’s you will receive after pumped the said
slug

 After pumping 25 bbls of slug which will dry 300 ft of DP

 300 ft DP x 0.02057 DP capacity = 6 bbls + 25 bbls , so we will receive 31 bbls

21-Calculate the kill mud weight required to kill the well if the SIDPP 2200 PSI while SICP 2650
PSI with circulated mud weight 100 PCF at true vertical depth 10000 ft

 KMW = SIDPP / 0.007 / TVD + old mud wt

 KMW = 2200 psi / 0.007 / 10000 FT + 100 = 131.4 Pcf

22-State the stander procedure for the solids control equipments.

 Never discharge into the same pit where the feed is located. This will allow a
significant part of the flow to bypass the solids-control equipment without being
treated.
 Never take a solids-control equipment feed from the mixing pit. This will remove the
mud chemicals being added
 Check shale shakers screens regularly for tear or rips
 Don’t by pass the shale shaker or other solid control equipment while drilling
 Screens should be sized such that mud will cover 75 to 80% of the area.
 Wash down screens with water regularly , Make sure screens are properly mounted
 Make sure shale shaker is proper angle
 Size the desnader and disilter to process 100-125 % of the total mud circulating rate
 Operate the desander at the recommended feed manifold pressure usually 30 PSI

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

 Don’t use the same centrifugal pump for desander , desilter and centrifuge
 Operate disiliter at recommended pressure 32 to 40 psi
 Check cones of desander and desilter regularly for bottom plugging

23-Why you don’t rely on Centrifuge as primary removal solid equipment

 Centrifuge is last defending for solids because it can remove solids below 4 – 6
microns that will not be separated at shakers and pass to the system.
 Can’t use the centrifuge primary because centrifuge can handle only partial flow
And a small portion of the circulating volume is processed.
 Each part of the solid control equipments designed to separate a certain type and size
of solids and cuttings
 In weighted drilling fluids, a centrifuge is normally used for barite recovery. The
centrifuge is arranged to separate mostly barite, returning it to the system, while
discarding the liquid phase containing the detrimental fine and colloidal solids. The
discarded liquid volume is replacedwith liquid dilution or new volume. Due to the low
capacity of most centrifuges
 Using two stage centrifuge will need increase the dilution rate to help in low gravity
solids removing which will increase the mud cost and drilling waste volume.

24-Calculate the ASG of the solids in a 14 ppg mud with the following retort analysis:

 6.5 ml water
 0.5 ml oil with an SG = 0.83
 3.0 ml of solids
ASGs = (Vm SGm - Vw SGw - Vo SGo )/Vs

 ASGs =(10X1.68 – 6.5X1 – 0.5 X0.83) / 3 = 3.295

25-Calculate percent by volume of low gravity solids and the pounds per barrel low gravity
solids given a 4.2 SG of weight material, a 3.30 ASGs, and a 2.60 SG of low gravity solids for
30% undissolved solid in mud

% LGS = (SGwt mtl - ASGs)(%ud sol)/(SGwt mtl - SGLGS)

 % LGS = ((4.2 - 3.3)(30))/(4.2 - 2.6) = 16.9%

 PPB LGS = (16.9)(2.6)(3.505) = 154 PPB

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

26-Calculate the % HGS and PPB HGS for a mud with 30 percent undissolved solids 16.9% low
gravity solids. Use a specific gravity of 4.2 for high gravity solids.

Percent by volume high gravity solids

% HGS = % ud sol - % LGS
Pounds per barrel high gravity solids
HGS PPB = % HGS (SG HGS) (3.505)

 % HGS = 30 – 16.9= 13.1

 HGS PPB = 13.1X4.2X3.505 = 192.845.

27-Calculate the equivalent bentonite (clay content) for a drilling fluid with a 5.5 CEC.

 Bentonite equivalent ( lb / bbl ) = CEC X 5 = 5.5 x 5 = 27.5 lb/bbl

28- Calculate bentonite % for a drilling fluid with MBT= 7.5 ppb and LGS%= 3.4

Bentonite % by volume = (MBT — % by volume LGS) / 8

Bentonite, lb/bbl = bentonite, % by vol x 9.1

 Bentonite % by volume = ( 7.5 – 3.4 ) / 8 = 0.5125

 Bentonite lb/ bbl = 0.5125 x 9.1 = 4.66 lb/bbl

29-If the Drill Solids = LGS ppb - Bent Equiv ppb so Calculate the pounds per barrel drill solids
for a mud that has a 154 ppb LGS and an equivalent bentonite content of 27.5 ppb.

 Drill Solids = 154 ppb - 27.5 ppb

 Drill Solids = 126.5 ppb

30-Please complete with the reason of mud contamination if

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

 PH =12.0 or higher ======= Mud contaminate with OH Group

 PH =10.0 ======= Mud contaminate with OH & CO3

 PH =9.0 – 10.0 ======= Mud contaminate with CO3 Group only

 PH =9.3 - 8.3 ======= Mud contaminate with CO3 & HCO3

 PH =8.3 – 6.0 ======= Mud contaminate with HCO3 only

 PH = 6.0 – 4.3 ======= Mud contaminate with HCO3 & CO2

 PH = 4.3 or lower ======= Mud contaminate with CO2 only.

31- What are the Pf and Mf end point

 Ph end point of Pf =……8.3……………………….

 Ph end point of Mf =…..4.3……………………….

32-Please complete with correct answer

 CO2 AND H2S are Acidic gases

 At high PH you have free OH ions in mud

 At high PH we minimize Bacterial degradation

 Don’t treat carbonate to zero so as to have some carbonate to react with excess CA++
ions in mud

 Accepted carbonate in mud is between 500 – 2000 mg/L

 A solids problem may look like a CO3 problem.

 In case of CO2 treat with limen CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

 In lime mud the influx of CO2& H2S, which are acidic gases gives incorrect Pm/Pf ratio

 Solubility of Ca increase with low pH, causing flocculation of mud

 Clay or shale becomes highly sensitive to mud in highly pH over 9.0, causing
flocculation of mud as the attraction forces between ions increases.

 Mf value sometimes tend to be higher than actual (false value),this is because some
chemicals added to mud, (Such as, Resinex , Lignosulphonate ), buffer the pH of the
fluid (fix it) so it takes more amount of H2SO4 to reach pH 4.3.

 High pH more than 11 may deactivate some polymers, best media pH is between
(8.5-10.0)

 Low pH less than 7 causes breakdown (burn) of polymers

 Ligosulphonate becomes less affective and may cause severe foaming at pH below 8 ,
so add caustic

 In lime mud or excess lime Pm becomes higher than Pf as lime increases.

 In order to precipitate Ca ions you have to use ( Soda Ash ) Na2CO3 to precipitate as (
Calcium carbonate ) CaCo3 while Mg ions will be precipitate as Magnesium hydroxide
(Mg (OH)2) with NaOH ( Caustic soda )

 To adjust Pm/Pf ratios add lime or caustic soda

33-What is the primary function of completion/work over fluids

 Provide pressure control by preventing formation fluids from entering the borehole
 Maintain borehole stability
 Minimize formation damage
 Control fluid loss with minimal solids invasion
 Keep borehole clean of perforation debris, solids such as drill cuttings and sand.

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EMEC_RAWABI Competency test July 2013

34-What the maximum brine weight in PCF can get from the below salts

 Potassium Format 99 Pcf

 Sodium Format 83 Pcf
 Potassium Chloride 73 Pcf
 Sodium Chloride 74.9 Pcf
 Calcium Chloride 87.5 Pcf
 Calcium Bromide 106 Pcf , Calcium bromide mixed with calcium chloride up to 112
Pcf
 Zinc Bromide 143.6

35-In order to avoid stuck pipe in overbalance wells as well as to minimize pore pressure
transmission you should use the following materials

 Steal seal 100 & 400

 LC Lube Fine
 Slouflake fine and medium
 Marble fine
 Marble medium
 Fracseal fine or Barofiber fine
 Poroseal latex
 Mica Fine

36-How you calculate PPT differantional pressure (ΔP)

 Differential pressure defined as the difference between the formation pressure and
the bottom hole hydrostatic pressure and classified as overbalance , under balance
and balanced
 HP ( Hydrostatic pressure ) PSI = Mud weight ( PCF ) x 0.007 x TVD ft
 Bottom hole pressure ( BHP ) PSI in static condition = hydrostatic pressure + surface
pressure
 Bottom hole pressure ( BHP ) PSI in dynamic condition = Hydrostatic pressure +
Surface pressure + frictional pressure
 Formation pressure ( FP ) PSI = hydrostatic pressure + shut in drill pipe pressure
(SIDDP)
Then we can know the differential pressure and applied this pressure in Permeability
plugging test, it will be the difference between the top and bottom pressure which will
be in range of 1400 – 2000 psi

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37-What are the characteristic of spurt fluid for the PPT

 The spurt loss is defined as the amount of mud and/or filtrate recovered
from the collector immediately after the differential pressure is applied
until the flow of fluid through the permeable disc stops and gas from the
receiver blows out freely. The presence of whole mud in the spurt indicates
that there was not an immediate seal of the mud when it passed
through the filter. In most cases, the goal is to eliminate or minimize
the amount of whole mud in the spurt and in the 30 minute test.

