Faculty of Educational and Behavioral science

Department of Special Needs and Inclusive Education

Research Methods in Special Needs and inclusive Education

SNIE-3111

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 Unit One

1. Fundamentals of Research

Unit objectives: At the end of this unit students will be able to:
 Identify different sources of knowledge
 Understand the meaning of research
 Know goals of research
 Understand characteristics of research
 Identify different types of research
Introduction

Research has moved during this century from the periphery to the center of our social and
economic life. Most of us recognize that the progress which has been made in our society has been
largely the result of research.

1.1. Sources of knowledge

Where knowledge can be obtained?

The followings are some of the major sources of knowledge:

1. Perception — that which can be perceived through the experiences of the senses. The view
that experience is the primary source of knowledge is called empiricism.
2. Reason — Reason can be considered a source of knowledge, either by deducing truths
from existing knowledge, or by learning things a priori, discovering necessary truths (such
as mathematical truths) through pure reason. The view that reason is the primary source of
knowledge is called rationalism

3. Testimony — Testimony relies on others to acquire knowledge and communicate it to us.

Some deny that testimony can be a source of knowledge, and insist that beliefs gained
through testimony must be verified in order to be knowledge.

4. Authority: government leaders, family leaders, religious leaders, bosses etc can be sources
of knowledge. In addition to the aforementioned source of knowledge ;
Culture, Observation, Reading, Experts, Science or research, Discussion, Experience and others
are source of knowledge.
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1.2. Meaning and goals of research

Discuss the following questions with your friends

Discuss the following questions with your friends
What is research?
What is research?
How is research different from other sources of knowledge?
How is research different from other sources of knowledge?
Why we carryout research?
Why we carryout research?

Activity: What makes research unique from

other sources of knowledge?

1.2.1. Meaning of research

The term ‘research’ consists of two words i.e. Re + search ‘Re’ means again and again and

‘Search’ means to find out something. Therefore,

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an
art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the
meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.
Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge. Some people
consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a
voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown
confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller
understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness/curiosity is the mother of all knowledge and the
method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed
as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions

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and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.
It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short,
the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem
is research.
The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research.
As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.
Possible definitions of research

1. Research is a process in which a person observes the phenomena again and again and collects
the data and on the basis of data he/ she draw some conclusions (Sharma, 2000).

2. Research is a course of study of finding out solutions to a certain research problem by applying
systematic methods and procedures through generating verifiable data (Long and Heiss, 1991).

3. Research is the process of identifying and stating the problem, stating hypothesis which are
tentative solutions to the problem, collecting, analyzing and interpreting available and relevant
data, and finally drawing conclusion which is solution of the problem (Best and Kahn, 1993). Its
main concern is the development of knowledge and betterment of life.

4. Research is a systematic attempt to obtain answers to meaningful question/s about phenomena

or events through the application of scientific procedures (Koul, 1996).

5. Generally, research is a systematic and scientific ways of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting
data to reach sound, reliable, and valid conclusions.

6. It is a careful search or inquiry, endeavor to discover new ideas by scientific study.

7. It is careful search for solution to the problems that plague and puzzle the mankind.

8. It is about exploration, discovery, and curiosity.

9. It involves a systematic process of gathering, interpreting, and reporting information.

10. Research is defined as a systematically controlled, scientific method of testing hypothesis which
focuses on the relationship of phenomena.

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 11. Research may be defined as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled
observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories,
resulting in prediction and possible control of events (Best and Kahn, 1998).

12. Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic method of inquiry (Drew,
Hardman, and Hart, 1996).

• NB: Not all answers to questions are a research.

Not all solutions to problems is a research

• Quality research is the lifeblood of any scientific discipline. Without it, disciplines would
stagnate, failing to advance their past, current limits and understanding (Wann 1997)

1.2.2. Goals of Scientific Research

The purpose/goals of research are to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which
has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
view are termed as exploratory research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Many researchers agree that the goals of scientific research are: description, prediction, and
explanation/understanding.

1. Description: refers to the procedures used to define, classify and categorize subjects and
their relationships. Descriptions allow us to establish generalizations and universals. By gathering
information on a large group of people, for instance, a researcher can describe the average member
or the average performance of a member of the specific group being studied.

Describing observations of large groups of people does not take away from the fact that there are
important differences among individuals. That is, researchers merely attempt to describe subjects

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 or events on the basis of average performance (generally speaking). Alternatively, description
allows researchers to describe a single phenomenon and or observations of a single person.

Researchers are interested in describing only things that are relevant to the study. They have no
interest in describing observations that are irrelevant to the investigation.

Prediction: In addition to developing descriptions, researchers make predictions. Descriptions of

events often provide a basis for prediction. Predictions are sometimes made in the form of
hypotheses, which are tentative, testable predictions concerning the relationships between or among
variables. A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that
researchers can measure or observe and varies among individuals or organizations studied.
Hypotheses are frequently derived from theories, or interrelated sets of concepts that explain a body
of data and make predictions. Prediction of later performance is of particular importance to
researchers. For example:
 Does eating a low-calorie diet increase chances of living longer?

 Does undergraduate GPA predict how well one will do in graduate school?

 Do high levels of intelligence predict avoidance of cognitive biases?

When a variable can be used to predict another variable or variables we can say the variables are
correlated. Correlation exists when different measures vary together, which makes it possible to
predict values of one variable by knowing values of another variable.

2. Explanation/Understanding: Arguably, the most important goal of scientific research is

explanation. Explanation is achieved when the cause or causes of a phenomenon are identified.
In order to determine cause and effect three pre-requisites are essential: co variation of events,
proper time-order sequence and the elimination of plausible alternative causes.
 Covariation of events (relationship): The variables must correlate. To determine the
relationship of two variables, it must be determined if the relationship could occur due to
chance. Lay observers are often not good judges of the presence of relationships, thus,
statistical methods are used to measure and test the existence and strength of relationships.

 Proper time-order sequence (time precedence): For 1 to cause 2, 1 must precede 2. The
cause must precede the effect.

 Elimination of plausible alternative causes (non-spuriousness, or genuine): For a

relationship between A and B to be non porous, there must not be a C that causes both A
and B such that the relationship between A and B vanishes once C is controlled.
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The most difficult condition to be met when determining cause and effect relationships is the
elimination of other plausible causes.
Generally behavioral research is conducted for the following reasons:
 To develop laws, principles, or theories
 To evaluate the methodologies, programs and practices
 To change accepted believes and ways of doing things
 To improve the quality of life

 The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting of information to answer
research questions
1.3. Characteristics of research

Brain storming Activity

What makes research different from a common work?

Not every attempt to search for answers to questions is a research. To be considered research, it
should be scientific, i.e., data gathering, analysis and interpretation should be systematic, reliable,
objective, and valid. These are some of the major points that distinguish research from other sources
of knowledge. Research has its own characteristics that include the following: objectivity,
systematic, reliability, validity, empiricism, logical reasoning, and probabilistic thinking.

a. Objectivity: To the lay person, objectivity means unbiased, open-minded, and not
subjective. As a procedure, objectivity refers to data collection and analysis procedures from
which only one meaning or interpretation can be made.
b. Empiricism: Research is characterized by a strong empirical approach. The word
empirical, to researchers, means guided by evidence obtained from systematic research
methods rather than by opinions or from authorities.
c. Logical reasoning: All research requires logical reasoning. Reasoning is a thinking
process using prescribed rules of logic, in which one proceeds from a general statement to
the specific conclusion (deduction) or from specific statements to a generalization
(induction). Both reasoning types are important in the research.
d. Systematic: Research is said to be systematic because it is a process that follows
several steps. These steps are not always sequential nor are they an orderly systematic
process. Research is more an interactive process between the researcher and the logic of the
problem, design and interpretation.
e. Validity: Validity has been defined as referring to the appropriateness,
meaningfulness, and usefulness of the specific inferences researchers make based on the
data they collect. Validation is the process of collecting evidence to support such inferences.

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 f. Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency of the research and the extent to
which studies can be replicated. It refers to the extent that data collection, analysis, and
interpretations are consistent given the same conditions.
g. Probabilistic thinking: One misconception of research is that the results are
absolute, and that conclusions are true beyond any doubt. Behavioral science and research
does not offer certainty. (Neither does natural science!). Research can never tell us that
something is so certain that no doubt exists. There is always a room for error. So, there
should be probabilistic thinking in research.

1.4. Classification of research

Research can be classified in to different types based on various criteria. The criteria used to
classify research are:

 Purpose of the research

 Designs or strategies
 The nature( type) of the research questions
 The approach of the research
 The setting in which the research is carried out and
 Time perspective

A. Based on Design: How is research studies conducted? What strategies do they follow?
Research design refers to the plan and structure of the investigation used to obtain evidence
to answer research questions. The design describes the procedures for conducting the study,
including when, from whom, where, and under what conditions the data will be obtained,
analyzed and reported. In other words, design indicates how the research is set up: what
happens to the subjects and what methods of data collection and analysis are used. Thus
design is concerned with four basic things. They are:

 The time when the research is carried out

 The nature and selection of research participants or subjects of the study

 The place where the research is conducted and

 The how of data collection, analysis and reporting or the conditions under which the
research takes place.
In short the design of the study is the blue print of the research. Based on the ways in which
research is conducted, research can be classified into the following types.

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A. Non-experimental Designs: describe something that has occurred, or examines relationships
b/n things without suggesting direct cause and effect relationships. It can be classified in to:

1. Case study
2. Correlational research
3. Survey research
4. Comparative research
5. Descriptive research
1. Case study design : Case study is an in-depth, usually longer –term, investigation of single
individual, family, group, project, institution, agency, or society for either descriptive or
hypothesis testing purpose. For example, a physician who follows up the health conditions
of a patient is performing a case study.
2. Comparative design: Comparative research is also called ex post facto design. It is used to
explore possible casual relationships among variables that cannot be manipulated by the
researcher.

Rather than manipulating what will happen to subjects, as an experimental design, the research
focuses on what has happened differently for comparable groups of subjects, then explores
whether the subjects in each group are different in some way.

Example, if you want to see the effect of malnutrition on cognitive development of children,
you may not be expected to expose children for hunger, rather what you do is, simply take
children who are from the well to do families where lack of nourishment is not a problem and
other children from poor families who are already exposed to lack of food. Then you give the
same tests for both groups.

