LAIKIPIA UNIVERSITY; SCHOOL OF EDUATION

DEPT. OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 2024/2025.

COURSE CODE EDFO 421

COURSE TITLE CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN EDUCATION

PREREQUISITES KNOWLEDGE IN OTHER PROFESSIONAL

COURSES

INSTRUCTOR/CONVENOR Gilberd

CONTACT

Course description
The course focuses on issues and trends in Kenyan Education from a historical, sociological,
legal political and philosophical perspectives. Drawing from global developments (and specific
regional ones) the course further examines development of educational policy, opportunities,
manpower training and development, adult education, teacher education, technical and
vocational education, international co-operation, higher education and other contemporary issues
in education.
Objective: To examine contemporary issues affecting education and ways of mitigating them

COURSE CONTENT / OUTLINE

WEEKS CONTENT TO BE COVERED

1. Introduction; Scope; Significance of the course PCI

2. Gender and Education

3. Issues in Adult, and continuing education

4. Issues in CBC

5. CAT 1

6. Issues in basic education ECDE, PRIMARY , SECONDARY

7. Issues in tertiary and university education

8. Issues in teacher education; PTE

9. Issues in technical and vocational education and continuing education

POLYTECHINIQUES
 10. CAT 2

11. Issued in environmental education

12. Globalization, the Post-2015Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

and education for all (EFA)

13 & 14. Examination

Mode of assessment:
C.A.T. ONE (15%) + C.A.T. TWO(15%) + FINAL EXAM (70%) = 100%
1. Bennaars, G.A. (1993). Ethics, Education and Development: An introductory text for
student in colleges Universities. Nairobi; East African Education Publisher
2. Chege F., Oanda I., & Sifuna D.N. (ed), (2006), Themes in Foundations of
[Link], Jomo Kenyatta Foundations
3. Cohen, R.M. (ed), (1984): International Handbook of Education Systems, London, C. J.
Wiley & Sons
4. Eckstein, M.A. and Noah, H.J. (1960): Towards a Science of Comparative Education.
London, Macmillan
5. Kibera Lucy W., ETAL. (2007). Fundamentals of Sociology of Education. University of
Nairobi Press.
6. Maicibi, K.A. (2003). Pertinent issues in Employees Management, Kampala: MPK
Graphics.
7. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2009). Development of Education in
Kenya. Nairobi: Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
8. Obura, A.O. (1991). Changing Images, Portrayal of Girls and woman in Kenya
Textbook, Nairobi: Acts Press.
9. Republic of Kenya, (1964). Kenya Education Commission Report. Nairobi: Government
Printer.
10. Society for International Development (SID) (2010). Kenya Vision 2030: An audit from
an income and gender inequalities perspective. Nairobi: SID.
11. Wamahiu, S.P. Opondo,F.A. and Nyaga, G. (1992).Educational Situation of the Kenyan
Girl Child. Nairobi: Educational Research Network in Kenya.
12. World Bank, 2008. World Development Report, 2008. New York, Oxford University
Press.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN EDUCATION

Definition. Contemporary issues in education are current, emerging, and ongoing challenges,
debates, or developments that affect how education is planned, delivered, accessed, and
experienced in today’s society.

They are the problems and changes shaping education right now.

Causes of contemporary issues in education.