38-What is definition of Return permeability

 It is the comparison of permeability after testing with the additive compared to initial
permeability.

39-What is skin effect

 The pressure drop in a well per unit rate of flow is controlled by the resistance of the
formation , the viscosity of the fluid and the additional resistance concentrated
around the well bore , resulting from drilling and completion the pressure drop cause
by this additional resistance defined as the skin effect
 Formation damage refers to the decrease in permeability that can occur in the near
wellbore region of a reservoir. This represents a positive skin effect. Can be created
by Mechanical cause’s partial completion, inadequate number of perforations, and
Phase changes reduction of relative permeability of the desired fluid, Turbulence and
damage to the natural reservoir permeability.
 Negative skin denotes that the pressure drop in the near-wellbore zone is less than
would have been from the normal undisturbed reservoir flow mechanism Causes of
negative skin Is Matrix stimulation, Hydraulic fracture, Highly inclined wellbore.

40-What is the primary factors causing formation damage

 Fluid solids blocking pore throats

 Migration of formation fine solids
 Hydration of formation clays due to the fluid filtrate will enter the formation pores
 Wettability changes in the reservoir
 Insoluble precipitants
 Water blocking
 Emulsion blockage

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41-What are the factors caused entrance of particles into formation

 Thick and permeable mud cake will leads to entering solids and particles
 Non filtered completion fluid such as non filtered or dirty brines
 Formation porosity , highly permeable formations with large bore throats
 Particles size
 Excessive mud weights than formation pressure, the mud filtrate particles will invade
the formation pores.

42-What are the advantage of oil base mud

 Shale stability and inhibition.

 Temperature stability.
 Lubricity
 Resistance to chemical contamination
 Gauge hole in evaporite formations.
 Solids tolerance.
 Reduced production damage.
 Reduced tendency for differential sticking.
 Drilling under-balanced.
 Re-use.
 Reduced cement cost
 High penetration rate.
 Flexibility.
 Reduced of stress fatigue.
 Reduced corrosion

43-What are the disadvantage of oil base mud

 High initial cost per barrel.

 Mechanical shear required.
 Reduced kick detection ability.
 Pollution control required.
 High cost of lost circulation.
 Disposal problems.
 Solids control equipments based on centrifugation does not work effectively.
 Hole cleaning.
 Rig cleanliness.
 Special skin care for personnel may be required.

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 Hazards vapor.
 Effect on rubber.
 Fire hazard.
 Special logging tools required.
 Gas stripping.

44-Why it is rear to have differential sticking stuck pipe while drilling with oil base mud

 Because of lubricity property of oil based mud the O/W ratio is 80/20 , also for its
Shale stability and inhibition , No overbalance so it will Reduced tendency for
differential sticking.
 Due to combination of high lubricity with very thin filter cake.

45-Why the hole clean is poor with oil base mud

 Solids control equipments based on centrifugation does not work effectively with the
oil base mud.
 In Oil base mud the water ratio is low , usually its 80/20 sometimes the oil ratio
increase and water ratio decrease , the Organophellic clays works in the water
phase so the Rheology will decrease which will lead to poor hole cleaning .
 The OBM is highly effected with temperature which affect the required rheology for
hole cleaning (negative effect ).

46-How you can adjusted the O/W in OBM

 By Adding base oil or water ( brine ) depends on the retort analysis result
To Raise O/W ratio – for adding oil
(% oil + X) / % water = O/W ratio desired, X is the % of oil need to be added
If O/W ratio desired to be lowered so water (brine) must be added
(% water + X) / % oil = O/W ratio desired, X is the % of water need to be added

\
47-State the types of contamination you can face in OBM and how you can treat it

 H2s contamination can be treated with addition of lime to maintain alkalinity

above 2 cc
 Co2 contamination can be treated also with lime to maintain alkalinity
 Water contamination add required amount of oil to adjust the O/W ratio , primary
emulsifier and lime will be needed to increase the ES and emulsifiers to have good
emulsion.

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48-What the types of LCM materials shall you use to cure losses while drilling pay zone

 Marble fine
 Marble Medium
 N seal
 Soluflake
And any other acid soluble materials

49-Why excess lime must keep in OBM

 Addition of lime is required to form calcium soap react with fatty acid emulsifiers ,
also to have enough ( OH - ) ions to keep emulsion stability and increase the electric
stability

50-Why we should knew shale activity before drilled hole with OBM

 Because the transfer of water between mud and shale is carrying out by osmosis
which the solvent ( water ) will diffuse through a semipermeable membrane from low
concentration of salt to high concentration of salt , Some shale formations that slough
when contacted with water mud are drilled readily with oil mud. The external phase
of the oil mud is oil and does not allow water contact the formation, the shales
thereby prevented from becoming water wet and dispersing into the mud or caving
into the hole. The result is closer to gauge hole, this have a great advantage on drilling
deep wells or deviated wells and thus prevent and relieving stuck pipe.

51-State the spacer formula before displace hole from WBM to OBM

 We will use High Viscous OBM Spacer ( Transfer some of the oil based mud that is
going to be displaced into the hole across to a separate tank and adding some
viscosifier )
 Then Pump the new Oil base mud

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52-State the spacer formula before displace hole from OBM to WBM

We weill pump spacer pills as follow

 Base oil pill ( 20 to 30 bbls of oil )

 Viscous Surfactant Spacer ( HI-VIS water pill with surfactant )
 Solvent Pill ( water with solvent )
 Surfactant pill ( water with surfactant )
 Viscous spacer ( HI-VIS water base mud pill ) from the new water base mud that is
going to be displaced
 Then pump the new Water base mud

53-What are the main purpose for using Non-Damaging Non solids Formate mud

 Avoid formation damage and the plugging of long sections of expandable sand screens
 Avoid stuck pipe at over balances of 820 to 1600 psi , low potential for differential
sticking
 Maintain low circulation pressure losses in long sections
 Have very low freezing and crystallization temperatures , naturally lubricating ( reduce
torque and drag )

54-What are the material for buffering Formate mud with their duos

 Soda ash.
 Sodium bi carbonate.

55-What is the weighting material shall you use with Formate mud

 By adding format powder or high density format brine.

56-Why we couldn’t use barite as weighting material with Formate mud

 Because barite is one of the weighting materials with high gravity solids which will
damage the formation while drilling the payzone and main reason we are using the
formate mud that it has no solids.

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57-What type and formula for free stuck pipe pill in Formate mud

 Mix Glycol Cocktail as below

 Keep pill agitated in the pit before pumping as it will separate if left static over time.

Glycol Cocktail spotting fluid formulation for 100 bbl Percent

Aramco Glycol (MEG or TEG), bbl 87 bbl equivalent to 66 drum 87% (0.87)

Lubricant, bbl 9 bbl equivalent to 7 drum 9% (0.09)

Pipe Lax, bbl 4 bbl equivalent to 3 drums 4% (0.04)

 Density of Glycol Cocktail: 66 – 68 pcf, this pill is unweighted and cannot be weighted
up.
 Be sure to calculate and consider the effect of this pill on the hydrostatic of the well in
the vertical section.
 Mix and pump 30-40 bbl Hi-Vis mud.
 Pump 60-70 bbl formate brine ahead of Glycol Cocktail pill , Formate brine up to 98
pcf. use Displace pill as following: XX bbl in annulus enough to cover BHA + 10 %
excess leaving XX bbl inside drill pipe
 Let pill soak for at least 6-8 hours while putting string on tension if stuck occurred
while running in or compression if stuck occurred while pulling out or combination of
both 1 hour in tension and 1 hour in compression for at least 6 hours.
 After spotting pill, start to work on stuck pipe, displace 1 bbl every 30 minutes.
 This remaining pill volume inside drill pipe should be enough for at least 12 hours
working time

58-What is definition of Glycol cloud point

 It is the temperature where the mixture starts to phase separate and two phases
appears and becoming cloudy ( it changes from being soluble to insoluble ) , this

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behavior of non ionic surfactant which exhibit reverse solubility versus temperature
behavior in water , cloud point is affected by salinity , being lower in more saline fluids

59-Report two main factors controlled the cloud point of freshwater glycol

 The salinity of the solution , molecular weight ,and concentration of the glycol , an
increase in any of these factors results in a decrease in the CPT

60-What the different between low molecular weight glycol and high molecular weight glycol

 Low molecular weight Glycols like polyalkylene glycol ( PAG ) the molecular size is
small to enter and filling the interlayer gaps of expanding shale and clays like
montmorillonite displacing the water and reduce the water activity and prevent
potential shale hydration , Can be used with Potassium ion ( KCL ) addition for more
shale inhibition.