3. Survey design: In survey r/c the investigator selects a sample of subjects and administers a
questionnaire or conducts interviews to collect data. Then, results from the sample may
generalize to the population. They are frequently used in educational research to describe
attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and other types of information.

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 4. Correlational design: It is concerned with assessing relationships b/n two or more
phenomena or variables. The relationship measured is a statement about the degree of
association b/n the variables of interest.

Example- the r/p b/n height and weight, IQ score and test achievement score are examples of
positive correlation.

On the other hand, the r/p b/n successful test performance and feeling of incompetence and b/n
absence from school and school achievement are examples of negative correlation.

5. Descriptive design: Research using a descriptive design simply describes an existing

phenomenon by using words or numbers to characterize individuals or a group. There is no
manipulation of treatments or subjects; the researcher measures things as they naturally
occur.

Example, how many times during a day does teacher Marta use negative reinforcement in her
students?

B. Experimental designs

The researcher manipulates what the subjects will experience or what is usually known as IV. In
other words, the investigator has some control over what will happen to the subjects by
systematically imposing or withholding specified conditions.

• In single group design, single group is taken and the change in the Dv is measured before,
during and after administration of the IV.

A dependent variable is an attribute or characteristic that is dependent on or influenced by the

independent variable. An independent variable is an attribute or characteristic that influences or
affects an outcome or dependent variable.

Do students who spend more instructional time in class on math have higher math scores than
students who spend less time?
Independent variable: Time on math instruction
Dependent variable: Math score
• Control group design, two groups are taken where the IV is given for one of the groups
(experimental group) but not for other (control group) and comparison is made in the behavior
of the two groups in relation to the DV.

It includes true experimental, quasi experimental and single subject designs.

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a. True experimental research-True experiments comprise the most rigorous and strong
experimental designs because of equating the groups through random assignment. In true
experiments, the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions of the
experimental variable. Individuals in the experimental group receive the experimental
treatment, whereas those in the control group do not.
b. Quasi-experimental research-Quasi-experiments include assignment, but not random
assignment of participants to groups. This is because the experimenter cannot artificially create
groups for the experiment. Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals at
random to groups or to different groups in an experiment. The random assignment of
individuals to groups (or conditions within a group) distinguishes a rigorous, “true” experiment
from an adequate, but less-than-rigorous, “quasi-experiment”. For example, studying a new
math program may require using existing fourth-grade classes and designating one as the
experimental group and one as the control group. Randomly assigning students to the two
groups would disrupt classroom learning. Because educators often use intact groups (schools,
colleges, or school districts) in experiments, quasi-experimental designs are frequently used.
c. Single-subject (group) research-In your experiment; assume that you seek to learn about the
behavior of single individuals rather than groups. You also have an opportunity to observe their
behavior over time. In these situations, single-subject experimental designs are ideal. Single-
subject research (also called N of 1 research, behavior analysis, or within-subjects research)
involves the study of single individuals, their observation over a baseline period, and the
administration of an intervention. This is followed by another observation after the intervention
to determine if the treatment affects the outcome.

Activity: Read the above types of research and discuss their advantage and disadvantages.

C. Based on the research questions: Researchers raise a number of questions that seeks
solutions. Some r/c questions pertain to current issues, others deal with past events, others
describe the situation as it naturally occurs, and still others focus on cause –effect r/ps.

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 1. Survey research: Deals with the incidence, attitudes, beliefs opinions distribution, and
relationships of educational, psychological, and sociological variables. No experimental
variables are manipulated. Rather variables are studied as they exist in a natural situation.

The nature of research questions include:

 What is the condition of….?

 What is the status of ….?
 What are the relationship b/n variables?
 Are there difference b/n two or more groups…?
2. Historical research: Historical r/c consists of studying a problem, an issue, a phenomenon,
a movement, etc that happened in the past, and information collected from the past serves as
the data to be interpreted. It consists of describing what was, rather than what is or what
affects certain variables may have on others.

3. Ethnographic research: It is an in-depth, analytical description of a specific cultural

situation, in the broad meaning of culture.

• The researcher is at the selected site for a long period of time in order to fully understand the
subjects and phenomenon being studied.
• It focuses heavily on observation, interview, document analysis, qualitative interpretation
and description.
Experimental research: is a research in which the researcher manipulated IV to see its effect on
DV. Thus, the researcher has option to determine or select IV.

C. Based on the approaches

1. Qualitative research- makes little use of numbers on statistics, but instead relies on verbal data
& subjective analysis. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving
quality.

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Types of qualitative research approach designs are the followings:
A. Case Studies
B. Ethnographic Research
C. Grounded Theory is conducted to generate a theory or schema that relates to a particular
environment.
D. Phenomenology-a phenomenological study describes the meaning for several individuals of their
lived experience of a concept or a phenomenon. Phenomenologist focus on describing what all
participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon. The basic purpose of
phenomenology is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to description of the
universal essence.
E. Narrative Research-is understood as a spoken or written text giving an account of an event/action
or series of events/actions, chronologically connected. The procedures for implementing this
research consist of focusing on studying one or two individuals, gathering data through the
collection of their stories, reporting individual experiences and chronologically ordering (or using
life course stages) the meaning of those experiences
F. Action Research - Action research has an applied focus. Similar to mixed methods research,
action research uses data collection based on either quantitative or qualitative methods or
both. However, it differs in that action research addresses a specific, practical issue and
seeks to obtain solutions to a problem. Thus, Action research designs are systematic
procedures done by teachers to gather information about, and subsequently improve, the
ways their particular educational setting operates, their teaching, and their student learning.

2. Quantitative research -involves the study of samples and populations, & relies heavily on
numerical data & statistical analysis. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount.
A. Survey Research
B. Correlational Research
C. Experimental and
D. Quasi-experimental Research
Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, Surveys, structured interviews &
and reviews of documents for types of themes observations, and reviews of records or
documents for numeric information

Primarily inductive process used to formulate theory Primarily deductive process used to test pre-
or hypotheses specified concepts, constructs, and
hypotheses that make up a theory

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 More subjective: describes a problem or condition More objective: provides observed effects
from the point of view of those experiencing it (interpreted by researchers) of a program
on a problem or condition

Text-based Number-based

More in-depth information on a few cases Less in-depth but more breadth of
information across a large number of cases

Unstructured or semi-structured response options Fixed response options

No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis

Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on Can be valid and reliable: largely depends
skill and rigor of the researcher on the measurement device or instrument
used

Time expenditure lighter on the planning end and Time expenditure heavier on the planning
heavier during the analysis phase phase and lighter on the analysis phase

Less generalizable More generalizable

3. Mixed research Approach

A mixed method is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and
qualitative methods in a single study or a series of studies to understand a research problem. The
basic assumption is that the uses of both quantitative and qualitative methods, in combination,
provide a better understanding of the research problem and question than either method by itself.
Types of Mixed Research Approach

A. Explanatory Design
An explanatory sequential mixed method design (also called a two-phase model; consists of first
collecting quantitative data and then collecting qualitative data to help explain or elaborate on the
quantitative results.
B. Exploratory sequential mixed method design
The purpose of an exploratory sequential mixed methods design involves the procedure of first
gathering qualitative data to explore a phenomenon, and then collecting quantitative data to explain
relationships found in the qualitative data. A popular application of this design is to explore a
phenomenon, identify themes, design an instrument, and subsequently test it.
In this design, the mixed method researcher emphasizes the qualitative data (QUAL) more than the
quantitative data (quan). This emphasis may occur through presenting the overarching question as
an open-ended question or discussing the qualitative results in more detail than the quantitative
results.
C. The Embedded Design

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The purpose of the embedded design is to collect quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously
or sequentially, but to have one form of data play a supportive role to the other form of data. The
reason for collecting the second form of data is that it augments or supports the primary form of
data. The supportive data may be either qualitative or quantitative, but most examples in the
literature support adding qualitative data into a quantitative design.
D. Triangulation Design
At a more complex level than the four previous designs, we have the transformative mixed methods
design. The intent of the transformative mixed method design is to use one of the four designs
(convergent, explanatory, exploratory, or embedded), but to encase the design within a
transformative framework or lens. This framework provides an orienting lens for the mixed
methods design. It informs the overall purpose of the study, the research questions, the data
collection, and the outcome of the study.
D. Based on time: research can be divided into three parts. They are:
1. Cross-sectional research: It involves looking at a behavior in different groups of subjects
who are at different ages or stages of development. Data are collected at one point in time.
Relative to others, it is relatively quick and inexpensive: the researcher finds people in
different age groups, measures the characteristics of interest, and compares the average
behavior of the age groups on those characteristics.

2. Longitudinal research: Involves studying of the same group of subjects over a period of
time. The reasoning ability of children from 3-6 years old is one example of longitudinal r/c.
3. Sequential research: Is the combination of cross sectional and longitudinal r/c.
E. Based on the research setting: Based on the setting, it can be divided into:
a. Laboratory research and
 Deliberate manipulation of independent variable, strict control of other variables
 Test cause and effect relationship
b. Field research
 Natural environment but independent variable still manipulated
 Difficulty in controlling the situation so more likelihood of extraneous variables
 Ethical problems of consent, deception, invasion of privacy
F. Based on its purpose/ goal: Research can also be classified in to:
a. Basic / fundamental/ research,
b. Evaluative research and
c. Applied research.