Contemporary issues in education are multifaceted and can stem from
various sources. Some of the key causes include:
1. Funding. Inadequate funding or unequal distribution of resources can lead
to disparities in educational quality among different schools in different
counties. This can result in lower student achievement, lack of access to
necessary resources, and limited extracurricular opportunities. Banding in
funding in Higher education.
2. Equity and access. Disparities in access to quality education based on
socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or geographic location continue to
be a significant issue. This includes issues such as the digital divide,
where students from low-income families may lack access to technology
and internet connectivity for remote learning.
3. Standardized testing. The emphasis on standardized testing in education
can lead to a narrow focus on test preparation at the expense of a well-
rounded education. Critics argue that high-stakes testing exacerbates
inequalities and fails to adequately measure students' true abilities and
potential. Eg. Education system that put emphasis on national
examination at the expense of skills acquisition.
4. Teacher shortage and quality. Many regions are facing shortages of
qualified teachers, particularly in high-demand subjects such as STEM
(science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and special
education. Additionally, retaining experienced teachers can be challenging
due to factors such as low salaries, inadequate support, and high levels of
stress and burnout.
5. Technology integration. While technology has the potential to enhance
learning experiences, its integration into education comes with challenges
such as ensuring equitable access, addressing concerns about screen time
and digital distractions, and providing adequate training for educators to
effectively utilize technology in the classroom.
6. Diversity and inclusion. Schools are increasingly diverse in terms of
students' backgrounds, cultures, languages, and learning needs.
Educators must address issues related to cultural competency, inclusivity,
and creating safe and supportive environments for all students.
7. Mental health wellbeing. Mental health issues among students, including
anxiety, depression, and stress, have become a growing concern
 in education. Schools are grappling with how to support students' mental
health needs while also providing academic instruction. Issues to do stress
management and emotional stability
8. Educational policy and reforms. Constant changes in educational policies
and reform efforts can create instability and uncertainty within the
education system. Conflicting priorities and approaches from policymakers
can make it difficult for educators to implement effective strategies and
initiatives. Eg. The introduction of CBE in Kenya to replace 8.4.4
9. Parental and community involvement in education. Engaging parents and
communities in the education process is crucial for student success.
However, factors such as socioeconomic disparities, language barriers,
and lack of parental involvement can hinder efforts to build strong
partnerships between schools, families, and communities.
Addressing these contemporary issues requires collaboration among
policymakers, educators, parents, communities, and other stakeholders to
implement comprehensive strategies that prioritize equity, quality, and
student well-being in education.

National goals of education in Kenya

National goals of education in Kenya
1. Foster nationalism and patriotism and promote national unity. Kenya’s people
belong to different communities, races and religions, but these differences need not
divide them. They must be able to live and interact as Kenyans. It is a paramount duty of
education to help young people acquire this sense of nationhood by removing conflicts
and promoting positive attitudes of mutual respect which enable them to live together in
harmony and foster patriotism in order to make a positive contribution to the life of the
nation.
2. Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development. Education should prepare the youth of the country to play an effective and
productive role in the life of the nation.
 Social Needs Education in Kenya must prepare children for changes in attitudes and
relationships which are necessary for the smooth progress of a rapidly developing
modern economy. There is bound to be a silent social revolution following in the
wake of rapid modernization. Education should assist our youth to adapt to this
change.
 Economic Needs Education in Kenya should produce citizens with the skills,
knowledge, expertise and personal qualities that are required to support a growing
economy. Kenya is building up a modern and independent economy which is in need
of an adequate and relevant domestic workforce.
 Technological and Industrial Needs Education in Kenya should provide learners
with the necessary skills and attitudes for industrial development. Kenya recognizes
the rapid industrial and technological changes taking place, especially in the
developed world. We can only be part of this development if our education system is
 deliberately focused on the knowledge, skills and attitudes that will prepare our
young people for these changing global trends.
3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment Education should provide
opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents and personality. It should
help children to develop their potential interests and abilities. A vital aspect of individual
development is the building of character.
4. Promote sound moral and religious values. Education should provide for the
development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enhance the acquisition of sound
moral values and help children to grow up into self-disciplined, self-reliant and integrated
citizens.
5. Promote social equality and responsibility. Education should promote social equality
and foster a sense of social responsibility within an education system which provides
equal educational opportunities for all. It should give all children varied and challenging
opportunities for collective activities and corporate social service irrespective of gender,
ability or geographical environment.
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures. Education
should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultures and
their valid place in contemporary society. Children should be able to blend the best of
traditional values with the changing requirements that must follow rapid development in
order to build a stable and modern society.
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations. Kenya is part of the international community. It is part of the complicated and
interdependent network of peoples and nations. Education should therefore lead the youth
of the country to accept membership of this international community with all the
obligations and responsibilities, rights and benefits that this membership entails.
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental
protection. Education should inculcate in young people the value of good health in order
for them to avoid indulging in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health. It
should foster positive attitudes towards environmental development and conservation. It
should lead the youth of Kenya to appreciate the need for a healthy environment.