 High molecular weight Glycols will only encapsulate the cuttings and hold them
together to minimize the dispersion.

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 Contamination

CEMENT CONTAMINATION

-Cement contains lime, Ca(OH)2, soluble in water so, give more OH ions which increase PH , also source of calcium
and a flocculant
Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2 OH ( PH = 11.7 )

-have no effect on (Ca-base, Brines, OBM), at high BHT must treated quickly to avoid gelation or solidification
-Detection of contamination: increase in PH, Pm,Pf,API-HTHP,calcium, excess lime {Ib/bbl = 0.26 [Pm – Fw*Pf]}

-Tratment: calcium can removed by adding sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).

The reaction is as follows: Ca (OH) 2 + NaHCO3 CaCO3+ NaOH + H2O
Calcium precipted as CaCO3and PH decreased by H+ ion in NaHCO3, This reaction forms sodium hydroxide and
will result in elevated pH even after the calcium from the cement is removed.

-Bicarbonate of soda will reduce the pH

-Most fluids require a pH above 9.5 to be effective
-Add thinners for rheology control
-Add water for dehydration and barite to maintain weight

NOTE:
-to remove 1 mg/l Ca from cement we need 0.00074 ppb NaHCO3
- we can pre-treatment with 0.5 to 0.75 lb/bbl of sodium bicarbonate.

For severe cement contamination, an acid should be used in combination with sodium bicarbonate to maintain an
acceptable pH value.

Common acids used with sodium bicarbonate are citric acid, acetic acid, SAPP, and organic acids like lignite or
lignosulfonate.

====================================================================================
Calcium Contamination

- found in drilled formation (anhydrite CaSO4) (Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O) or make up water

CaSO4 + H2O  Ca++ + SO4 + H+ this hydrogen ion decrease PH

-effect on mud: change nature of fresh water and clay base mud where replace Na ions on the clay surface so, the bond
layer of H2O is reduced , resulting decrease swelling (no hydration for bentonite) so,increase YP,Gel,Fluids loss

-Detection of contamination: decrese in PH and increase conc. Of Ca in Ca-test , we can control solubility of CaSO4
by increase PH , decrease salinity

- Treatment:

a) From gypsum: increase PH by caustic soda (11-11.4) then soda ash will ppt. Ca as CaCO3

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4 {(0.000931 lb/bbl per 1.0 mg/L Ca++)}

b) From cement: by NaHCO3

=====================================================================================

Magnesium Contamination

- found in drilled formation like ( Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 ) or ( carnalite salt KMgCl3.6H2O) , often encountered as
make-up water.
- effect on mud : increase in hardness
-Detection : increase in hardness after treatment of Calcium , unstable in YP
-Tretment by caustic soda where system will precipitate as insoluble Mg(OH)2 when pH is greater than 10.5.
Mg++ + 2NaOH Mg(OH)2 + 2Na+ { (0.00116 lbm/bbl of caustic soda per 1.0 mg/L Mg++)}

=====================================================================================
Salt Contamination

-found in make-up water, saltwater flows, salt domes, or evaporite formations., it can be (Na+), (K+), (Mg++), (Ca++)
chloride, or a combination of all of these types. The most common is sodium chloride.

-effect on mud : will flocculate a freshwater-base fluid causing viscosity and filtration-control problems.

-Detection of contamination : high YP,Gel,Fluids loss,Cl- , thick filter cake, drop in PH,Pf,Mf

- Treatment :
-salt concentrations can be reduced only by dilution with fresher water. In addition to fluids loss reducer material
-Treat with thinners to reduce viscosity, gel strength, and yield point.
-Adjust pH with caustic soda.
-Add polymers for filtrate loss.
There’s no economical treatment for salt contamination either dilution or swapping to salt saturated system

=====================================================================================
SEAWATER

Magnesium ions and calcium ions are present in seawater. Both of these ions are detrimental to water-base muds.
Since magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) are relatively insoluble at higher pH, caustic
should be used to remove magnesium and suppress the solubility of calcium. The reactions are as follows:
Mg2+ + 2NaOH Mg(OH)2+ 2Na+ (pH >10)

Ca2+ + 2NaOH Ca(OH)2+ 2Na+ (pH >11)

Caustic soda is used to reduce the magnesium and calcium in seawater by first precipitating magnesium as Mg(OH)2,
and then increasing pH to suppress the solubility of calcium and precipitate lime.
In seawater, the preferred treatment for magnesium removal is caustic, while the preferred treatment for calcium
removal is soda ash.

=====================================================================================

CARBON DIOXIDE GAS CONTAMINATION

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an acidic gas which exists in many formations and is a common mud contaminant. CO2 in an
aqueous solution will form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which will convert to bicarbonate groups (HCO3–) at medium
pH values, then carbonate groups (CO32–)at higher pH, as illustrated previously in Figure 7.

Small influxes may be treated with caustic soda:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (carbonic acid);

2NaOH + H2CO3 = 2Na+ + CO3 2+ + 2H2O (pH > 11)

Massive influxes should be treated with lime. Be advised that the calcium carbonate precipitate may cause scale to form
on the surface of the drillstring and is difficult to remove from the fluid with solids-control equipment due to the ultra-
small (submicron) particle size.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE CONTAMINATION

Found :
a- Overtreatment with soda ash or bicarb to remove calcium or cement contamination
b-Carbon dioxide dissolution due to formation gas, fluid-mixing equipment, swabbing fluid pumps, etc.
c-the conversion of CO2 gas, mentioned above
d-the thermal degradation of organic additives such as lignite and lignosulfonate at temperatures 300°F and from
biodegradation of starch and other additives, among other sources.

Carbonates may exist in one of three forms depending on the pH of the fluid: carbonic acid: H2CO3, bicarbonate:
HCO3-,and carbonate: CO3 (see fig. in CO2)

-effect on mud: high YP, 10 min Gel , HTHP fluid loss, Ca. decrease , Mf increase , PH decrease,Pf decrease

-Treatment: These ions can be removed with calcium. However, since calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 is soluble, all
bicarbonates must be converted into carbonates (above a pH of about 11) before they can be completely precipitated as
calcium carbonate.

Lime (Ca(OH)2) is preferred for converting HCO3– to CO32– and then precipitating the carbonates as CaCO3,
especially if the system pH will not be elevated to >11.

2HCO3– + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3+ OH– + H2O {0.00021 lb/bbl treats 1.0 mg/L HCO3}

CO32– + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3+ 2OH {0.00043 lb/bbl treats 1.0 mg/L CO3}

When a constant pH value must be maintained, a combination of gyp and lime treatments is required:

Ca(OH)2 + 2HCO3– CaCO3+ CO32– + 2H2O

CaSO4 • 2H2O + CO32– CaCO3+ SO42– + 2H2O

NOTE:

-A general range for carbonates in most fluids is 1200 to 2400 mg/L.