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 Evaluative research is conducted to assess or evaluate certain program, policy, practice or
process.
 Applied research is conducted to seek solutions for immediate practical problems. Action
research is part of an applied research and it is the current agenda to improve the class room
teaching-learning process.
Purpose of research
What is the rational of the researcher to carry out the research? What purposes can be served by
research? Consider the following topics.
1. Reproduction mechanisms of dragonfly
2. Identifying major problems of dropout students in Bahirdar town?
3. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the new English curriculum in
developing the reading skills of students.
4. What are the solutions for the disciplinary problems in Sertse Dingl
Primary school?
What do we benefit from carrying out these research problems? Can you see any importance of
these research topics? In the first case, the purpose of the research is to let us know the reproduction
mechanisms of dragonfly. This only increases our knowledge of that particular insect. What type of
research is this? Researches like this are mainly concerned with knowing, explaining, and
predicting nature and social phenomena, starts with a theory, a basic principle, or a generalization.
This type of research “is done to test theory……with little or no thought of applications of the
results of the research to practical problems (Kerlinger, 1979:283). This is called basic, pure,
theoretical, or fundamental research.
 Basic research is a type of research conducted to formulate new knowledge, develop new
theories, test theories, to predict and generalize. It is designed to add scientific knowledge
and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.
Look at the second research topic. What is the purpose of conducting this type of research? If you
said this research is conducted to find solutions to the problems dropout students encountered, that
is right. The major purpose of this research is to seek solutions for the problems that are affecting
some aspects of society, and its results are intended to be immediately useful in solving the
problem, thereby improving the conditions of society. What type of research is this? Applied
research is conducted to seek solutions for practical problems. It follows rigorous research
methodologies and the results are generalizable.
What are the major problems of drop out students? What are the solutions for their problems? The
researcher is interested in these two points. Although applied research is frequently guided by

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theory, it need not be always. its goal is to identify variables that have large impacts on the problem
of interest , or variables that can be used to predict a particular behavior. As a result, applied
research is sometimes narrower in scope than is basic research, focusing on behavior in only one or
a few situations rather than on general principles of behavior that would apply to a variety of
situations.
Now turn to the third question. A new English curriculum is under implementation. The researcher
wanted to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in the development of students reading
competence. The researcher’s intention is to answer the question,” Does the curriculum work as
intended?” what type of research is this?
In this type of research, the researcher’s interest is to find out information to make decision about
the sustainability of the program under implementation. What criteria can be used to assess the
effectiveness of a program or policy? This research, as can be seen from its nature, is said to be
evaluation research. Evaluation research assesses the merits and worth of a particular practice in
terms of the values operating at the site(s). The practice may be a program, a product, a policy, or a
process. Evaluation determines whether the practice works –that is, does it do what is intended at
the site. Its focus is on immediate practical problems that occurred at a specific situation or locality.
It is carried out mainly by practitioners at the field such as teachers, administrators, or other
educational professionals. It is less rigorous in terms of design and methodology than other
educational research.

UNIT TWO
2. PREPARATION OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
2.1. What is research proposal?

Before an attempt is made to start with a research project, a research proposal should be
compiled. For the beginner researcher, this is usually among the most difficult parts. It is,
however, the most important aspect of the research project and should be considered carefully
by the researcher. This does not only require subject knowledge, but also insight into the
problem that is going to be investigated, so as to give logic and structure to the research
envisaged. It is a systematic “blue print” that brings the focus to the preliminary planning
that will be needed. Therefore this section of the research methodology module is a guide to
write a research proposal.
Research proposal:

 Will force the researcher to think in every aspect of the research processes.
 Provide a guide to the actual condition of the study.

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  Reduces the probability of mistakes.
 Will facilitate the evaluation of the intended study.

2.2. Basic Component of Research

Proposal Title

The title should be specific and indicate the problem the research project addresses using keywords
that will be helpful in literature reviews in the future.

Abstract/Summary

The abstract is used by readers to quickly review the overall content of the paper. Journals typically
place strict word limits on abstracts, such as 200 words, making them a challenge to write. The
abstract should provide a complete synopsis of the research paper and should introduce the topic
and the specific research question, provide a statement regarding methodology and should provide a
general statement about the results and the findings. Because it is really a summary of the entire
research paper, it is often written last.

Chapter one
i. Bag round of the study
 Introduction
The introduction begins by introducing the broad overall topic and providing basic background
information. It then narrows down to the specific research question relating to this topic. It
provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper and sets up the justification for the research.

1.2. Statement

It includes a brief discussion of practical and theoretical framework which attracts the researchers’
interest to undertake the research. The research needs to show the gap that he/she going to fill about
and what makes unique his/her research proposal from other researches that had been done in the
area.

1.3. Research question

The researcher is also requested to develop hypothesis or key research questions which may show
the direction of the research. Research questions emerged from the current research’s statement of
the problem. Hypotheses and questions are linked to the speculative proposition of the problem
statement, can be inferred from the overall conceptual framework of a study, and are of critical
importance to data analysis and interpretation. In research studies, the term hypotheses imply a
derivation, within a hypothetic-deductive theoretical system, of a particular assertion or prediction.
The hypothesis is subject to test, i.e., to confirmation or rejection on empirical grounds. The term
question implies an interrogative statement that can be answered by data, which is logically related

18
to the same conceptual framework, but which does not necessarily stem from that framework
through logical deduction. Questions are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use
in quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research
and are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. A research question poses a relationship between
two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a
declarative statement of the relations between two or more variables. Deciding whether to use
questions or hypotheses depends on factors such as the purpose of the study, the nature of the
design and methodology of the research. Make a clear and careful distinction between the
dependent and independent variables and be certain they are clear to the reader. Hypotheses are thus
tentative statements that should either be acknowledged or rejected by means of research.
Because hypotheses give structure and direction to research , the following aspects should be kept
in mind when formulating a hypothesis:
1. Hypotheses can only be formulated after the researcher has gained enough knowledge
regarding the nature, extent and intensity of the problem.
2. Hypotheses should figure throughout the research process in order to give structure to
the research.
3. Hypotheses are tentative statements/solutions or explanations of the formulated problem.
Care should be taken not to over-simplify and generalize the formulation of hypotheses.
4. The research problem does not have to consist of one hypothesis only. The type of
problem area investigated, the scope of the research field are the determinate factors on
how many hypotheses will be included in the research proposal.
5. The researcher has gained enough knowledge regarding the nature, extent and
intensity of the problem.
Issues to remember: A research hypothesis is usually stated in an explanatory form, because it
indicates the expected reference of the difference between two variables. In other words it verifies
the reference that the researcher expects by means of incorporating selected research procedures.
The research hypothesis may be stated in a directional or non-directional form. A directional
hypothesis statement indicates the expected direction of results, while a non directional one
indicates no difference or no relationship.
There are two types of hypotheses: the null and the alternative.
Null hypotheses make predictions that of all possible people whom researchers might study (i.e.,
called the general population), there is no relationship between independent and dependent
variables or no difference between groups of an independent variable or a dependent variable.
An example of the application of this script might be:

19
 There is no difference between at-risk and non-at-risk students in terms of student achievement
on math test scores for third-grade students in a Woldia elementary school
Independent variable: at-risk students (members and nonmembers)
Dependent variable: student achievement test scores
Participants: third-grade students
Site: Woldia secondary school
Form and language: null indicating no difference
The two types of alternative hypotheses are directional and non-directional. In a directional
alternative hypothesis, the researcher predicts the direction of a change, a difference, or a
relationship for variables in the total population of people. A researcher selects a sample of people
from a population and predicts that the scores will be higher, better, or changed in some way. This
typical form for writing hypotheses is encountered in the literature more than any other type of
hypothesis.
An example of this script is:
 Students who participate in direct learning in four elementary schools will have higher
achievement scores than students who participate in whole-language learning.
Independent variable: learning (direct and whole language)
Dependent variable: achievement test scores
Participants: third-grade students
Research site: four elementary schools
Key indicator: directional, a prediction is implied
In a non-directional alternative hypothesis the researcher predicts a change, a difference, or a
relationship for variables in a population but does not indicate whether the direction of this
prediction will be positive or negative, or greater or less. The non-directional alternative is not as
popular as the directional alternative because the researcher does not take a stand about the
direction of the relationship of the variables.
There is a difference between varsity athletes in high school who smoke and those who do not
smoke in terms of athletic accomplishments.
In this example, the author does not state whether the difference will be positive or negative. An
analysis of the variables in this statement shows:
Independent variable: use of tobacco (smokers and nonsmokers)
Dependent variable: athletic accomplishments
Participants: varsity athletes
Sites: high schools

20
Key indicator: the words “a difference,” but the direction is not specified
Conceptual framework
Every research activity is conceptualized and will be carried out within some contextual
framework. This contextual framework is in part conceptual, in part valuation, and in part
practical (or operational), and all of these factors must typically be considered.
A conceptual framework is described as a set of broad ideas and principles taken from
relevant fields of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation. When clearly
articulated, a conceptual framework has potential usefulness as a tool to scaffold research
and, therefore, to assist a researcher to make meaning of subsequent findings. Such a
framework should be intended as a starting point for reflection about the research and its
context. The framework is a research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop
awareness and understanding of the situation under scrutiny and to communicate this

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1.4. Objectives
This section focuses on the general intention and goal of the research that researcher formulates in relation to
the issue he/she has posed. The objectives of a research delineate the ends or aim which the inquirer seeks to
bring about as a result of completing the research undertaken. An objective may be thought of as either a
solution to a problem or a step along the way toward achieving a solution; an end state to be achieved in
relation to the problem. The objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study.
Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. After statement of the primary
objective, secondary objectives may be mentioned.
Objectives should be
 simple (not complex),
 specific (not vague),
 stated in advance (not after the research is done), and
 stated using “action verbs” that are specific enough to be measured.
Commonly, research objectives are classified into general objectives and specific objectives. The general
and specific objectives are logically connected to each other and the specific objectives are commonly
considered as smaller portions of the general objectives. It is important to ascertain that the general
objective is closely related to the statement of the problem.
1.4.1. General objective

 What exactly will be studied?

General statements specifying the desired outcomes of the proposed project
1.4.2. Specific objectives
 Specific objectives statements summarizing the proposed activities and including description of the
outcomes and their assessment in measurable terms
 It identifies in greater detail the specific aims of the research project, often breaking down what is to be
accomplished into smaller logical components
 Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the problem as defined under
‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key factors that are assumed to influence or cause the problem.
They should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.

Why should research objectives be developed?

The formulation of objectives will help you to:

• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);

• Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving
the problem you have identified; and

22
 • Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases. Properly formulated objectives will facilitate
the development of your research methodology and will help to orient the collection, analysis,
interpretation and utilization of data.
Generally
Issues to remember: Keep in mind that when a proposal is evaluated, the anticipated results will be
compared to the objectives. If the objectives have not been spelled out clearly, the proposal cannot be
evaluated.
Take care that the objectives of your study:
• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
logical sequence;
• Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are going to do, where, and for
what purpose;
• Are feasible;
• Are realistic considering local conditions;
• Are phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study; and
• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated.