1. Rationale for studying contemporary issues in education.

Contemporary issues are the current issues affecting education sector in Kenya and the
world. Eg. ICT in teaching, curriculum reforms etc.

1. Relevance. Understanding current issues in education ensures that educators,

policymakers, and stakeholders are addressing the most pressing concerns faced by the
education system today. This relevance ensures that educational practices remain
effective and responsive to the needs of students and society.
2. Innovation and improvement. By examining contemporary issues, educators can identify
areas for improvement and innovation within the education system. This may involve
implementing new teaching strategies, adopting emerging technologies, or developing
policies to address current challenges.
 3. Equity and inclusion. Contemporary issues in education often revolve around issues of
equity, diversity, and inclusion. Studying these issues helps educators recognize and
address systemic inequalities within the education system, ensuring that all students have
access to quality education regardless of their background or circumstances.
4. Global perspective. Education is influenced by global trends and developments. Studying
contemporary issues allows educators to gain insights into international best practices,
global challenges, and cross-cultural perspectives, enabling them to prepare students for
an increasingly interconnected world.
5. Professional development. Keeping abreast of contemporary issues in education is
essential for professional development. Educators who stay informed about current
research, policies, and trends are better equipped to adapt their teaching methods,
curriculum, and classroom practices to meet the evolving needs of students.
6. Policy implication. Education policies are often shaped by current issues and debates.
Studying contemporary issues in education helps policymakers make informed decisions
about resource allocation, curriculum development, and educational reform initiatives,
leading to more effective and equitable education systems
7. Preparation for future. By studying contemporary issues, educators can anticipate future
challenges and trends in education. This proactive approach allows them to develop
strategies and interventions to address emerging issues and prepare students for the
demands of the future workforce and society
In summary studying contemporary issues in education is essential for ensuring
relevance, promoting innovation and improvement, addressing equity and inclusion,
gaining a global perspective, supporting professional development, informing policy
decisions, and preparing for the future of education.

2. Gender and education.

Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed.
This includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy, as
well as relationships with each other.
Recent decades have seen a shift in the policy discussion of gender and education away from a
focus on female disadvantage towards a concern with male under achievement. It is mainly
concerned with a discussion of the factors shaping gender differences in educational achievement
and field of study. It is not intended to imply that these are the only outcomes of concern.

Between-school differences. Research findings have been somewhat inconsistent in relation to

between-school variation in the gender gap in academic achievement. More recent evidence
suggests that, while there may be some variation across schools, there are hardly any secondary
schools where boys make more progress than their female counterparts.
Gender mix within schools is one of the major studies of education. Do Mixed-gender schools
perform better than single sex schools? Or there are negative impact on educational outcomes.
Teaching students within single-sex classes within mixed-sex schools has recently emerged as a
strategy to combat male underachievement and/or to encourage girls’ confidence in particular
subject areas.
GENDER THEORIES.
Gender- roles associated to either male or female and sex. Physiological orientation of
male and female.
FEMINIST THEORY
Feminism is an interdisciplinary approach to issues of equality and equity based on gender,
gender expression, gender identity, sex, and sexuality as understood through social theories
and political activism. Feminist theory now aims to interrogate inequalities and inequities along
the intersectional lines of ability, class, gender, race, sex, and sexuality, and feminists seek to
effect change in areas where these inter sectionality create power inequity. Feminist Theory has
several issues:
1. To understand the power differential between men and women.
2. To understand women’s oppression—how it evolved, how it changes over time, how it is
related to other forms of oppression
3. How to overcome oppression.
4. Physical Violence: Kicking, punching, choking, burning, stabbing, pouring boiled water,
setting on fire, homicide, gunshot…etc.
5. Psychological violence / mental harm: - Repeated verbal abuse - Spitting on. - Confinement
and deprivation of physical, financial and personal resources. - Constant humiliation.
6. Sexual Violence: - Coerced sex through threats, intimidation or physical force. - Rape (Forced
unwelcome sex). - Abduction