-Recommended Treatment for Bicarbonate:
•Increase pH with lime [Ca(OH)2] pH 9.5 to 10.0 It may be necessary to supplement lime with caustic soda (NaOH)
•Maintain 150 to 200 mg/L total hardness in the filtrate to buffer the problem so that it does not reoccur. This is usually
easy to obtain with lime treatments
•Add thinners for chemical dispersing of clays and rheology control
•Add water for dehydration
- Recommended Treatment for carbonate:
•Add Gypsum (CaSO4) to remove carbonate by precipitating it as CaCO3, and lower pH to 9.5 - 10.5 (OH- ions only)
•Monitor total lb/bbl (kg/m3) of gypsum added to system. To much Na2SO4 in the system will cause viscosity problems
•Add thinners as needed for chemical dispersion
•Add water for dehydration
•Lime and gypsum can be added together to achieve the proper pH and to precipitate CaCO3 from the system.
====================================================================================

HYDROGEN SULFIDE (H2S) CONTAMINATION

Found : formation gas or thermal degredation of organic bacterial action

-effect on mud: darken mud, high YP,Gel,calcium, thick filter cake , decrease PH, lime content ,Pm

-treatment: it should be neutralized immediately with caustic soda or lime to increase the pH to >11.5 to form sulfide
(S2–), then precipitated with a source of zinc due to the dissociation of H2S is irreversible reaction H2S = 2H + S-2

Neutralization with caustic soda or lime 2NaOH + H2S  2Na+ + S2– + 2H2O (at pH >11.5)

(1) Neutralization with maintaining excess lime: H2S + Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + S2– + 2H2O (pH >11.5)

Converting hydrogen sulfide into just sulfide by increasing pH is not a permanent reaction. If the pH were to drop into
the acid region, sulfide will convert back into the poisonous hydrogen sulfide form. For this reason, H2S should always
be precipitated with a source of zinc, such as zinc oxide.

(2) Removal by precipitation with treatments of (ZnO) or Sourcave or H2S Scavanger : H2S + ZnO ZnS+ H2O

====================================================================================
REMOVAL OF OXYGEN WITH OXYGEN SCAVENGER

Dissolved oxygen will cause increased corrosion and can be removed with treatments of a chemical containing sulfite.
Liquid ammonium bisulfite solutions are the most common oxygen scavengers and react with oxygen as follows:

NH4HSO3 + 1⁄2 O2 + OH– NH4 + SO3 + H2O;

SO3 + 1⁄2 O2 SO4
1-How do you mix spud mud?

A- Fill up the pits with the needed amount of water, if needed request fresh water.
B- Treat the Makeup water form hardness (high concentration of Ca++) by the needed amount of
Soda Ash.
C- Add the required amount of Biocide.
D- Add and Mix the needed amount of Bentonite around 25-30 ppb.
E- Leave the bentonite to dehydrate in the mud pits for around 6-12 hours to gain the required
viscosity.
F- Adjust the PH to around 9, by adding the needed amount of caustic soda.

2- Why should you treat calcium before mixing spud mud?

The presence of the Ca++ ion will cause the bentonite to flocculate, making it difficult for the
bentonite to gain its viscosity property by dehydration.

3- What is the value of water loss in spud mud?

Uncontrolled.

4- What is the maximum salinity of water that using for mixing bentonite?

Salinity = 5000 mg/l

5- How do mix spud with sea water?

Prepare a high concentration dose of bentonite (double dose around 40 ppb) for the required volume
needed to prepare in fresh water, leave it to hydrate than distribute it around the system and add the
needed amount of seawater to make up the wanted volume needed.

6-What is the concentration of bentonite that you mixed before?

25-30 ppb

7- If you drill a section that has total loss circulation zone and shale formation, what the mud type can
you use?

WBM, such as: Inhibited polymer mud, Kcl Polymer mud.

8- Why do you use KCl polymer mud?

To drill surface sections that contain clay and reactive shale, Preferred in loss circulation zones, Not
costly as OBM.

9- Why KCl is shale inhibitor?

 The small size of the potassium ion that fits between the clay sheets with its positive charge

attracts the sheets closer together decreasing the interlayer spaces (the envelope space)

decreasing the tendency of shale swelling.

Also, the Salinity of the Kcl which can permit the transfer of water to shale due to the osmosis

pressure, salinity up to 133k mg/l.

10-What is the ionic diameter of K and Na?

K= 2.66 Angstrom.

Na= 1.9 Angstrom.

11-What are the types of shale?

Based on their clay minerals:

A- Needle Shaped Non-swelling clays: Attapulgite/sepiolite.

B- Plate like, Non-swelling clays: illite, chlorite, kaolinite.

C- Plate like, Swelling: Montmorillonites/smectite.

12-Which types of shale that K is inhibitor?

Shale that contain Montmorillonite, Chlorite, Kaolinite.

Especially the swelling shale.

13-What are the shale types in KSA?

Based on Mineralogy: swelled shale Montmorillonite, non-swelled illite.

Based on geology Ductile reactive shale and Fragile hard shale.

14-Why do you add hydrogen peroxide 3% in MBT?

To remove effect of organic materials such as CMC, Polyacrylates, Lignosulfonates and lignite that
absorb the methylene blue.
15-What is the typical concentration of KCl?

Around 5-7%, around 17-24 ppb.

16-What is the typical concentration of K in KCl in KCl polymer mud?

For 5-7% kcl around 26.2-36.7 ppm of K+

For every 1% kcl around 5.25 ppm of K+

17-What is the test of KCl?

A- Put 7 ml of filtrate in centrifuge tube.

B- Add 3 ml of sodium per chloride solution.
C- Centrifuge at constant speed 1800 RPM for 1 minute.
D- Read the precipitate volume immediately.
E- Determine the Kcl Conc. By comparing the precipitated volume with standard curve.

18-Can you calculate K concentration from Cl?

No, best calculated by the Kcl test not salinity.

19-Is the value accurate? Why?

No, K+ is consumed while inhibiting clay and shale.

20-Why do you make Pf and Mf test?

To identify the alkine groups for the WBM, treat any contamination such as carbonate/bicarbonate
contamination caused by co2 gas, avoid foaming issues.

21-What should you do if you don’t have [Link] indicator to make Pf and Mf test?

1 ml filtrate, titrate w/ H2SO4 0.02N to PH = 8.3, End point of Pf, Value of Pf = ml of H2SO4 @ PH 8.3

Continue test, titrate w/ H2SO4 0.02N to PH = 4.3, End point of Mf, Value of Mf = ml of H2SO4 of Pf + ml
of H2SO4 of Mf (total ml of H2SO4 in entire test) @ PH 4.3

22-What is the end point of Pf and Mf?

Pf: colorless.

Mf: pink to red color.

23-If you have CO3 contamination, what is the test can you do to know it? Not Pf and Mf test?

Run The GGT.

24-What are fluid loss reducer chemicals and what is the maximum temperature of each one?

Natural Starch: Dextrid, Polysal, Haystar-P, Emfloc, Potato starch (250 F)

Modified Starch:

A- Pac (-L, -R), PolyPac Ul, Mil Pac, CMC (300 F)

B- Biopaq, Flotrol, Haystar-HT (280 F)

Synthetic: PolyTemp, Hostadril, Thermacheck, Dristemp, Driscal (400 F)

25- Which fluid loss reducer chemicals can you use in the reservoir?

Flotrol, Biopaq.

Hydroxypropyl Starch is Non-Ionic, water soluble modified starch, makes an easy acid soluble filter cake
with calcium carbonate, has a unique viscosifying characteristic contributes to the LSRV (low shear rate
viscosity).

They are used in brines and high calcium mud, thermal stability to 280 F.

26-How do you mix OBM?

A- Base fluid (Diesel, Safra oil)

B- Primary Emulsifier

C- Lime

D- Brine

E- Organophilic clay

F- Secondary emulsifier

G- Filtration control additive

H- Weighting agent

27-What is the important factor in OBM?

E.S. (ARAMCO prefer this answer).

28-Why do you use emulsifier?

To strengthen the bond between the oil and water and to emulsifier the water (inner phase) into the oil
(outer phase) not to cause chemical separation on the shakers such as weighting agent, asphaltic
material, avoid downhole problems as hole stability like swelling shale, to avoid the breakup of the two
phases which would ruin the OBM it would be very costly in time and money.

29-What is the ES?

Is a measurement to how strong is the emulsion strength between the oil and water which was formed
by long chained fatty acids with the head being the hydrophilic bonded in the water droplet and the tail
being lipophilic bonded in the oil medium, its unit is Millivolts and its preferable E.S > 600 Millivolt.

30- What is the mechanism of ES meter?

An electric current in millivolts is passed through the electrode into the mud sample.

The electric current breaks the emulsion between the water and oil.

31-How can you check any drop in ES without using ES meter?

By running the HTHP test and the presence of free water in the filtrate.

The witness of water droplets on the surface of the mud sample.

32-Why do use CaCl2 not NaCl with OBM?

Water activity of Cacl2 = 0.4, Nacl = 0.75

Salinity of Cacl2 = 355k mg/l, Nacl= 188k mg/l

Ca++ helps to form the calcium soap.

33-What is the maximum salinity of CaCl2 and NaCl?