1.5. significance of the study

This section is about the important of the study that provides for the consumers of the research findings.
It is
 ways of establishing the importance of a study
 Showing the time lapse between earlier study and the present one
 Showing that there are gaps in the knowledge provided by previous researches and showing how the
present research will help to fill this gap and add to the quantum of the existing knowledge.
 Showing the lack of information about the problem by presenting problem
 Relating it to the existing social issues and to priority areas in the context of national development.
1.6. Delimitation of the study
It is about the scope and area coverage of the current study. It done in terms of area, sample and variables
of the study.
1.7. Limitations
Sources of limitation can be:
 Practical weakness in the methodology you adopted
 Lack of access to data
 Faulty instruments
 Sampling restrictions
 Lack of up-to-date literature in the area

23
 1.8. Definition of important terms
It is the definition of key terms/words that have been used in the study. The interest of this section is to
make readers clear about the jargon because their meaning is quite different from their dictionary
meanings.
Chapter two
ii. Review of Related Literature

The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and it relate it specifically to the
research problem. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the new idea being researched. The
review should examine the major theories related to the topic to date and their contributors. It should include
all relevant findings from credible sources, such as academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles.
Chapter three
3. Methodology of the study
The methods section will describe the research design and methodology used to complete to the study. The
general rule of thumb is that readers should be provided with enough detail to replicate the study.

3.1. Study design

3.2. Study area
3.3. Population
3.4. Samples of the study
3.5. Sampling technique
3.6. Data gathering instruments
3.7. Data analysis technique
3.8. Data collection procedures
3.9. Ethical consideration
Chapter Four
iii. Time and budget plan
4.1. Time break down
4.2. Budget break down
References
Appendix
The research paper is not complete without the list of references. This section should be an alphabetized list
of all the academic sources of information utilized in the paper. The format of the references will match the
format and style used in the paper. Common formats include APA, Ban cover MLA, Harvard and so forth.

Issues related to problem identification

Criteria for selecting a research topic:
• Relevance/Significance

24
 • Avoidance of duplication
• Urgency of data needed (timeliness)
• Feasibility of study
• Applicability of results
• Interest to the researcher
• Ethical acceptability
Evaluation of a research problem

The following questions must be answered by the researcher:

Is the topic important or significant

Is the problem researchable?
Is the problem new?
Is the problem feasible?
Feasibility includes:
 researchers competence
 Interest and enthusiasm
 Time requirement
 Financial consideration and

Administrative condition also considered.

 Date
 Equipment
 Specialized person
 Administrative facilities.

CHAPTER THREE:

LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1. Purposes of literature review
Literature review is usually a critique of the status of knowledge of a carefully defined topic. The literature
review enables a reader to gain further insights from the study.
To conduct research regarding a topic, by implication, means that the researcher has obtained sound
knowledge with regard to the research topic. It is therefore imperative that the researcher, at the time of the

25
submission of the research proposal, clearly indicates what theoretical knowledge he possesses about the
prospective research.
3.1.1. What is a literature review?
Literature review is not a compilation of every work written about a topic. It is not simply a list of sources
reviewed separately for their own merit. A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a
particular field or topic. It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what are
the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, and what methods and
methodologies are appropriate and useful. As such, it is not in itself primary research, but rather it reports
on other findings.
A literature review is an evaluative report of studies found in the literature related to your selected area. The
review should describe, summarize, evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical basis for
the research and help you determine the nature of your own research. Select a limited number of works
that are central to your area rather than trying to collect a large number of works that are not as
closely connected to your topic area.
A literature review goes beyond the search for information and includes the identification and articulation of
relationships between the literature and your field of research.
While the form of the literature review may vary with different types of studies, the basic purposes of
literature review remain constant:
 Provide a context/background /framework for the research
• Justify the research
• Ensure the research hasn't been done before (or that it is not just a "replication study")
• Show where the research fits into the existing body of knowledge
• Enable the researcher to learn from previous theory on the subject
• Illustrate how the subject has been studied previously
• Highlight flaws in previous research
• Outline gaps in previous research
• Show that the work is adding to the understanding and knowledge of the field
• Help refine, refocus or even change the topic
The stages of a literature review
Define the problem
It is important to define the problem or area which you wish to address. Having a purpose for your literature
review will narrow the scope of what you need to look out for when you read.
Carry out a search for relevant materials. Relevant materials will probably comprise a range of media:
• Books (monographs, text books, reference books);

26
• articles from journals, whether print or electronic (but make sure electronic journals have been subject to
the peer review process);
• Newspaper articles;
• Historical records;
•Commercial reports and statistical information;
•Government reports and statistical information;
• Theses and dissertations;
• Other types of information which may be relevant to your particular discipline.

Initial appraisal from raw bibliographical data:

• What are the authors’ credentials? Are they experts in the field? Are they affiliated with a reputable
organization?
• What is the date of publication is it sufficiently current or will knowledge have moved on?
• If a book, is it the latest edition?
• Is the publisher a reputable, scholarly publisher?
• If it is a journal, is it a scholarly journal peer reviewed?

Appraisal based on content analysis:

• Is the writer addressing a scholarly audience?

• Do the authors review the relevant literature?
• Do the authors write from an objective viewpoint, and are their views based on facts rather than opinions?
• If the author uses a specific design, is it sound?
• Is it primary or secondary material?
• Do the authors have a particular theoretical viewpoint?
• What is the relationship of this work to other material you have read on the same topic, does it substantiate
it or add a different perspective?
• Is the author's arguments logically organized and clear to follow?
• If the author is writing from a practice-based perspective, what are the implicationsfor practice?
How to organize a literature review
There are a number of ways of organizing a literature review. Here is one suggestion:
A. Introduction: define the topic, together with your reason for selecting the topic. You could also point out
overall trends, gaps, particular themes that emerge, etc.
B. Body: this is where you discuss your sources. Here are some ways in which you could organize your
discussion:

27
 Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time. There is little point in
doing the review by order of publication unless this shows a clear trend;
 Thematically: take particular themes in the literature;
 Methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for example, qualitative versus
quantitative approaches.
C. Conclusion: summarize the major contributions, evaluating the current position, and pointing out flaws in
methodology, gaps in the research, contradictions, and areas for further study.
Issues to remember: A literature review must do the following things:
• be organized around and related directly to the research question you are developing
• synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
• identify areas of controversy in the literature
• formulate questions that need further research
Ask yourself the following type of questions:
• What is the specific research question that my literature review helps to define?
• What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? Methodology? Policy?
Quantitative research? Qualitative research?
• What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using? What discipline am I
working in?
• How good was my information seeking? Had my research been wide enough to ensure I've found all the
relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I've
used appropriate for the length of my paper?
• Have I critically analyzed the literature I use? Do I follow through a set of concepts and questions,
comparing items to each other in the ways they deal with them? Instead of just listing and summarizing
items, do I assess them, discussing strengths and weaknesses?
• Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective?
• Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?
3.2. Sources for literature review
Literature for review includes many types of sources: professional journals, reports, scholarly books, and
monographs, government documents, dissertations, and electronic resources.
Generally source of literature review are stated her under:
Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based. They are from the time period
involved and have not been filtered through interpretation or evaluation. They are usually the first formal
appearance of results in physical, print or electronic format. They present original thinking, report a
discovery, or share new information.

28
Primary sources include:

 Literary creation: novels, short stories, poems, etc. Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils,
furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time under study); Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)
Diaries; Internet communications on email, Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail); Journal
articles published in peer-reviewed publications; Letters; Newspaper articles written at the time;
Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, marriage license, trial transcript); Patents; Photographs,
Proceedings of Meetings, conferences and symposia; Records of organizations, government agencies
(e.g. annual report, treaty, constitution, government document); Speeches; Survey Research (e.g.,
market surveys, public opinion polls);Video recordings (e.g. television programs); Works of art,
architecture, literature, and music (e.g., paintings, sculptures, musical scores, buildings, novels,
poems).

Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources. Generally, they are accounts written after
the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources. Secondary
sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence. However, what some define
as a secondary source, others define as a tertiary source. Context is everything. Examples include:

 Bibliographies (also considered tertiary); Biographical works; Commentaries, criticisms;

Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary); Histories; Literary criticism such as Journal
articles; Magazine and newspaper articles; Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography;
Textbooks (also considered tertiary); Web site (also considered primary).

Tertiary sources Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and
secondary sources.

 Almanacs; Bibliographies (also considered secondary); Chronologies; Dictionaries and

Encyclopedias (also considered secondary); Directories; Fact books; Guidebooks; Indexes, abstracts,
bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources Manuals, Textbooks (also be secondary).

3.3. Organizing the Information Collected

3.4. Preparing the reference list

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 Chapter Four

Research Design and Methodology

4.1. Characteristics of good research design

1. A study has a good research design when it is structured systematically: One of the important
characteristic of a good research is that it is structured systematically. This means that the research is
planned so that specified steps are taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the defined set of
rules. In a systematic research there is no scope of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. A study has a good research design when it is structured to be logical: Logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction (reasoning from a part to the whole) and deduction (the process of reasoning from
some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise) are of great value in carrying out a
good research. Logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision
making.
3. A study has a good research design when it is structured to be empirical: A good research deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results. Moreover, the research is
related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation.
4. A study has a good research design when it is designed such that it is replicable: A good research should
be replicable so that the research results can be verified. If a research study is replicable, it will help in
building basis for better decisions.
5. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction.
6. It reduces wastage of time and cost.
7. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization.
8. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the study
progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the study
deepens.
9. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants.
10. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits

Generally a good research design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is reported to be the best design in
scientific investigation. Similarly, a design which yields maximum information and provides an opportunity
for considering different aspects of a problem is considered to be the most appropriate efficient design. Thus
the question of a good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the

30
nature of the problem to be studied. A good research design should satisfy the following four conditions
namely objectivity, reliability, validity and generalization of the findings.

1. Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of data collection and scoring of the responses.
The research design should permit the measuring instruments which are fairly objective in which every
observer or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the same report. In other words, the
objectivity of the procedure may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to
different individuals by more than one independent observer. This ensures the objectivity of the collected
data which shall be capable of analysis and drawing generalizations.

2. Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency throughout a series of measurements. For eg: if a respondent
gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to give the same response to that item even if he is
asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to the same item, the consistency will be lost. So the
researcher should frame the items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency or reliability.

3. Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it is expected to
measure. For eg: an intelligence test conducted for measuring the I.Q should measure only the intelligence
and nothing else, and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly.

4. Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from the samples can be utilized for drawing
certain generalizations applicable to a large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a research design helps
an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has taken due care in defining the population, selecting
the sample, deriving appropriate statistical analysis etc. While preparing the research design. Thus a good
research design is one which is methodologically prepared and should ensure that:
a) The measuring instrument can yield objective, reliable and valid data.
b) The population is clearly defined.
c) Most appropriate techniques of sample selection are used to form an appropriate sample.
d) Appropriate statically analysis has been carried out, and
e) The findings of the study are capable of generalizations.