Patterns of inequalities
1. Inequalities in political power and representation: Women are often underrepresented in
formal decision-making structures, including governments, community councils, and policy-
making institutions.
2. Inequalities in economic participation and opportunities: In most countries, women and
men are distributed differently across sectors. Women are receiving lower wages for similar
work, are more likely to be in low-paid jobs and unsecured work (part-time, temporary, and
home-based) and are likely to have less access than men to productive assets
such as education, skills, property and credit.
3. Educational attainment: In most countries women have lower literacy rate, lower level of
enrolment in primary, secondary and tertiary education.
4. Sexual and domestic violence: Women tend to be more often victims in a form a domestic
violence by woman’s
intimate partner, sexual exploitation through trafficking and sex trade, in wars by an enemy army
as a weapon of
attempted ‘ethnic cleansing’ etc.
5. Differences in legal status and entitlements: There are many instances in which equal rights
to personal status, security, land, inheritance and employment opportunities are denied to women
by law or practice.
Significance of gender studies to prospective teachers.
a) It developed understandings about issues of gender equity
b) Are aware of gender equity factors that impact on teaching and learning
c) Ensure both male and female students are valued equally and have access and equity
in all aspects of education
d) Are able to ensure that the curriculum reflects the interests, knowledge and
contributions of girls and women as well as those of boys and men
e) Recognize difference among students and are willing to explore and appreciate
diversity
f) Have developed knowledge and skills that will enable them to teach a gender inclusive
curriculum through a range of strategies
g) Developed attitudes and behaviors which promote social responsibility, empathy1,
sensitivity and equal and non-violent relationships.

Ways of correcting gender biasness

a) Curriculum content
A gender inclusive curriculum takes into account several notions and so is important in
schooling. Teachers need to treat all students fairly and with respect, and encourage all
students, both girls and boys, to take part in a wide range of activities. Teachers who use
a gender inclusive curriculum provide opportunities for all students to reach their full
potential. To begin with teachers can look at the content of curriculum materials. The
content needs to be equally representative of women and men. Curriculum content needs
to recognize and value the experiences of women as well as that of men. Many of the
older texts and curriculum used is schools do not have information about what
women and girls have done. The contributions and the significant role that women have
played are often not included in these texts. Curriculum materials have also often shown
women in stereotypical roles or have left them out completely. This is not a true
reflection of society where women make up fifty percent of the population.
b) Language that stereotypes.
Language can be used to stereotype people. Stereotype means to have an idea about a
group of people which is applied to every member of the group whether they fit or
 not. Stereotypes can be positive, but they are usually too simple to be true, and are
often quite wrong. An example of this could be - men are strong and women are
weak. Is this true of all men and of all women? Statements like this lead to people
sex-stereotyping people. This means making unreasonable guesses that certain
qualities are characteristic of all members of one sex. An example of this is the idea
that ‘all men are rational, mathematically inclined and aggressive’ where as ‘all
females are intuitive, artistic and passive’. Is this true of all men and of all women?
c) Use of language
Language plays a crucial role in the construction of gender. Language can be use to
discriminate positively or negatively between men and women. Language can
construct understandings of attitudes and behaviours that are masculine and feminine.
One of the first things educators need to look at is language. The language of English
can be used in sexist ways because it is able to do two things
• It excludes women
• It treats men and women unequally
Research has shown that children under the age of eleven are unable to make sense of
such generic terms as ‘man’ to include women or ‘he’ to mean both male and female.
Language is not trivial or harmless. Language shapes the way we think. A language
that uses mostly male pronouns and male terms, such as he, his or man to include
both men and women is not a democratic language. It is not the language of a
democratic society. Sexist language is inaccurate and misleading. Using such words
as manpower, headmaster, chairman, man-made are sexist and exclusive - they
exclude half the human race.
d) Access and equity
Access and equity ensures that all students, but especially girls, have real access to
education. This includes access to resources which include teacher time, space in
classroom and play ground, equipment, and opportunities.
Some strategies include using a range of teaching and learning situations including
cooperative learning, modelling non-sexist language, monitoring stereotypical texts
and resources, as well as classroom interactions all the time, and choosing resources
and curriculum that are inclusive of girl’s as well as boy’s interests