CaCl2 = 355k mg/l, NaCl = 188k mg/l

34-What is the osmosis pressure?

A solvent (water) diffuses through a semi-permeable membrane from a low concentration solute or salt
to a high concentration solute or salt to equalize the concentrations.

35-What are the OBM tests?

E.S., Excess Lime, Salinity, Retort, HTHP, PPT.

36-What is the equation of CaCl2 in OBM?

CaCl2 ppb = (ml of silver nitrate / ml of mud) * 5.48

37-What is the effect on the hole if you have emulsion breaking?

A- Poor quality to the filter cake.

B- Increase in the downhole pressures and pressure loss, high ECD may induce Loss circulation.
C- Cause hole instability from swelling shale.

38-What is the contamination of in OBM?

A- Water Contamination.
B- Solid (high % drilled solids).
C- H2S and acidic gasses.

39-How do you displace the hole from WBM to OBM?

Hi-vis WBM -> Hi-vis OBM -> OBM.

Dump contaminated phase.

40-What is the wetting agent?

It’s the secondary emulsifier it’s a surfactant liquid additive main function used to wet the solid

and coat it with the oil and improves thermal stability and HTHP filtration control, reduces

effects of water contamination.

41-What are the types of stuck?

Mechanically stuck pipe

A- Hole Pack off and bridges, caused by: Settled cuttings, shale instability, unconsolidated
formations, cement or junk in the hole.
B- Well bore geometry interferences, caused by: Key seats, under gauge hole, stiff drilling
assembly, mobile formations, ledges and doglegs, casing failures.
Differentially stuck pipe

Caused by: high overbalance pressure, thick filter cake, high solid mud’s, high density mud’s.

42- What is the indicator of each type?

Mechanically stuck pipe

C- Hole Pack off and bridges, indications: Movement restricted up and down, No circulation, No
Rotation.
D- Well bore geometry interferences, indications: Movement restricted up and down, presence of
circulation and rotation.

Differentially stuck pipe

indications: Movement restricted up and down, presence of circulation, No Rotation.

43-What is the mechanism of differential stuck?

Caused by the differential pressure forces from an over balanced mud column acting on the drill string
against a filter cake deposited on a permeable formation, can occur during pipe is stationary during a
connection or when taking a survey.

2 main conditions exist:

A- Hydrostatic pressure of the mud must exceed the pressure of the adjacent formation.
B- Porous, permeable formation must exist.

44-Is there partial circulation with mechanical stuck? Which type?

Yes, well bore geometry and some cases with pack off.

45-What is the mechanism of key seat stuck?

Occurs when drill string rubs against the formation on the inside of a dogleg, drill string held against the
well bore by tension as pipe rotation and movement wear a narrow groove in the side of the hole, the
pipe becomes wedged into the narrow slot of the key seat as it is pulled up.
46-Why do make sand content test?

To keep the sand less than 1%, to limit the abrasive effects of the sand on surface equipment such as
hopper lines, pump lines and pump, downhole MWD and Direction tools to avoid it becoming junk.

47- What is the important of centrifuge?

Removal of fine solid that contribute to undesirable mud density and rheology, reduce dilution and cost
of fresh mud to control the mud density and properties, to reduce viscosity (PV and progressive gel
strengths).

48-Can you use it with high MWT?

Yes, with high Mud weights the feed rate of the centrifuge will be less.

49-What is the mechanism of barite recovery?

Barite recovery: is to remove the colloidal fine solids while saving the Barite.

Dual Centrifuge system/Dual stage mode:

A- Barite recovery mode on first centrifuge (low speed), effluent sent to the send centrifuge.
B- Stripping effluent stream of ultra-fines to discharge (high speed) and return of cleaned fluid to
the active system.

50-What is the minimum solid size that centrifuge can separate?

2 Micron.

51-What is the CaBr2?

Is a heavy brine used as a completion and a packer fluid.

Package: comes in 55-Gal Drum, liquid, 106 pcf.

52-What is the corrected solid?

= Total solid from retort – soluble solid (uncorrected solid)

53-What is the equation of solids?

Total Solids (retort solids) = Uncorrected Solids (Soluble) + corrected Solids (insoluble)

54-What is the maximum weight of CaBr2?

106 pcf

55- Why do you use it?

As a heavy brine to achieve a higher density brine than Nacl and Cacl2

Used as a completion fluid, packer fluid, kill fluid.

56- How do make hole clean in horizontal well?

Rotation of pipe to agitate the cuttings that are suspending on the low side.

Flow rate, a reasonable GPM is been used for a optimum Annular Velocity around 130-150 ft/min.

Controlled ROP.

Well geometry, reducing the Dogleg severity to avoid the forming of a bridge of cuttings.

Rheology: LSYP, 6 reading = 1.2-1.5 * hole size, hole size < 3 reading < 1.5 * hole size

Lsyp >= hole size.

Use of the Tandem pill (Low Vis + High Weight) will indicate the quality of the hole cleaning.

57-What is the mechanism of tandem pill?

Low-vis to agitate and cause a turbulence to the cuttings around the string and the low side as the
turbulence flow.

Followed by the Hi-weight causing the drill string to a raise and centralize and move the cuttings from
beneath the string and the low side due to the buoyancy effect as the laminar flow.

58-Why do you use high weight not hi VIS?

To enhance the carrying effect of the cutting on the low side due to the density difference / buoyancy
effect.

59-Can you use high weigh –hi VIS?

It is not recommended not to cause changes to the rheology of the active mud.

60-If you have good rheology, good RPM and good flow rate but have bad hole cleaning, why?

Uncontrolled ROP and or Well geometry.

61-If you hear the well control alarm, what should you do?

Go towards and gather at the master point.

62-What is TCT?

The formation of the salt crystals generates a small amount of heat which causes a slight rise in the
solutions temperature, this higher temperature corresponds to the true crystallization temperature.
63-What is the pilot test?

Is to know the right amount of dose to be used while at premix of the fluid or the dose of a

product for treatment purpose to identify the products behavior and concentration on the

fluid by further tests, also to reduce the cost of treatment to use the right doses and

concentration.

1 bbl = 350 ml

1 pound = 1 gram.

1 gal = 8.33 ml.

64-What is the maximum weight of

Barite 156 PCF

Hematite 194 PCF
Marble 110 PCF
NaCl 74.5 PCF
KCl 72 PCF
CaCl2 87 PCF
CaBr2 106 PCF
CaCl2/ CaBr2 113 PCF
Na Formate 83 PCF
K Formate 98 PCF
ZnBr2 143 PCF

65-What is the specific gravity of

Barite 4.2
Marble 2.75
Bentonite 2.4
Diesel 0.84
Safra oil 0.79
LGS 2.6

66-What are the types of LCM?

Conventional LCM (non-acid soluble, acid soluble)

Non-conventional LCM (soft and hard plugs)

67- What are the types of LOSSES?

Seepage loss <10 BPH, Partial loss 10-100 BPG, Severe loss >100 BPH, Total loss No return’s.

68-What is the GGT?

Garrett Gas train test:

Analysis the dissolved carbonate and hydrogen sulfide in the mud sample, by passing the gas through its
chambers to the drager tube and it responses with a color change, the length of the stain represents the
amount of gas present in the mud.

69-What is the H2S scavenger with WBM?

Zinc oxide, Sourscav, SafeScav.

70-What is the chemical name of sourscav?

iron Gluconate.

71-What is the bit balling and how do you prevent it?

Bit Balling: it’s the adhesion of clay due to the electro-chemical attraction of clay to clay and clay to
metal.

Preventing:

A- Minimize clay content of the mud.

B- Prevent water movement to shale by filtration control.
C- Use anti bit balling agents.
D- Use inhibitive Mud systems.
E- Optimize Bit design and bit hydraulics.
F- Good hole cleaning practices, such as: sweeps, wiper trips.

72-What is the ECD?

Total annular circulating pressure losses from point of interest to the bell nipple plus the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud exerted on the formation while circulating.

73-What is the source of pH in formate mud?

A PH buffer of Soda Ash and Sodium Bicarbonate

Soda Ash 2 : 1 Sodium Bicarbonate

74-why don’t you make a retort in formate mud?

The formate will expand by heating which could lead to exploding the retort.
75-What is the using of glycol?

As a stuck pipe pill causes dehydration of filter cake and lubricating the BHA.

Also used as a shale inhibition and forming the glycol cloud sealing the micro pores and fractures in the
shale formation to prevent the interaction between the water in the mud and the shale.

76-What is the contamination of WBM?