4.2. Types of research design

The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental,
experimental ,meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal and case study), research
question, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data
collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created to
seek answers to research questions.A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis

31
of data. Choice of research design reflects decisions about priorities given to the dimensions of the research
process.
There are many ways to classify research designs, but sometimes the distinction is artificial and other times
different designs are combined. Nonetheless, the list below offers a number of useful distinctions between
possible research designs.
1. Descriptive (e.g., case-study, naturalistic observation, Survey)
2. Correlational (e.g., case-control study, observational study)
3. Semi-experimental (e.g., field experiment, quasi-experiment)
4. Experimental (Experiment with random assignment)
5. Review (Literature review, Systematic review)
6. Meta-analytic (Meta-analysis)

Sometimes a distinction is made between "fixed" and "flexible" or, synonymously, "quantitative" and
"qualitative" research designs. However, fixed designs need not be quantitative, and flexible design
need not be qualitative. In fixed designs, the design of the study is fixed before the main stage of data
collection takes place. Fixed designs are normally theory driven; otherwise it is impossible to know in
advance which variables need to be controlled and measured. Often, these variables are measured
quantitatively. Flexible designs allow for more freedom during the data collection process. One reason
for using a flexible research design can be that the variable of interest is not quantitatively measurable,
such as culture. In other cases, theory might not be available before one starts the research.

In an experimental design, the researcher actively tries to change the situation, circumstances, or
experience of participants (manipulation), which may lead to a change in behavior or outcomes for the
participants of the study. The researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions, measures
the variables of interest and tries to control for confounding variables. Therefore, experiments are often
highly fixed even before the data collection starts.

In a good experimental design, a few things are of great importance. First of all, it is necessary to think
of the best way to operationalize the variables that will be measured. Therefore, it is important to
consider how the variable(s) will be measured, as well as which methods would be most appropriate to
answer the research question. In addition, the statistical analysis has to be taken into account. Thus,
the researcher should consider what the expectations of the study are as well as how to analyze this
outcome. Finally, in an experimental design the researcher must think of the practical limitations
including the availability of participants as well as how representative the participants are to the
target population. It is important to consider each of these factors before beginning the experiment.
Additionally, many researchers employ power analysis before they conduct an experiment, in order to

32
 determine how large the sample must be to find an effect of a given size with a given design at the
desired probability of making a Type I or Type II error.

Non-experimental research designs do not involve a manipulation of the situation, circumstances or

experience of the participants. Non-experimental research designs can be broadly classified into three
categories. First, relational designs, in which a range of variables is measured. These designs are also called
correlational studies, because correlational data are most often used in analysis. It is important to clarify here
that correlation does not imply causation, and rather identifies dependence of one variable on another.
Correlational designs are helpful in identifying the relation of one variable to another, and seeing the
frequency of co-occurrence in two natural groups. The second type is comparative research. These designs
compare two or more groups on one or more variable, such as the effect of gender on grades. The third type
of non-experimental research is a longitudinal design. A longitudinal design examines variables such as
performance exhibited by a group or groups over time. All the aforementioned research designs are called
fixed research design.

As Bell (1999) states “a case study approach is particularly appropriate for individual researchers because it
gives an opportunity for one aspect of a problem to be studied in some depth within a limited time scale”

Ethnographic study this type of research is involved with a group, organization, culture, or community.
Normally the researcher shares a lot of time with the group.
Grounded Theory study research is a systematic research process that works to develop "a process, and
action or an interaction about a substantive topic”. All of them are called flexible research design.
WHAT IS THE NEED FOR SAMPLING
Two researchers were interested in carrying out research on a topic: Determinants of Teachers' Decision to
Leave or to Stay in the Teaching Profession (Manna and Tesfaye, 2000).
The researchers were interested in finding out the factors that might force teachers to leave their teaching
profession or that may predict their stay in the profession. In this case, they are supposed to include
teachers of primary and secondary education. Do you think that the researchers should include all
Ethiopian teachers in their study? Is that possible to include all the teachers in their study? Is that
manageable?
Essentially, most of the educational phenomena consist of a large number of units (individuals such as
teachers, students, administrative staff, classrooms, books, chairs, buildings, etc.). Since it
would be
• Impractical,
• Impossible or
• Extremely expensive

33
 to include all members of the population. Researchers may get the required information from a few
individuals instead of taking all population members. In other words, researchers can draw precise
inferences or conclusions on all the members of the population based on a relatively small number of units
(a subset) – a sample.
4.3. Population, Sample and sampling techniques
A population is a group of individual’s persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for
measurement, for example a population of presidents or professors, books or students.
What is a sample?

In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger population
for measurement. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that we can generalize the
findings from the research sample to the population as a whole.

A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain information about the
whole (Webster, 1985). When dealing with people, it can be defined as a set/sub set of respondents (people)
selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey.
What is sampling? Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a
representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population.
What is the purpose of sampling? To draw conclusions about populations from samples, we must use
inferential statistics which enables us to determine a population`s characteristics by directly observing only
a portion (or sample) of the population. We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census) of
the population for many reasons. Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part rather than the whole, but we
should prepare ourselves to cope with the dangers of using samples. In this chapter, we will investigate
various kinds of sampling procedures. Some are better than others but all may yield samples that are
inaccurate and unreliable. We will learn how to minimize these dangers, but some potential error is the
price we must pay for the convenience and savings the samples provide.
4.3.1. Types of sampling
The purpose of sampling is to obtain a group of subjects who will be representative of the larger population
or will provide specific information needed. The degree of representativeness is based on the sampling
technique that we employed. We may then consider different types of sampling i.e. Probability and non probability
samples.
A. Probability Sampling
In social science and educational research, it is usually impractical and unnecessary to measure all the
elements in the population of interest. Typically, a relatively small number of subjects or cases are selected

34
from the larger population. The goal is to select a sample that will adequately represent the population, so
that what is described in the sample will also be true of the population.
The best procedure for selecting such a sample is to use probability sampling, a method of sampling in
which the subjects are selected randomly in such a way that the researcher knows the probability of selecting
each member of the population.
Random selection implies that each member of the population as a whole or of subgroups of the population
has an equal chance of being selected. As long as the number of cases selected is large enough, it is likely
that a very small percentage of the population, represented by the sample, will provide an accurate
description of the entire population.
It should be noted, however, that there is always some degree of error in sampling, and that error must be
considered in interpreting the results of the sample. In probability sampling this calculation can be made very
precisely with some statistical procedures. Consider a population of 1,000 third-graders, from which you will
select randomly 5 percent, or 50, to estimate the attitudes of all the third-graders toward school. If the
attitude score was 75 for the sample of 50 subjects, 75 can be used to estimate the value for the entire
population of third-graders. However, if another sample of 50 students is selected, their score might be a little
different, say 73. Which one is more correct? Since all 1,000 students have not been tested to obtain the
result we do not know for sure, but the results can be used to estimate the error in sampling.
There are many types of probability sampling procedures. You will probably encounter five types in
educational research: simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster and multi-stage.
I. Simple Random Sampling: The most widely known type of a probability sampling is the simple random
sample (SRS). In simple random sampling every member of the population has an equal and independent
chance of being selected for the sample. This is characterized by the fact that the probability of selection is
the same for every case in the population. Simple random sampling is a method of selecting n units from a
population of size N such that every possible sample of size n has equal chance of being drawn. This method
is often used with a small number in the population, example1: Putting the names or numbers of all
population members in a hat and drawing some out as the sample. If every member of the population can be
assigned a different number, a table of random numbers can identify the population members that will make
up the sample.

Example2: Imagine you want to carry out a survey of 100 voters in a small town with a population of 1,000
eligible voters. With a town this size, there are "old-fashioned" ways to draw a sample. For example, we
could write the names of all voters on a piece of paper, put all pieces of paper into a box and draw 100 tickets
at random. You shake the box, draw a piece of paper and set it aside, shake again, draw another, set it aside,
etc. until we had 100 slips of paper. These 100 form our sample. And this sample would be drawn through a

35
simple random sampling procedure - at each draw, every name in the box had the same probability of being
chosen.

In real-world social research designs that employ simple random sampling are difficult to come by. We can
imagine some situations where it might be possible - you want to interview a sample of doctors in a hospital
about work conditions. So you get a list of all the physicians that work in the hospital, write their names on a
piece of paper, and put those pieces of paper in the box, shake and draw. But in most real-world instances it
is impossible to list everything on a piece of paper and put it in a box, then randomly draw numbers until
desired sample size is reached.

This approach is not convenient if the population is large and not numbered. The most common way of
selecting a random sample from a large population is by computer. There are computer programs that will
assign numbers to each element in the population, generate the sample numbers randomly, and then print out
the names of the people corresponding to the numbers.

II. Systematic Sampling: In systematic sampling, every nth element is selected from a list of all elements in
the population, beginning with a randomly selected element. This method of sampling is at first glance very
different from SRS. In practice, it is a variant of simple random sampling that involves some listing of
elements every nth element of list is then drawn for inclusion in the sample. Procedure
1. Number the units in population from 1 to N
2. Decide on the n (sample size) that is required
3. Select an interval size k = N/n
4. Randomly select an integer between 1 to k
5. Finally, take every kth unit
Say you have a list of 10,000 people and you want a sample of 1,000. To create a sample:
1. Divide number of cases in the population by the desired sample size. In this example,
dividing 10,000 by 1,000 gives a value of 10.
2. Select a random number between one and the value attained in Step 1. In this
example, we choose a number between 1 and 10 - say we pick 7.

3. Starting with case number chosen in Step 2, take every tenth record (7, 17, 27, etc.).

If there is a need to select 100 subjects from a population of 50,000, every nth element would correspond to
every 500th subject. The first element is selected randomly.
In this example that would be some number between 1 and 500. Suppose 240 were randomly selected as a
starting point. The first subject chosen for the sample would be the 240 th name on a list; the next subject
would be the 74Oth, then the 1,24Oth, and so on until 100 subjects were selected. Systematic sampling is

36
virtually the same as simple random sampling. It is certainly much more convenient. There is a possible
weakness in systematic sampling if the list of cases in the population is arranged in a systematic pattern. For
instance, if a list of fourth-graders in a school division is arranged by classroom and students in the
classrooms are listed from high to low ability, there is a cyclical pattern in the list (referred to as periodic). If
every nth subject that is selected corresponds to the pattern, the sample would represent only a certain level of
ability and would not be representative of the population. Alphabetical lists do not usually create periodicity
and are suitable for choosing subjects systematically.
More generally, suppose that the N units in the population are ranked 1 to N in some order (e.g.,
alphabetic). To select a sample of n units, we take a unit at random, from the 1st k units and take every
k-th unit thereafter.