3. Issues in Adult school, and continuing education KUMBARU

What is adult education?

Adult education is education aimed at mature students that have already taken part in the
workforce. Learning as a mature student gives individuals the chance to gain new skills and
expand their knowledge. Adult education can take many forms and cover many different
subjects. As well as literacy and numeracy, many mature aged students study languages, sciences
and a range of other important subjects. Adult Education is an educational activity relatively planned and
purposefully organized for people, irrespective of their age, location, and socio-economic background, who desire
the need to learn in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems.
What are the advantages of adult education?
There are numerous advantages to adult education. Learning after secondary school as a mature
aged student allows adults to develop valuable skills to improve career prospects and expand
their professional knowledge.

Developing literacy and numeracy skills in adulthood also gives individuals a better ability to
reach their full potential. Many adult students gain additional confidence in their academic skills
after pursuing adult education.

Finally, adult education teaches students valuable skills that can be put into action in a wide
range of situations. The confidence and aptitude gained with adult education is valuable both in
and out of the workplace.

Continuing Education: A term arising from a radical shift of emphasis for the
post-school sector, it disintegrates the boundaries between education and
training, or between vocational and general adult education in a comprehensive,
integrated system of “continuing education”. The term emphasizes a vocation as
integrated within adult education, rather than as separate from it. This is the
unique feature of the more contemporary ““continuing professional development”
which has moved beyond the narrow boundaries of the earlier “continuing
education”.

The philosophical principles of andragogy PEDAGOGY, are as follows (Knowles, M., 1990):
 People have a natural inclination toward learning, which will flourish if nurturing
and encouraging environments are provided
 The role of the teacher is of a facilitator
 The teacher herself is also a recipient of knowledge
 The content and result of learning is as valuable as is the process and journey of
learning
The theory of andragogy was developed by Malcolm Shepard Knowles, often considered the
central figure in American adult education in the second half of the 20th century (Smith, 2002).
Knowles wrote the first major accounts of informal adult education, as well as the history of
adult education in America. However, it is his theory of andragogy that is considered his most
important contribution.
Adult and Continuing Education Programmes (ACE) play a very crucial role in the development
aspect of any society. They are widely recognized as a powerful tool for eradicating adult
illiteracy, reducing poverty and attaining the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

They provide basic Education and training opportunities to adults and out of school youth, aged
fifteen years and above, who have either missed out on formal education in their childhood or for
one reason or another, dropped out of school before attaining sustainable levels.

The Characteristics of Adult Education

The Characteristics of Adult Education have been classified into the following:

1. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must be EDUCATIONAL IN

NATURE. A Programme or activity is said to be educational if it leads to increase in knowledge,
brings about a positive attitudinal formation, and is capable of ensuring a change in behaviour of people.

2. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must be RELATIVELY PLANNED
AND ORGANISED. Any programme or activity that is casually and haphazardly planned and not
systematically organised cannot be classified as adult education. Adult education programmes must be
consciously planned and systematically organised putting into practice all the known principles of
programme planning and organisation.

3. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must aim at achieving A Goal or an
Objective and must be purposefully directed. Adult education programmes are usually organised
for accomplishing a well-articulated purpose or for achieving a goal or an objective. In fact, the goal(s) or
the objective(s) must be clearly stated at the commencement of the programme. If there is no goal or
objective to be achieved, therefore, such programme is not adult education. Hence, adult education is
purposefully driven.

4. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must be directed at those considered as
ADULTS in their society. The definition of adult here differs from society to society. For example, in the
western world, someone is considered as an adult if he or she has attained the constitutional age of 18 or 21, as the
case may be, and where he or she is legally qualified to vote and be voted for.

5. Any programme or activity called adult education IS USUALLY, BUT NOT ALWAYS,
ORGANISED ON PART TIME BASIS. Most adult education programmes are usually
secondary in nature to the primary or main activity of the recipients or beneficiaries. However, some adult
education programmes are increasingly being organised on full-time basis in the present world. Examples
of such programmes include: university formal adult education, vocational and skill entrepreneurship
education/training, among others.
 6. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must be CHARACTERISED BY
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION OF THE LEARNERS. Beneficiaries or participants usually
enrolls to participate in one adult education programme or the other on their free will without being forced
or coerced to enrolls and participate in such programme. In adult education, the use of force, threat,
coercion, or sanctions are not allowed, permitted, or encouraged when dealing with the people. 7.

7. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must be NEEDS-DETERMINED OR

NEEDS-ORIENTED. Every participant in adult education programme usually enrols to participate
because of a need he or she lacks and which he or she wants to fulfill. If there is no need(s) to be fulfilled
or achieved, there will be no justification for the existence of adult education.

8. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must be PROBLEM SOLVING IN
NATURE.
Adult education is usually referred to as problem-solving discipline. This is because every adult education
programme is usually organised to solve one problem or the other confronting people in the society.

9. For any programme or activity to be called adult education, it must be SITUATIONALLY

RELEVANT. Adult education programmes are organised to solve specific problem(s) of a specific
period or situation. Adult Education programmes are designed to help people to solve problem(s) of today
and not tomorrow. In other words, adult education is not meant to prepare people for future endeavours,
like the formal school system, but present endeavours or human problems.

Challenges facing the implementation of Adult Education in Kenya

1. Poor leadership and funding as well as attitude to low learning achievement levels among
the affected learners.
2. Unreliable data
3. Social factors discourage some adults from attending classes
4. Some learners drop out because of language barrier due to ethnicity or dialects
5. Inadequate capitation grants for instructional material

Principles of Effective instruction of adult education.

1. Vary instructional methods-

A good facilitator or an instructor is expected to vary the methods he use during the teaching and learning
process. He should not stick or adhere to one method; rather he should combine many methods as much
as possible.
2. Actively involve the learners-
A good facilitator must also actively involve the learners in all spheres of the learning; such as content
design, methods, assessment procedures, etc.
3. Empower the learners-
 A good facilitator must also empower the learners to see the learning as theirs.

4. Work toward achievable learning outcomes- A good facilitator must make sure that the
ultimate goal of the teaching and learning process is the achievement of the learning outcomes as
stated before the commencement of the learning programme.
5. Provide adequate resources and motivation- A good facilitator must ensure that resources are
sufficiently made available to aid the teaching and learning process. He must also ensure that learners
are effectively motivated to show interest in the learning programme.

6. Focus on learners rather than the content- A good facilitator must pay more attention to the
learners needs, interests, and desires than the content of the learning programme. While the
achievement of the content outcome is important, the learners who are expected to learn this content
are more important.

7. Self-assess and assess learners’ progress frequently- A good facilitator must engage in
frequent assessment of the learners in order to measure the progress they are making in their learning
as well as to find out their weaknesses which must be worked upon. 8.
8. Evaluate learners based on learning outcomes- A good facilitator must ensure that the
intermittent evaluation of the learners must be based on the earlier stated learning outcomes and not
on anything else.
9. Maintain flexibility- A good facilitator must be flexible in all spheres of his dealing with the adult
learners. He must be ready to accommodate new and fresh ideas either coming from himself or the
learners. He must remember that flexibility is the hallmark of successful people.