Cement, Anhydrite and Gypsum, Salt, Carbonates, H2S, low gravity solids, bacterial degradation,
corrosion, foaming, oil influx, thermal instability, barite sag.

77-What is the equation of hydrostatic pressure?

P HYD (psi) = 0.052 * MW (ppg) * TVD (ft)

P HYD (psi) = 0.00695 * MW (pcf) * TVD (ft)

78-What is the equation of kill mud weight?

Kill Mud weight (pcf) = ( SIDPP / TVD * 0.00695) + Old Mud weight

SIDPP: Shut in drill pipe pressure.

79- Why do you double the result value from HPHT test?

The Cell size of the HTHP (175 ml) is half size of the API Cell, the standard size = 350 ml.

80-What is the chemicals name of max guard?

Liquid Polyamine.

81-For what is poly amine using?

As a shale inhibitor, prevents the shale and clay from up taking water and hydrating.

82-What are shale inhibitor chemicals?

Salts like: Nacl,Kcl.

Soltex, liquid gilsonite, Clay seal, Clay sync.

PHPA: New drill plus, Poly plus, Clay grabber.

Polyamine: Maxguard, KLA stop

83-What is the accepted concentration of CO3 in the mud?

500-2000 mg/l

84-What is the treatment you should added with CO2 contamination?

Treat W/ Lime.

HCO3 mg/l * 0.00021 = Ca(OH)2 in ppb

CO3 mg/l * 0.00043 = Ca(OH)2 in ppb

85-What is the mean of damage formation?

The usage of materials that will affect the porosity and permeability of the producing formation
(decrease the production index PI) such as barite, bentonite, asphaltic material, non-acid soluble
material.

86-What is the definition of glycol cloud point?

Due to the difference related between the ethylene oxide group on the head group and the
hydrocarbon chain length, Glycol can undergo reversible phase transformation at down hole temp. to
form liquid crystalline phase and micro emulsions which are effective at sealing shale to filtrate
migration.

87-What are the types of gel strength?

Progressive, Fragile, Flat Gel.

88-What is the accepted concentration of Ca in the mud?

300-400 mg/l
 Interview questions

1- What are the types of mud?

- Water base mud
- Oil base mud
- Air base mud

2- What is the function of the mud?

- Remove cuttings from the well.
- Control formation pressures.
- Suspend and release cuttings.
- Seal permeable formations.
- Maintain wellbore stability.
- Cool, lubricate, and support the bit and drilling assembly.
- Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit.

3- What is the viscosity?

- It is resistance to flow.

4- What is the annular and slip velocity and the relation between them?
- Annular velocity: The net velocity at which a cutting moves up the annulus.
- Slip velocity: The rate at which a cutting settles in a fluid.
- The relation: If the annular velocity of the drilling fluid is greater than the slip
velocity of the cutting, the cutting will be transported to the surface.

5- What are the types of the flow regime?

- Laminar flow: Is generally associated with low flow rate, low fluid velocities and
with fluid movement in uniform layers.
- Turbulent flow: In generally occurs at high flow rates, high fluid velocities, and
is characterized by an erratic, random movement of the drilling fluid particles.

6- What is the plastic viscosity (PV)?

- Is the resistance of the fluid particles to move against each other in dynamic state
- PV is a function of solids.
- PV depends on the concentration of solids, size and shape of solids.
- The finer solids, higher PV due to the increase of surface area which surrounded
by more Volume of water.

7- What is the yield point?

- It’s the electro – chemicals attraction between solids or mud components.
8- What is the gel?
- Is the measurement of chemical attraction forces between mud particles under
static conditions.

9- What are the types of gel strength?

- Fragile or flat Gel:
Gel strength of 10 minute is slightly higher than 10 seconds gel even if 10 seconds gel reading is
high.

- Progressive or elevated Gel:

Gel strength increases significantly after 10 minute, even if 10 seconds gel is low.

10- What is the PH?

- The negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration.

11- Why do you make PF and MF test?

- To determine CO3, HCO3 and CO2 contamination in the mud.

12- What is the relation between PF and MF and what is the contamination of
each case?
- PF = MF…………… OH
- 2PF > MF……....….. OH & CO3
- 2PF = MF………….. CO3
- 2PF < MF………….. CO3 & HCO3
- PF = 0 ...…………... HCO3 & CO2

13- What should you do if you don’t have PHPH indicator to make PF and MF
test?
- Use PH meter to determine the end point of PF & MF.

14- What is the end point of PF and MF?

- MF end point is 4.3
- PF end point is 8.3

15- If you have CO3 contamination, what is the test can you do to know it? Not pf
and mf test?
Ca test, if the concentration of Ca decrease, it means that the mud has CO3.
16- What are the common chemical reactions in mud?
- Soda ash with Anhydrite: CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ + SO4–
- Cement with sodium bicarbonate: Ca(OH)2 + NaHCO3 CaCO3+ NaOH + H2O
- Carbon dioxide with lime: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
- Hydrogen sulfide with zinc oxide: H2S + ZnO ZnS+ H2O

17- What is the flash point of the fluid?

- It is the lowest temperature where enough fluid can evaporate to form a combustible
concentration of gas.

18- What is the special about graphite materials, why are they used for high over
balance drilling?

- It is used as lost circulation prevention in water base and oil-based drilling fluids in
porous and fractured zones.
- Increases lubricity of water-based fluids.
- Helps reduce torque and drag.
- Does not adversely affect rheological properties.
- It is used for high over balance drilling because it allows tightly packed particles
under compression in pores and micro-fractures to expand or contract without being
dislodged by changes in differential pressure.

19- What are the characteristics of the filter cake?

- Impermeable
- Non Porous
- It must be thin to minimize well sticking and reduce friction forces between drill
string and pore hole wall.

20- What is the shear thinning fluid?

- Shear thinning is the non-Newtonian behavior of fluids whose viscosity decreases

under shear strain.

21- What is tau zero?

- It is the shear stress at zero shear rate.

22- What are the bridging materials?

- Chemicals added to a drilling fluid to bridge across the pore throat or fractures of an
exposed rock thereby building a filter cake to prevent loss of whole mud or
excessive filtrate.
23- What is the PHPA?
- Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide Polymer.
- It is a co-polymer of anionic character and high molecular weight.
- It is a water-soluble polymer.
- It is used to
 It functions as an inhibitor by coating or encapsulating shale.
 It also restricts the interaction of water hydratable & dispersible shale.
 It can be used as a flocculent in clear water drilling.
 It also provides inhibition properties to fresh water, sea water and also in presence of
calcium ions.

24- What are the types of shale inhibition and the mechanism of each type?
- KCL
 K ion has diameter can fit the space between the shale layers.
- PHPA (New drill plus)
 Inhibitor by coating or encapsulating shale.
- Gilsonite (Black fury or black nite)
 Seal micro fractured shale when drilling with water-base fluid, lubricity and
reduce accretion from sticky clays.
- Sulphonated Asphalt (Soltex)
 Seals small fractures in stressed shale formulation.
- Ploy amine (Max guard)
 Enter into the lattice of the clay mineral, electrostatically binding and
minimizing the uptake of water.
- Glycol
 The glycol clouds out at higher down hole temperatures, coating the surface
of clays and preventing hydration.

25- What is the effect of high PH in spud mud and why?

- Increase the viscosity because it increases dispersion of clay.

26- How do you mix spud mud?

- Check ca and the salinity of the water
- Add caustic soda
- Add soda ash
- Add bentonite and leave it for 6-8 hours to hydrate

27- Why should you treat Calcium before mixing spud mud?
- Because ca decreases the performance of bentonite hydration because the ca is
divalent so it will replace the Na and increase the attraction force between the
bentonite layers.
28- What is the value of water loss in spud mud?
- It is uncontrolled and it is 14-16.

29- What is the maximum salinity of water that using for mixing bentonite?
- 2000 mg/l.

30- How do mix spud mud with saline water?

- Mix all concentration of bentonite in fresh water and leave it 6-8 hours to hydrate the
bentonite after that add salt water.

31- What is the concentration of bentonite that you mixed before?

- 25-30 ppb.

32- If you drill a section that has total loss circulation zone and shale formation,
what the mud type can you use?
- Spud mud and make fly mix.

33- Why do you use KCL polymer mud?

- Because KCL is shale inhibitor

34- Why is KCL shale inhibitor?

- Because K is the only ion has diameter can fit the space between the shale layers

35- What the ionic diameter of K and Na?