III. Stratified Sampling: A modification of either simple random or systematic sampling is first to
divide the population into homogeneous subgroups and then select subjects from each subgroup, using
simple random or systematic procedures, rather than the population as a whole. This is termed stratified
sampling. The strata are the subgroups. Stratified sampling is used primarily for two reasons. First, as long
as the subgroups are identified by a variable related to the dependent variable in the research (e.g.,
socioeconomic status in a study of achievement) and results in more homogeneous groups, the sample will be
more representative of the population than if taken from the population as a whole. This result reduces error
and means that a smaller sample can be chosen.

Second, stratified sampling is used to ensure that an adequate number of subjects are selected from different
subgroups. For example, if a researcher is studying beginning elementary school teachers and believes that
there may be important differences between male and female teachers, using simple random or systematic
sampling would probably not result in a sufficient number of male teachers to study the differences . It would
be necessary in this situation tint to stratify the population of teachers into male and female teachers and then
to select subjects from each subgroup. The samples can be selected in one of two ways. A proportional
stratified sample, or proportional allocation, is used when the number of subjects selected from each stratum
is based on the percentage of subjects in the population that have the characteristic used to form the stratum.
Thus, in the previous example, if 5 percent of the population of elementary teachers is male, 5 percent of the
sample would also be male teachers. A second approach is to take the same number of subjects from each
stratum, regardless of the percentage of subjects from each stratum in the population. This method is used
often because it ensures that a sufficient number of subjects will be selected from each stratum. For instance,
if only 10 percent of populations of 200 elementary teachers are male, a proportional sample of 40 would
include only 4 male teachers. To study male teachers it would be better to include all 20 male teachers in the
population for the sample and randomly select 20 female teachers. This sampling procedure is referred to as
disproportional because the number of subjects in the sample from each subgroup is not proportional to the

37
percentage of the subgroups in the population. Disproportional stratified sampling is not limited to taking the
same number of subjects from each subgroup. When disproportional sampling is used the results of each
stratum need to be weighted to estimate values for the population as a whole
IV. Cluster Sampling: When it is impossible or impractical to sample individual elements from the
population as a whole, usually when there is no exhaustive (complete) list of all the elements, cluster
sampling is used. Cluster sampling involves the random selection of naturally occurring groups or areas and
then the selection of individual elements from the chosen groups or areas. Examples of naturally occurring
groups would be universities, schools, school divisions, classrooms, city blocks, and households. For
example, if there is a need to survey a state for the television viewing habits of middle school students, it
would be cumbersome(bulkey) and difficult to select children at random from the state population of all
middle-schooners. A clustering procedure could be employed by first listing all the school divisions in the
state and then randomly selecting 30 school divisions from the list. One middle school could then be selected
from each division, and students selected randomly from each school. This is a multistage clustering
procedure. Although cluster sampling saves time and money, the results are less accurate than other random
sampling techniques

V. Multi-stage sampling: involves, combining various probability techniques in the most efficient and
effective manner as possible. The process of estimation is carried out stage by stage, using the most
appropriate methods of estimation at each stage. [Sukhatme, p262] mentions that for a given number of
elements, greater precision is attained by distributing the elements over a large number of clusters than by
taking a small number of clusters and sampling a large number of elements from each one of them.
Quite often, auxiliary information is used to improve the precision of an estimate. But, in the absence of
auxiliary information, it may be advantageous to conduct the enquiry in two phases. In the first phase,
auxiliary information is collected on the variety of a fairly large sample. Then a sub-sample is taken, and
information collected on the variety of interest. Then the two samples are used in the best possible manner to
produce an estimate for the variety of interest. The procedure of first selecting clusters and then choosing a
specified number of elements from each selected cluster is known as sub sampling. It is also known as two-
stage sampling or double sampling.
The clusters, which form the units of sampling at the first stage, are called first stage units, and the elements
or group of elements within clusters, which form the units of sampling at the second stage, are called sub-
units or second-stage units. The procedure can be easily generalized to three or more stages and hence
known as multi-stage sampling. Double sampling can be used to reduce the response bias in survey results.

B. Non probability

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In many research designs it is either unfeasible or unnecessary to obtain a probability sample. In these
situations a non probability sample is used. A non probability sample is one in which the probability of
including population elements is unknown. Usually, not every element in the population has a chance of
being selected. It is also quite common for the population to be the same as the sample, in which case there is
no immediate need to generalize to a larger population. In fact you will find that much of the educational
research reported in journals, especially experimental studies, uses a group of subject that has not been
selected from a larger population.
The non probability method of sampling is a process where probabilities cannot be assigned to the
units objectively, and hence it becomes difficult to determine the reliability of the sample results in
terms of probability.(Yamane, p3) Examples of non probability sampling used extensively in 1920’s and
1930’s are the judgment sample, quota sample, and the mail questionnaire. In non probability sampling,
often, the survey or selects a sample according to his convenience, or generality in nature. Non
probability sampling is well suited for exploratory research intended to generate new ideas that will be
systematically tested later. However, if the goal is to learn about a large population, it is imperative to avoid
judgment of non probabilistic samples in survey research. In contrast to probability sampling techniques,
there is no way of knowing the accuracy of a non-probabilistic sample estimate.

Generally the difference between non-probabilistic and probabilistic sampling is that non-probabilistic
sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Non-probabilistic samples don’t
depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or
probability that we have represented the population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the
statistic. With non-probabilistic samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often
be hard for us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random
sampling methods to non-probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous.
However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not feasible, practical or
theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of non-probabilistic
alternatives.
We can divide non-probabilistic probability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or
purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the sampling
problem with a specific plan in mind. Some of the non probability sampling types are listed here under.

I. Convenience Sampling: A convenience sample is a group of subjects selected because of availability, for
example, a university class of a professor conducting some research on college students, classrooms of
teacher enrolled in a graduate class, schools of principals in a workshop, people who decide to go to the mall
on Saturday, or people who respond to an advertisement for subjects. There is no precise way of generalizing
from a convenience sample to a population. Also, the nature of the convenience sample may bias the results.

39
For example, if the available sample for studying the impact of college is the group of alumni who return on
alumni day, their responses would probably be quite different from those of all alumni. Similarly, research on
effective teaching that depends on teachers in a particular geographic area, because they are available, may
result in different findings than research done in other geographic areas.

Although we need to be very way of convenience samples, often this is the only type of sampling possible,
and the primary purpose of the research may not be to generalize but to better understand relationships that
may exist. Suppose a researcher is investigating the relationship between creativity and intelligence, and the
only available sample is a single elementary school. The study is completed, and the results indicate a
moderate relationship: Children who have higher intelligence tend to be more creative than children with
lower intelligence. Because there was no probability sampling, should we ignore the findings or suggest that
the results are not valid or credible? That decision seems overly harsh. It is more reasonable to interpret the
results as valid for children similar to those studied. For example, if the school serves a low socioeconomic
area, the results will not be as useful as those from a school that sews all socioeconomic levels. The decision
is not to dismiss the findings but to limit them to the type of subjects in the sample. As more and more
research accumulates with different convenience samples, the overall credibility of the results is enhanced.
II. Purposive sampling: Purposive sampling (sometimes referred to as powerful, judgment or judgmental
sampling) the researcher selects particular elements from the population that will be representative or
informative about the topic. Based on the researcher’s knowledge of the population, a judgment is made
about which cases should be selected to provide the best information to address the purpose of the research .
For example, in research on effective teaching it may be most informative to observe “expert” or “master”
teachers rather than all teachers. To study effective schools it may be most informative to interview key
personnel, such as the principal and teachers who have been in the school a number of years. The use of
“selected precincts” for political polls is a type of purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is not widely used
in quantitative studies. In qualitative research, on the other hand, some type of purposive sampling is almost
always used.
III. Quota Sampling: Quota sampling is used when the researcher is unable to take a probability sample but
still wants a sample that is representative of the entire population. Different composite profiles of major
groups in the population are identified, and then subjects are selected, non-randomly, to represent each
group. A type of quota sampling that is common in educational research is conducted to represent
geographic areas or types of communities, such as urban, rural, and suburban. Typically, a state is divided
into distinct geographic areas, and cases are selected to represent each area. As in availability and purposive
sampling, there is a heavy reliance on the decisions of the researcher in selecting the sample, and appropriate
caution should be used in interpreting the result.

40
IV. Expert sampling: it involves the assembling of a sample of persons with known or demonstrable
experience and expertise in some area. Often, we convene such a sample under the auspices of a "panel of
experts." There are actually two reasons you might do expert sampling. First, it would be the best way to
elicit the views of persons who have specific expertise. In this case, expert sampling is essentially just a
specific sub case of purposive sampling. Second reason you might use expert sampling is to provide evidence
for the validity of another sampling approach you've chosen. For instance, let's say you do modal instance
sampling and are concerned that the criteria you used for defining the modal instance are subject to criticism.
You might convene an expert panel consisting of persons with acknowledged experience and insight into that
field or topic and ask them to examine your modal definitions and comment on their appropriateness and
validity. The advantage of doing this is that you aren't out on your own trying to defend your decisions -- you
have some acknowledged experts to back you. The disadvantage is that even the experts can be, and often
are, wrong.
V. Heterogeneity sampling: We sample for heterogeneity when we want to include all opinions or views, and
we aren't concerned about representing these views proportionately. Another term for this is sampling for
diversity. In many brainstorming or nominal group processes (including concept mapping), we would use
some form of heterogeneity sampling because our primary interest is in getting broad spectrum of ideas, not
identifying the "average" or "modal instance" ones. In effect, what we would like to be sampling is not
people, but ideas. We imagine that there is a universe of all possible ideas relevant to some topic and that we
want to sample this population, not the population of people who have the ideas. Clearly, in order to get all of
the ideas, and especially the "outlier" or unusual ones, we have to include a broad and diverse range of
participants. Heterogeneity sampling is, in this sense, almost the opposite of modal instance sampling.
VI. Snowball sampling: In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria
for inclusion in your study. You then ask them to recommend others who they may know who also meet the
criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative samples, there are times when it may be
the best method available. Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are trying to reach populations
that are inaccessible or hard to find. For instance, if you are studying the homeless, you are not likely to be
able to find good lists of homeless people within a specific geographical area. However, if you go to that area
and identify one or two, you may find that they know very well who the other homeless people in their
vicinity are and how you can find them.
4.6. Data gathering instrument