Challenges facing adult education in Kenya.

1. Low Participation and Enrolment
Many adults do not enroll due to work commitments, family responsibilities, and time
constraints.
Low motivation among adults who associate schooling with failure or stigma from earlier
educational experiences.
2. Inadequate Funding
Adult and Continuing Education (ACE) receives less government funding compared to formal
basic and higher education.
Learning centers often lack teaching materials, furniture, and infrastructure.
Heavy reliance on donor funding, which is often inconsistent.
3. Shortage of Trained Adult Educators
Limited number of teachers trained specifically in adult education methodologies.
Some instructors apply pedagogical (child-centered) approaches instead of andragogical (adult-
centered) methods, reducing learning effectiveness.
4. Irrelevant or Outdated Curriculum
Some programs do not adequately address practical life skills, employability, or local
community needs.
Curriculum may fail to integrate entrepreneurship, digital literacy, and financial skills
relevant to modern society.
5. Poor Learning Facilities
Many adult education centers operate in temporary structures, churches, or unused classrooms.
Inadequate access to libraries, ICT facilities, and learning resources.
6. High Dropout Rates
Adult learners often drop out due to:
Financial challenges
Migration for work
Health and family issues
Lack of flexible learning schedules discourages continuity.
7. Gender Disparities
Women face additional challenges such as:
Domestic responsibilities
Cultural practices and gender norms
Early marriage and childcare duties
This leads to lower female participation in some regions.
8. Limited Use of ICT and Digital Divide
Although online and distance learning is expanding, many adult learners lack:
Access to digital devices
Internet connectivity
Digital literacy skills
This limits participation in e-learning and blended learning programs.
9. Negative Attitudes and Social Stigma
Adult learners may face ridicule or lack of support from family and community members.
Adult education is sometimes perceived as less valuable than formal schooling.
10. Weak Policy Implementation and Coordination
While policies exist, implementation is inconsistent across counties.
Poor coordination among:
National government
County governments
NGOs and community-based organizations
11. Certification and Recognition Challenges
Certificates from adult education programs are sometimes not well recognized in the job market.
Limited pathways for adult learners to transition into formal education or higher training.
12. Regional and Socioeconomic Inequalities
Marginalized areas (e.g., ASAL regions) experience:
Fewer learning centers
Teacher shortages
Low enrolment
Poverty remains a major barrier to participation.