- K is 2.66 A and Na is 1.92 A

36- What are the types of shale?

1- Non swelling shale: Attapulgite and Sepiolite.
2- Slightly swelling shale: Illite, Chlorite and Kaolinite.
3- Swelling shale: Montmorillonite (Smectite)

37- Which types of shale that K is inhibitor?

- Smectite, Vermiculite, Illite and Mica

38- What are the shale types in KSA?

- Montmorillonite, Kaolinite and Illite.

39- Why do you add hydrogen peroxide 3% in MBT?

- To remove the effect of organic materials such as CMC, lignosulfonates and lignites
 40- What is the typical concentration of KCL?
- 10% (wt) or 37 pbb

41- What is the typical concentration of K in KCL polymer mud?

- 52000 mg/l.

42- What is the test of KCL?

1- 7 ml filtrate
2- 3 ml sodium perchlorite.
3- Use the centrifuge and take the value to know the lb/bbl from the chart
4- Use the KCL table to know the % (wt)

43- Can you calculate K concentration from CL?

- Yes I can, K= 1.103*CL

44- Is this value accurate? Why?

- No, because the concentration of k will decrease during the drilling and the
concentration of CL will be constant.

45- What are fluid loss reducer chemicals and what is the maximum temperature
of each one?
- Starch…………………………….... 170-200 f (theoretical 250 f)
- Pac (pac-lv & mil pac-lv)………......300 f
- Resinex II………………………….. 400 f
- Tannathin……………………......… 400 f
- Dristemp…………………………... 400 f

46- How do you mix OBM?

- Diesel tank: - Brine tank

- Diesel as OWR - Water as OWR

- Lime - CACL2 depend on WFS
- Primary emulsifier
- Fluid loss reducer
- Secondary emulsifier

- Transfer the brine to the diesel tank very slowly

- Mix it for 2 hours

- Add viscosifer and weighting material

47- What is the important factor in OBM?
- Electrical stability (ES).

48- Why do you use emulsifier?

- To make the emulsion between the oil and the water to be homogeneous phase

49- What is the ES?

- It is the measure of the emulsion stability.

50- What is the mechanism of ES meter?

- Measure the conductivity of the mud.
- Decrease conductivity ………… increase ES.
- Increase conductivity …………. decrease ES.

51- How can you check any drop in ES without ES meter?

- From HPHT test, all filtrate should be oil, if you find water that mean ES decrease.

52- Why do you use Cacl2 not Nacl with OBM?

- Because CaCL2 give salinity more than Nacl to control the osmosis pressure and the
water activity of Ca (0.4) less than Na (0.75)

53- What is the maximum salinity of CACL2 and NACL?

- CACL2………………. 357000 mg/l
- NACL………………... 189000 mg/l

54- What is the osmosis pressure?

- The pressure results from transferring the fluid from low salinity to high salinity.

55- What are the OBM tests?

-Add 1 ml OBM
-Add 25 ml Isopropyl Alcohol
-Add 25 ml Xylene
-Mix for 30 seconds
-Add distilled water to reach 100 ml
-Add 10 drops of Phenolphthalein (Pink Color will appear)
-Titrate with 0.1N H2SO4 till Color disappears.
-No of H2SO4 ml = POM (mud alkalinity)
-Excess Lime = POM * 1.295
-To Same Sample add:
-10 drop potassium Chromate (Yellow color will appear)
-Titrate with silver Nitrate 0.282 till red Brown color appears.
56- What is the equation of cacl2% wt in OBM?
- Whole Chloride Mud (mg/l) = ml of Silver Nitrate * 10000
- CaCl2 Mud (lb/bbl) = ml of Silver Nitrate *5.48
- CL% / WT =
(15.65*ml of Silver Nitrate *100)
((15.65*ml of Silver Nitrate) + (Water factor*1000))

57- What is the effect on the hole if you have emulsion breaking?
- Shale Swelling.
- Barite and solid settling in the hole.

58- What is the contamination in OBM?

- Solids, water and gases

59- How do you displace the hole from WBM to OBM?

- Use spacer ( 20 bbls diesel and 30-50 bbls high vis OBM)

60- What is the wetting agent?

- It is a chemicals used to wet the solid and the treatment chemicals by diesel.

61- What are types of stuck?

- Differential stuck
- Mechanicals stuck

62- What are the indicators of each type?

- Differential stuck:
 Full circulation, no RPM and no moving up or down
- Mechanical stuck:
 No circulation, no RPM, little moving up and down

63- What is the mechanism of differential stuck?

- High overbalance on the formation increases the water loss and the differential
pressure between the mud and the formation so the stuck occur.

64- Is there partial circulation with mechanical stuck? Which type?

- Yes, key seat.

65- What is the mechanism of key seat stuck?

- Key seats occur when the drill string rubs against the formation on the inside of a
dogleg.
66- Why do you make sand content test?
- To detect the concentration of the sand in the mud because excessive sand causes:
 Thick filter cake
 Abrasive sand wears the pump parts, the bit and the drill string.

67- What is the important of the centrifuge?

- To remove the LGS

68- Can you use it with high MWT?

- Yes, I can use barite recovery system.

69- What is the mechanism of barite recovery?

- Using two centrifuges, the first to separate the barite by working with high rate and
low RPM and the second to remove the solids by working with low rate and high
RPM

70- What is the minimum solid size that centrifuge can separate?
- 6 micron

71- What is the cabr2?

- It is a completion fluid.

72- What is the corrected solid?

- It is the total solid minus the dissolved salt.
73- What is the maximum weight of cabr2?
- 106 pcf

74- Why do you use it?

- If I need high weight completion fluids, more than 86 pcf.

75- How do you make hole cleaning in horizontal well?

1-Good mud rheology:
RPM 6 = (1.2 - 1.5) hole size
RPM 3 = (1 - 1.5) hole size
LSYP = hole size
2-Good drilling parameter
High flow rate
High RPM
Low ROP
3-Pump tandem pill (low viscous pill and high weight pill)

76- What is the mechanism of tandem pill?

- Low viscosity to make turbulent flow to move the cutting from the low side
and high weight to push the cutting.

77- Why do you use high weight not high VIS?

- Because I need force to push the cutting.

78- If you have good rehology, good RPM and good flow rate but have bad hole
cleaning, why?
- Because of high ROP.

79- What is TCT?

- True crystallization temperature.

80- What is the pilot test?

- It is a test used to make s simulation to the mud to make good treatment and to check
any new chemicals.
- Put 350 ml the mud (equivalent 1 bbl) and put 1 gram chemical (equivalent 1 lb),
start the agitator and check the mud.

81- What is the bit balling and how do you prevent it?
- The bit is covered by clay.
- Add 3 % volume of penetrex or drill zone in the active during the drilling and put 1/3
can of the condet down the drill pipe every connection.
82- What is the maximum weight of:
- Barite…………….. 152 pcf
- Hematite…..……… 187 pcf
- Marble……..……… 87 pcf
- NACl………..…….. 75 pcf
- KCL…………...….. 73 pcf
- CACL2…………..... 86 pcf
- CABR2…………....106 pcf
- CACL/CABR2…....112 pcf
- NA formate……….. 83 pcf
- K formate……….....98 pcf
- ZNBR2…………....143 pcf

83- What is the specific gravity of:

- Hematite………………. 5
- Barite…………………. 4.2
- Marble…………..…… 2.75
- Bentonite…………….. 2.65
- Diesel………………... 0.84
- Safra oil…………….... 0.79
- LGS………………... 2.6-2.65

84- What are the types of LCM?

- Non reservoir LCM:
 Mica, barofiber, cotton seed, marble, baracarb, soluflake, LC lube, LC lube fine, steel
seal and nut plug.

- Reservoir LCM:
 Marble, baracarb and soluflake (acid soluble)

85- What are the types of losses?

- Sea page……………….. < 10 bbls
- Partial…………………. 10-100 bbls
- Sever....………………... > 100 bbls
- Complete……………… No return

86- What is the GGT?

- It is garret gas test and used to determine the concentration of H2S.

87- What is the H2S scavenger with WBM?

- Zinc Oxide
- Sourscav
88- What is the chemical name of sourscav?
- Iron gluconate.

89- What is the ECD?

- It is the pressure loss in the annulus plus the mud weight

90- What is the source of PH in formate mud?

- Soda ash and sodium biocarbonate

91- Why don’t you make a retort in formate mud?

- Because the expansion force of the formate mud push the solid into the condensate
bottle and plug it.

92- What is the using of glycol?

- It is shale inhibitor and lubricant.