These are the fact finding strategies. They are the tools for data collection. They include Questionnaire,
Interview, Observation and Reading. Essentially the researcher must ensure that the instrument chosen is
valid and reliable. The validity and reliability of any research project depends to a large extent on the

41
appropriateness of the instruments. Whatever procedure one uses to collect data, it must be critically
examined to check the extent to which it is likely to give you the expected results.
4.6.1. Questionnaire: This is a data collection instrument mostly used in normative surveys. This is a
systematically prepared form or document with a set of questions deliberately designed to elicit responses
from respondents or research informants for the purpose of collecting data or information.
• It is a form of inquiry document, which contains a systematically compiled and well organized series of
questions intended to elicit the information which will provide insight into the nature of the problem under
study.
• It is a form that contains a set of questions on a topic or group of topics designed to be answered by the
respondent.
• The respondents are the population samples of the study. The answers provided by the respondents
constitute the data for the research. Questionnaires may be designed as
Structured or closed form and Unstructured, open ended form
[Link]. Structured /closed ended questionnaires
They are those in which some control or guidance is given for the answer. This may be described as closed
form because the questions are basically short, requiring the respondent to provide a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response,
or checking an item out of a list of given responses. Questions that require yes or no answers are also termed
as Dichotomous questions. It may, also be multiple choice options from which the respondent selects the
answer closer to their own opinion. The respondent's choices are limited to the set of options provided.
[Link]. Unstructured/open ended questionnaire
This type which is also termed as open-ended or unrestricted type of questionnaire calls for a free response in
the respondent's own words. The respondent frames and supplies the answer to the question raised in the
questionnaire. It also constitutes questions which give the respondent an opportunity to express his or her
opinions from a set of options. Spaces are often provided for respondents to make their inputs.

6.6.2. Interviews: Interviews become necessary when researchers feel the need to meet face-to-face with
individuals to interact and generate ideas in a discourse that borders on mutual interest. It is an interaction in
which oral questions are posed by the interviewer to elicit oral response from the interviewee. Specifically
with research interviews, the researcher has to identify a potential source of information, and structure the
interaction in a manner that will bring out relevant information from his respondent. The creation of a cordial
atmosphere is therefore vital to the success of such an interaction. Apart from face-to-face interviews, they
can also be conducted over the phone or the computer terminal via video conferencing technology.
Interviews range from formal to less formal and to completely informal interviews. There are four main
kinds of interview: (a) the structured interview; (b) the unstructured interview; (c) the non-directive
interview; and (d) the focus interview.

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[Link]. Structured Interviews: The Structured Interviews are formal because, sets of questions known as
interview questionnaire are posed to each interviewee visited and the responses are recorded on a
standardized schedule. It is therefore characterized as being a closed interview situation. In structured
interview, the interviewer follows a set pattern usually adhering as much as possible to the order of questions
on the interview questionnaire whilst posing the questions in a formal manner. Interviewers must always
ensure that the atmosphere of an interview is congenial to establish interviewer-interviewee rapport.
[Link]. Unstructured Interview: The Unstructured Interview is the less formal type in which although sets
of questions may be used, the interviewer freely modifies the sequence of questions, changes the wording
and sometimes explains them or adds to them during the interaction. Hence the researcher has to be careful in
order not to deviate from his focus. The atmosphere is often casual. This is conducted in what is
characterized as an opened situation because there is more flexibility and freedom in the interaction.
[Link]. Non-Directive Interview: The Non-Directive Interview or the unguided gives excessive freedom for
the respondent to express his or her ideas subjectively and spontaneously as she chooses or is able to. There
are no set questions in this style. It is the most appropriate type of interview to use when investigating issues
where the respondent has to be allowed to talk uninterrupted on a very broad topic which will unconsciously
reveal personal motives, feelings, attitudes etc.
[Link]. Focus Interview: Focus Interview as the name suggests, focuses on the respondent’s subjective
responses and experience on the subject matter to elicit more information. This method is used by researchers
to render the non-directive interview more interviewer control with the use of verbal cues that serve as a
stimulus to inspire respondents to volunteer more information on the subject. As the story unfolds the
researcher can hum in approval of what the respondent submits or chip in a stimulating question to encourage
the flow of the conversation.
[Link]. Transcribing: Audio-visual recordings on mediums like CD's and DVD's have become major
sources of soft data which researchers rely on during data collection. Other sources include you-tube. Such
soft data and those recorded from verbal interaction with respondents during interviews have to be
transcribed. (i.e. convert the speech sound into words as accurately as possible).
4.6.3. Observation: The study of photographs, videotapes, tape recordings, art objects, computer software
and films fall within this type of data collection procedure. The procedure should be unobtrusive to enable
informants to share their reality directly with researchers. It is creative and captures attention visually. The
presence of a photographer or the video technician may be intrusive and influence responses.
Observation is one of the very important methods for obtaining comprehensive data in qualitative research
especially when a composite of both oral and visual data become vital to the research. A researcher obviously
needs an audio-visual recorder for a complete collection of such comprehensive record. By the use of
observation strategy, researchers are able to obtain first hand information about objects, and eventful

43
happenings like durbar and festivals. The possibility of distorting facts and records are reduced to the barest
minimum.
Fine artists, industrial artists and graphic designers employ sketching as they observe nature to collect data in
design-based research. With this instrument, the researcher may become a Participant observer/Non-
participant observer.
[Link]. Participant Observer: In this type of observation the researcher lives as a member of the subjects of
the study while observing and keeping notes of the attributes of the subject that is being researched so that he
can directly experience, the phenomenon being studied. Even though he is seen by the subjects of the study,
he conceals his real identity as a researcher. By this approach the researcher gets firsthand experience with
informants. This is the type of observation which deals with covert investigation for which information may
be sensitive and informants may feel uncomfortable to disclose.
[Link]. Non-Participant Observer: In this approach the researcher does not live as a member of the
subjects of the study. The researcher watches the subjects of his or her study, with their knowledge of his
status as a researcher, but without taking an active part in the situation under study. This approach is
sometimes criticized on the grounds that the very fact of their being observed may lead people to behave
indifferently, thus invalidating the data obtained.
4.6.4. Reading of Documents: Although reading is more to do with literature review, it is also an instrument
for studying public documents such as newspapers, minutes of meetings and private documents such as
letters, biographies and diaries to enable the researcher obtain the language and words of informants who
may not be alive at the time of the research. The limitation or difficulty in this approach is that the documents
may be protected and researchers may not have access to them either because they are national security
documents or confidential documents. Letters and diaries can also be studied at both the researcher and the
informant's convenience.
4.4. Sample size determination

One of the most common questions any statistician gets asked is “How large a sample size do I need?”
Researchers are often surprised to find out that the answer depends on a number of factors and they have to
give the statistician some information before they can get an answer!

Student researchers often ask “How big should my sample be?” The first answer is “use as large a sample as
possible.”The reason is obvious: the larger the sample, the better it represents the population. But if the
sample size is too large, then the value of sampling reducing time and cost of the study is negligible. The
more common problem, however, is having too few subjects, not too many. So the more important question
is, “What’s the minimum number of subjects I need?”
The question is still difficult to answer. Here are some of the factors which relate to proper sample size.

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 Accuracy
In every measurement, there are two components: the true measure of the variable and error. The error
comes from incidental extraneous sources within each subject: degree of motivation, interest, mood,
recent events, and future expectations. All of these cause variations in test results. In all statistical analysis,
the objective is to minimize error and maximize the true measure. As the sample size increases, the random
extraneous errors tend to cancel each other out, leaving a better picture of the true measure of the population.
Cost
An increasing sample size translates directly into increasing costs: not only of money, but time as well. Just
think of the difference in printing, mailing, receiving, processing, tabulating, and analyzing
questionnaires for 100 subjects, and then for 1000 subjects. The dilemma of realistically balancing
“accuracy” (increase sample size) with “cost” (decrease sample size) confronts every researcher. Inaccurate
data is useless, but a study which cannot be completed due to lack of funds is not any better. “Cost per
subject” is directly related to the kind of study being done. Interviews are expensive in time, effort and
money. Mailing out questionnaires is much less expensive per subject. Therefore, one can plan to have a
larger sample with questionnaires than with interviews for the same cost.
The Homogeneity of the Population
“Homogeneous” [from homo-genos, “like-kind”] means “of the same kind or nature; consisting of similar
parts, or of elements of the like nature” (Webster, s.v. “homogeneous”). Homogeneity in a population means
that the members of the population are similar on the characteristic under study. We can take a sample of two
drops of water from a 10 gallon drum, and have a good representative sample of the ten gallons. This is
because the water in a 10 gallon drum is a homogeneous solution (if we mix it up well before sampling). But
if we take two people out of a group of 500, we will not have a good representative sample of the 500.
“People” are much less
Homogeneous than a water solution! But even populations of people vary in homogeneity.
Other Considerations
Borg and Gall list several additional factors which influence the decision to increase the sample size. These
are
1. When uncontrolled variables are present.
2. When you plan to break samples into subgroups.
3. When you expect high attrition of subjects.
4. When you require a high level of statistical power
So, what is a good rule of thumb for setting sample size in a research proposal?
Here are two suggestions.
Sample Size Rule of Thumb
Size of the population Sample percent

45
1-100 100
101-1000 10
1001-5,000 5
5001-10,000 3
10,000+ 1
When researchers determine a sample size the size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small
(Kothari, 2004. Krejcie and Morgan (1970). Most researchers use Krejcie and Morgan sample size determination
formula to determine their study participants. This mathematical formula can be apply at 95% confidence level
(X=1.96), population proportion (50%), and ± 3% margin of error/ confidence interval. The mathematical formula
is stated here under.

Where: n= sample size, X = the desired confidence level, N = population size, P= population proportion and ME
= desired margin of error/confidence interval. Hence, the researcher will be use 95% confidence level (X=1.96),
population proportion (50%), and ± 3% margin of error/confidence interval. If the total population of a certain
study is 615 the mathematical operation will be apply like this.
Chapter five

Ethical consideration in research

Ethics is the division in the field of philosophy that deals with values and morals. It is a topic that people
may disagree on because it is based on people's personal value systems. What one person or group considers
good or right might be considered bad or wrong by another person or group. In this chapter, we define ethics
as the principles and guidelines that help us to uphold the things we value.