4. Issues in Competency-Based Education (CBE) in Kenya

Competency-Based Education (CBE) is an education approach that focuses on what learners can
actually do (knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes) rather than how long they spend in class or
how much content they memorize.
Challenges facing CBE in Kenya.
1. Inadequate Teacher Preparation and Training
Many teachers were trained under the 8-4-4 system and struggle to shift to learner-centered,
competency-based approaches.
In-service training is often short, rushed, and theory-oriented, limiting practical classroom
application.
2. Increased Teacher Workload
CBE requires continuous assessment, learner portfolios, observation records, and individualized
feedback.
Large class sizes make effective assessment and documentation difficult, leading to teacher
burnout.
3. Assessment Challenges
Continuous assessment is:
Time-consuming
Difficult to standardize
Prone to subjectivity
Teachers and parents sometimes lack clarity on how competencies are measured and graded.
4. Inadequate Learning Resources
Shortage of:
Textbooks aligned to CBE
ICT tools and digital content
Practical learning materials
Rural and marginalized schools are more affected, widening inequality.
5. Infrastructure Constraints
Many schools lack:
Workshops and laboratories
Adequate classrooms
Playgrounds and creative spaces required for talent development
This limits experiential and practical learning, which CBE emphasizes.
6. Parental and Community Resistance
Some parents:
Do not understand CBE concepts
View it as expensive and demanding
High expectations placed on parents to provide learning materials and support at home.
7. Cost Implications
CBE implementation involves:
Purchase of learning materials
Digital devices
Project and activity costs
This places a financial burden on parents, especially low-income households.
8. Inequality Between Schools
Private and urban schools adapt faster due to better resources.
Public and rural schools lag behind, creating inequitable learning outcomes.
9. Limited ICT Integration
Despite emphasis on digital literacy:
Many schools lack internet access
Teachers and learners have limited digital skills
The digital divide undermines effective CBE delivery.
10. Policy and Implementation Gaps
Frequent reforms and transitions create confusion and resistance.
Limited coordination between:
National government
County governments
Schools and training institutions
11. Curriculum Overload
Teachers report too many learning areas and competencies, making coverage difficult.
Learners may experience fatigue and superficial mastery of skills.
12. Transition and Certification Uncertainty
Unclear pathways for:
Junior Secondary to Senior School
Alignment with tertiary education and labor market needs
Concerns about recognition and comparability of CBE outcomes.
5. CAT 1 TERM PAPER. DATE OF SUBMISISON. 28th MARCH 2026.
Instructions: a) FORM A GROUP OF 10 MEMBERS.
b) Group 1 to research on question ONE and any other Three questions.
Group 2 to research on question TWO and any other Three question. In that pattern.
c) Send the completed research in PDF clearly indicating your name and reg
[Link] email: langat.gilberd1@[Link]
1. Examine the major challenges facing the implementation of ECDE in Kenya under the
devolved system of government.
2. Analyze the impact of inadequate funding on the quality of ECDE programs in public
learning centers.
3. Discuss the role of teacher training and professional development in improving ECDE
outcomes in Kenya.
4. Evaluate the effects of socioeconomic disparities on access to and participation in ECDE.
5. Assess the influence of parental involvement on children’s learning and development at
the ECDE level.

6. Discuss the contemporary challenges affecting the implementation of Competency-Based

Education (CBE) in Kenyan primary schools.
7. Examine how teacher workload and large class sizes affect learner assessment under
CBE.
8. Analyze the impact of learning resource inadequacy on academic achievement in public
primary schools.
9. Evaluate the role of ICT integration in enhancing teaching and learning in primary
education.
10. Discuss the influence of home environment and parental support on learners’ academic
success at the primary level.

11. Examine the major issues facing the transition from primary to secondary education in
Kenya.
12. Analyze the challenges associated with student discipline and indiscipline in secondary
schools.
13. Discuss the effects of teacher shortages and subject imbalances on curriculum
implementation in secondary education.
14. Evaluate the impact of examination pressure and academic competition on students’
wellbeing and performance.
15. Assess the influence of school infrastructure and learning environment on academic
outcomes in secondary schools.

16. Discuss the relevance of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in
addressing youth unemployment in Kenya.
17. Examine the challenges facing enrolment and retention in tertiary education institutions.
18. Analyze the adequacy of training facilities and equipment in TVET institutions.
19. Evaluate the role of industry–institution linkages in improving the quality of tertiary
education.
20. Assess the impact of societal attitudes toward TVET on student participation and career
choices.

21. Examine the contemporary challenges facing public universities in Kenya in the
provision of quality education.
22. Discuss the effects of increasing student enrolment on teaching, learning, and
infrastructure in universities.
23. Analyze the impact of academic staff shortages and workload on research productivity
and teaching quality.
24. Evaluate the role of ICT and digital learning platforms in expanding access to university
education.
25. Examine the challenges of graduate unemployment and the relevance of university
curricula to the labor market.

26. Discuss the rationale behind the introduction of the banding model of financing higher
education in Kenya.
27. Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the banding system in promoting equity and
access to university education in Kenya.
28. Examine the challenges faced by students in accessing government loans and
scholarships under the new financing framework.
29. Evaluate the impact of cost-sharing policies on students from low-income households in
higher education.
30. Assess the sustainability of current higher education financing mechanisms in supporting
quality and inclusive university education in Kenya.