93- What is the contamination in WBM?

- Solids
- Cement
- Anhydrite
- Salt
- Carbonate
- H2S
94- What is the equation of hydrostatic pressure?
- Hydrostatic pressure = 0.052*TVD*MWT
 Hydrostatic pressure….. psi
 TVD…………………... ft
 MWT………………….. ppg

95- What is the equation of kill mud weight?

- Kill mud weight = (SIDP/ (TVD*0.052)) + MWT
 Kill mud weight…………...….. ppg
 SIDP…………………………... psi
 TVD………………………...… ft
 MWT………………………….. ppg

96- Why do you double the result value from HPHT test?
- Because the filter paper area of the HPHT (3.5 in2) is half the filter paper area of API
(7 in2).

97- What is the chemicals mane of max guard?

- Poly amine

98- For what is poly amine using?

- For shale inhibition.

99- What is the accepted concentration of CO3 in the mud?

- (500 – 2000) mg/l.

100- What is the treatment you should add with CO2 contamination?
- Lime.

101- What is the mean of damage formation?

- Plugging the porosity of the formation and decrease the permeability.

102- What is the definition of glycol cloud point?

- It is the temperature when the solution transfers from soluble to be insoluble.

103- What is the accepted concentration of Ca in the mud?

- Less than 400 mg/l.

Prepared by: Ahmed Abdou Fayed.

Mud engineer, MBPS company.
Questions of Ahmed Gad Allah & Walid Elzahrani

Water Based Mud questions

1- What do you know about KCl and shale inhibition?

Isomorphous substitution is the substitution of one element for another in a mineral without a
significant change in the crystal structure. Elements that can substitute for each other usually
have similar ionic radii and valence state.

This is what happens for shale which has Na+ in crystal structure, K+ which has smaller ionic
radius due to the high positive charge it has substitute the Na+ in shale crystals which reduce
the space between the shale sheets, this leads to prevent the water molecule that has larger
size than K+ and the space between sheets from inter these spaces and prevent shale from
swelling.

2- What is MBT and why we use it?

A test to determine the amount of clay-like materials in a water-base drilling fluid based on the amount of methylene
blue dye absorbed by the sample. Clay amount would give an image about the gel strength of the drilling fluid being
used.

Drilling fluids gel types

Flat gel: the situation in which 10- sec and 10-minutes gel strengths for a drilling mud have similar values.

Flat gels indicates that the mud will remain pumpable with time if left static in the hole, however if gel values are too
low, barite sag or solids settling is likely happen.

Progressive gel: The situation in which 10- second gel and 10 minutes gel strengths for drilling mud have dissimilar
values, with the 10- minutes number being higher than the 10- second number.

This indicates that the gelation of the mud is rapidly gaining strength with time which generally is undesirable feature
of mud. Excessive pump pressure may be required for break circulation.

If gels appear to be too progressive a 30 minutes gel strength measurement may be warranted as a third check
progress.

Fragile gel: Where the strength are very low with both near zero values for the 10 seconds and 10 minutes
measurements according to standardized test procedures. Settling of barite and cutting may occur in a zero-zero gels
mud.

3- What are the limitations of PAC, Starches & modified starches?

Limitations for using PAC: Polyanionic cellulose is limited by calcium concentration in mud withen range below 600
mg/l as more than this the efficiency of PAC will be affected, also PAC can be used up to 300 degree Fahrenheit.

Limitations for using Starches: Starch is natural polymer (polysaccharides) it would be used up to 180-220 degree
Fahrenheit. Also biocide is to be used with starch system to prevent biodegradation.

Limitations for using modified starch: natural polymer that is industrially modified to enhance the properties. It can be
used up to 250 degree Fahrenheit and doesn’t have any problems with biodegradation.
***Synthetic polymers: 100% man made polymer and can be used up to 375 (dristemp) – 450 (driscal) degree
Fahrenheit.

4- What is the ECD and what would affect it?

 The pressure balancing the formation pressure is composed from the hydrostatic pressure under
static conditions:

 P = Depth (ft) x Density (ppg) x 0.052

 Under circulating conditions the effective pressure is increased by the pumping pressure. This
forms the Equivalent Circulating density (ECD):

 ECD = Density (ppg) + (Ann Press Loss /Depth x 0.052)

The main categories that influence ECD are:

 Flow Geometry

 Fluid Resistance to Flow

 Pressure of Flow

 Fluid Density

 Fluid Temperature

 Acquired Solids

Flow Geometry - Bore hole geometry introduces pressure loss based on drag on the fluid as it passes

through the various components of the fluid flow path (Standpipe, Drillstring Components, Open Hole,

Casing, etc.) and hydrostatic pressure based on the True Vertical Depth (TVD) of the point in question.

Fluid Resistance to Flow - Resistance to flow is related to the rheology of the fluid. While the Plastic

Viscosity (or PV) and Yield Point (or YP) play a part in the rheology, they are only a general

measurement and are more accurate for quantifying a Newtonian fluid, such as water, than a non-

Newtonian fluid such as Invert Emulsion Fluids or IEF. On the other hand, the Herschel-Bulkley n, k, and

Tau Zero calculations better represent an IEF for rheological purposes.

Pressure of Flow - The pressure at which a fluid is being forced to flow (pump pressure) has a big impact

on ECD. The higher the pump pressure, the higher the ECD in most cases.

Fluid Density - Fluid density, by definition, is a main component of ECD and ESD (Equivelant static

density).

Fluid Temperature - Fluid Temperature affects ECD due to thermal expansion in invert emulsion fluids.

When the fluid heats up, the base fluid, usually some form of biological, natural, or synthetic oil, expands,

thus resulting in more volume of base fluid per given amount of weighting material, resulting in a lower

density overall for the fluid. BUT, when taken into account with the TVD portion of the geometry aspect,

hydrostatic pressure also compresses the same base fluid, so both parameters need to be taken into

account when calculating ECD.

Acquired Solids - this is drilled cuttings and or formation cavings that have been liberated from the

formation and carried in the fluid column.

5- What is the difference between LGS and HGS?

Low gravity solids which has specific gravity less than 2.75 including drill solids plus the added bentonite clay

Low Gravity Solids (LGS) – Represents the corrected solids in the mud MINUS high gravity weight material. This
value also includes low density weight material added such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3). ?.

High gravity solids normally are the weighting material used in drilling fluid such as barite (4.2 sp gr) & hematite (5.26

sp gr)

6- What do you know about lost circulation materials?

Lost circulation materials are the materials used to help in curing the losses and they vary in size and composition.

Some of them are reservoir friendly ( mainly calcium carbonate materials) as they can be easily removed using acid,
and the others can’t be used in reservoir formation to avoid reservoir damage such as ( nut plug and cotton sead) as

they can’t be removed.

Marbles varies in size from fine size to chips size, mica also fine size and coarse size, nut plug and cotton sead are

considered to large size LCM.

7- What are the corrected solids?

(They are the equal total solids from retort) – (soluble salt solids)

8- What is PHPA and what is the mechanism of it?

Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide (is a high molecular weight anionic polymer which has multiple applications and
benefits.) A class of water muds that use partially-hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA) as a functional additive, Used
primarily for shale stabilization

Shale stabilization is achieved through encapsulation, through viscosifying the water phase, and by the polymer
adsorbing free water.

Encapsulation - is the process by which PHPA wraps around the clay platelets, preventing water from entering the
interlayer structure of the clays.

By viscosifying the water phase, fluid movement into the interlayer structure of the clay is slowed.

Limitations: Ca+2 should be less than 300

Why it is limitation: PHPA is not compatible with divalent content in water as polyacrylamide is formula is (-
CH2CHCONH2-) calcium will react with the polymer and substitute the NH2 group.

9- What is the Reversible viscosity ?

Thixotropic properties of drilling fluid, as the drilling fluid have the ability to form a reversible gel structure when
circulation is stopped so that the cuttings and the weighting materials remain suspended. Upon resumption of
circulation the fluids revert to their initial flow properties

10- What is glycol cloud point and how to measure it?

A glycol that is soluble at low temperatures but starts to form micelles (molecular agglomerates), thus becoming
cloudy, as the temperature is raised. The temperature at which this phenomenon occurs the cloud point is affected by
salinity, being generally lower in more saline fluids.

Glycol cloud point can be measured by refractometer which measures the refraction of light trough a liquid since the
amount of refraction will depend on the concentration of the fluid, the procedure requires the preparation of a
calibration curve so that refraction readings can be converted into glycol concentration.