There are three major approaches to ethics which are discussed in this chapter.
1. Deontological Approach - This approach states that we should identify and use a Universal code when
making ethical decisions. An action is either ethical or not ethical, without exception.
2. Ethical skepticism - This viewpoint states that concrete and inviolate ethical or moral standards cannot
be formulated. In this view, ethical standards are not universal but are relative to one's particular culture,
time, and even individual.
3. Utilitarianism - This is a very practical viewpoint, stating that decisions about the ethics should be based
on an examination and comparison of the costs and benefits that may arise from an action. Note that the
utilitarian approach is used by most people in academia (such as Institutional Review Boards) when making
decisions about research studies.
Ethical Concerns
There are three primary areas of ethical concern for researchers:

46
1. The relationship between society and science.
 Should researchers’ study what is considered important in society at a given time?
 Should the federal government and other funding agencies use grants to affect the areas researched in
a society?
 Should researchers ignore societal concerns?
2. Professional issues.
 The primary ethical concern here is fraudulent activity (fabrication or alteration of results) by
scientists. Obviously, cheating or lying is never defensible.
 Duplicate publication (publishing the same data and results in more than one journal or other
publication) should be avoided.
 Partial publication (publishing several articles from the data collected in one study). This is
allowable as long as the different publications involve different research questions and different data,
and as long as it facilitates scientific communication. Otherwise, it should be avoided.
3. Treatment of Research Participants
 This is probably the most fundamental ethical issue in the field of empirical research.
 It is essential that one insures that research participants are not harmed physically or
psychologically during the conduct of research.
 In the next section, we will go into the issue of treatment of research participants in depth.
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans
One set of guidelines specifically developed to guide research conducted by educational researchers is the
AERA Guidelines. The AERA is the largest professional association in the field of education, and is also
known as the American Educational Research Association. Here is the link to the American Educational
Research Association’s Code of Ethics: Here are some of the most important issues discussed in the chapter
(and in the AERA Guidelines).
1. Informed Consent. Potential research participants must be provided with information that enables them to
make an informed decision as to whether they want to participate in the research study.
Given the appreciation that informed consent is at the crux of human subjects’ protection, it is not
surprising that the regulations reflect extensively upon the necessary elements of the consent document itself
as well as on the informed consent process.
Components of ethically valid informed consent for research
For an informed consent to be ethically valid, the following components must be present:
A. Disclosure: The informed consent document must make clear that the study is a research study, and not
clinical therapy. The potential participant must be informed as fully as possible of the nature and
purpose of the research, the procedures to be used, the expected benefits to the participant and/or

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society, the potential of reasonably foreseeable risks, stresses, and discomforts, and alternatives to
participating in the research. There should also be a statement that describes procedures in place to ensure
the confidentiality of data and anonymity of the participant. The informed consent document must also
disclose what compensation and medical treatment are available in the case of a research-related injury. The
document should make it clear whom to contact with questions about the research study, research subjects'
rights, and in case of injury.
B. Understanding: The participant must understand what has been explained and must be given the
opportunity to ask questions and have them answered by someone fully conversant in the study
particulars. The informed consent document must be written in lay language, avoiding any technical jargon.
The potential participant must be able to read and/or understand the language in which the consent form is
written. Consent forms for multinational research must be translated into the respective language for each
participating country and back-translated to verify accuracy.
C. Voluntariness: The participant's consent to participate in the research must be voluntary, free of any
coercion or inflated promise of benefits from participation. Care should be taken that the consent form is
administered by someone who does not hold authority over the participant. Ideally, the potential participant
is given the opportunity to discuss their participation in the study with family, trusted friends, or their
physician before reaching a decision.
D. Competence: The participant must be competent to give consent. If the participant is not competent due to
mental status, disease, or emergency, a designated surrogate may provide consent if it is in the participant's
best interest to participate. In certain emergency cases, consent may be waived due to the lack of competence
of the participant and absence of an appropriate surrogate. In the event that there is a question about
competence, mental status exams may be administered.
E. Consent: The potential human subject must authorize his/her participation in the research study, preferably
in writing. If there is no need to collect personally identifiable information, and a signature on the consent
form would be the only thing linking the subject to the study, an oral or implicit consent may be more
appropriate. Children who cannot read or write should still signal their willingness to participate by an
affirmative act (for example, nodding their head). Consent by minors is referred to as assent.
Informed Consent with Minors as Research Participants.
 Informed consent must be obtained from parents or guardians of minors.
 Also, assent must be obtained from minors who are not old enough or have not enough intellectual
capacity to say they are willing to participate. Assent means the minor agrees to participate after
being informed of all the features of the study that might affect the participant’s willingness to
participate.

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  Passive versus Active Consent. So far we have only talked about active consent (i.e., when consent
is provided by the potential participant signing the consent form). Active consent is usually the
preferred form of consent.
 Passive consent is the process whereby consent is given by not returning the consent form.
F. Exculpatory language: No informed consent may contain any exculpatory language by which the
participant waives any legal rights or releases the investigator or sponsor from liability for negligence.
2. Deception is present when the researcher provides misleading information or when the researcher
withholds information from participants about the nature and/or purpose of the study. Deception is allowable
when the benefits outweigh the costs. However, the researcher is ethically obligated not to use any more
deception than is needed to conduct a valid study.
 If deception is used, debriefing should be used. Debriefing is a post study interview in which all
aspects of the study are revealed, such as the purposes of the study and reasons for deception, and
any questions the participant has about the study are answered. Debriefing has two goals:
1. Dehoaxing: informing and debriefing study participants about any deception that was used, and explaining
the reasons for its use. The goal is to restore trust.
2. Desensitizing: helping study participants deal with and eliminate any stress or other undesirable feelings
that the study might have created in them. Should explain that their behavior was normal.
3. Freedom to Withdraw: Participants must be informed that they are free to withdraw from the study at
any time without penalty.
 If you have a power relationship with the participants (e.g., if you are their teacher or employer) you
must be extra careful to make sure that they really do feel free to withdraw.
4. Protection from Mental and Physical Harm This is the most fundamental ethical issue confronting the
researcher. Fortunately, much educational research poses minimal risk to participants (as compared, for
example, to medical research).
5. Confidentiality and Anonymity Confidentiality is a basic requirement in all studies. It means that the
researcher agrees not to reveal the identity of the participant to anyone other than the researcher and his or
her staff.

A stronger and even better condition (if it can be met) is called anonymity. Anonymity means that the
identity of the participant is not known by anyone in the study, including the researcher. An example
would be where the researcher has a large group of people fill out a questionnaire but NOT write their
names on it. In this way, the researcher ends up with data, but no names.

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Institutional Review Board
The IRB is a committee consisting of professionals and lay people who review research proposals to insure
that the researcher adheres to federal and local ethical standards in the conduct of the research..
 Researchers must submit a Research Protocol to the IRB for review.
 Three of the most important categories of review are exempt studies (i.e., studies involving no risk
to participants and not requiring full IRB review), expedited review (i.e., the process by which a
study is rapidly reviewed by fewer members than constitute the full IRB board), and full board
review (i.e., review by all members of the IRB).
 Although many educational studies are fall into the exempt category, it is essential that you
understand that it is the IRB staff and not the researcher that makes the decision as to whether a
research protocol is exempt. The IRB will provide the formal documentation of this status for your
study.
Types of review include
 Expedited review – study is rapidly reviewed by fewer members than constitute the full IRB board.
 Full board review – review by all members of IRB.

Ethical Issues Occurring in Electronic Research

 Is informed consent required for all materials found on the internet?
 What is public and what is private?
 If determine informed consent is needed, you must apply the same principles via the medium of the
internet.
 It can be difficult to maintain privacy of data collected via the internet.
 Just like any other educational research, research conducted electronically might require debriefing.
Ethical Issus in Preparing the Research Report
 Authorship:
- Goes to the individuals who made a substantial contribution to the conceptualization, design,
execution, analysis, or interpretation of the study.
 Helping collect, enter, or analyze data does not usually warrant authorship but does warrant
acknowledgment in a foot note.
 Do not ever plagiarize when writing the research report! It is a type of stealing and it is unethical.
 Plagiarism refers to using the work produced by others and presenting it as your own.
 For short quotations, put the material in quotation marks and include citation (including page
number).
 For long quotations (i.e., quotations of 40 or more words), use indented block quotation method
(i.e., indent the entire quotation, set off as a block, without quotation marks, and include citation and
page number.

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  Self plagiarism refers to using one’s words as original when they have been used previously in
another publication.
Data Analysis

Data Analysis and Interpretation In Quantitative Research

What Are the Steps in the Process of Quantitative Data Analysis?

There are several interrelated steps used in the process of analyzing quantitative data. The first step is to
prepare the data for analysis.

How do we prepare the Data for Analysis?

The first step for you will be to organize data for analysis. Preparing and organizing data for analysis in
quantitative research consists of scoring the data and creating a codebook, determining the types of scores to
use, selecting a computer program, inputting the data into the program for analysis, and clearing the data.

This involves determining how to assign numeric scores to the data, assessing the types of scores to use,
selecting a statistical program, and inputting the data into a program, and then cleaning up the database for
analysis. The second step begins the data analysis. Typically you conduct a descriptive analysis of the data
reporting measures of central tendency and variation. Then you conduct more sophisticated inferential
analysis to test hypotheses and you examine confidence intervals and effect sizes. The next step is to report
the results that are found using tables, figures, and a discussion of the key results. Finally, you interpret the
results from the data analysis. This consists of summarizing the results, comparing the results with past
literature and theories, advancing the limitations of the study, and ending with suggestions for future
research.
The gathered data analyzed through quantitatively and qualitatively. The data which are collected by
questionnaires are analyzed quantitatively by using descriptive statistics (percentage, frequency, mean, and
standard deviation) and inferential statistics.

 The data which gathered through interview and FGD are analyzed through narration thematically. The
researcher have organized, classified, reduced and coded the data to represent the themes.

REFERENCES

The research paper is not complete without the list of references. This section should be an alphabetized list
of all the academic sources of information utilized in the paper. The format of the references will match the
format and style used in the paper. Common formats include APA, Ban cover MLA, Harvard and so forth.

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