2.

Subsurface Drainage

2.1 Introduction
Subsurface drainage is an essential component of modern agricultural and
environmental engineering, designed to control and manage the movement of excess
water within the soil profile. Unlike surface drainage systems, which remove standing
water from the land surface, subsurface drainage focuses on regulating the water table
and improving the internal aeration of the root zone through a network of buried
conduits or permeable materials.
The primary objective of subsurface drainage is to maintain the water table at an
optimum depth that ensures favorable conditions for plant growth, soil strength, and
efficient land use. Excess groundwater can cause waterlogging, reduce soil oxygen,
hinder root development, and decrease crop productivity. By allowing surplus water
to percolate into subsurface drains typically made of perforated pipes, tiles, or gravel
envelopes such systems promote natural leaching of salts, prevent salinity buildup,
and enhance soil structure over time.
In agricultural contexts, subsurface drainage is particularly critical in irrigated lands,
clayey soils with poor natural permeability, and areas with shallow water tables.
Beyond agriculture, it also plays a vital role in urban development, transportation
infrastructure, and environmental protection helping stabilize foundations, prevent
seepage damage, and reduce soil erosion caused by groundwater emergence.
Designing an efficient subsurface drainage system requires an understanding of soil
hydraulics, groundwater flow, and crop water requirements. Key factors include soil
permeability, drainage depth, spacing, and outlet conditions, all of which influence
the system’s hydraulic performance and long-term sustainability. Analytical models
and empirical equations such as Hooghoudt’s and Ernst’s formulas are commonly
employed to estimate drain spacing and discharge rates based on field conditions.
In essence, subsurface drainage serves as a vital engineering intervention that
harmonizes soil-water relationships, ensuring optimal productivity and environmental
balance. It exemplifies the integration of hydrological science, soil physics, and
agricultural management for the sustainable use of land and water resources.

2.2 Principles of Subsurface Drainage

The principles of subsurface drainage are based on understanding how water moves
through the soil and how it can be effectively controlled to maintain desirable
moisture and aeration conditions within the root zone. The system functions by
intercepting excess groundwater and safely conveying it away from the field through
buried conduits, thus preventing waterlogging and salinity problems.

1. Hydraulic Behavior of Water in Soil

Water movement in the soil occurs through interconnected pores under the influence
of gravity and pressure differences. The rate and direction of this flow depend on the
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

soil’s permeability and the existing hydraulic gradient. Coarse-textured soils, such as
sandy loams, allow rapid movement of water, whereas fine-textured soils, such as
clays, restrict movement and are more prone to waterlogging. Subsurface drainage
utilizes these natural flow paths by providing an outlet for groundwater to move
laterally toward the drains.

2. Control of the Water Table

One of the main objectives of subsurface drainage is to control the level of the water
table so that it remains below the crop root zone. When the water table rises too close
to the surface, the soil becomes saturated, air is displaced, and root respiration is
restricted. By maintaining the water table at a safe depth, subsurface drainage ensures
a balance between moisture availability and aeration, promoting healthy root
development and optimum crop yields.

3. Flow Toward the Drains

When the water table rises after rainfall or irrigation, the excess water moves laterally
through the soil toward the drains. The drains act as collectors that intercept this
groundwater and carry it to a main collector or open outlet. The shape of the
groundwater surface between adjacent drains depends on soil type, drain spacing, and
recharge rate. In coarse soils, the water table tends to flatten quickly after drainage,
while in clayey soils, it takes longer for equilibrium to be restored.

4. Influence of Soil Characteristics

Soil properties greatly influence the design and performance of subsurface drainage
systems. The most important factors are the hydraulic conductivity, depth to the
impermeable layer, and the degree of anisotropy meaning the variation in
permeability in different directions. In many soils, water moves more readily
horizontally than vertically, which must be considered when determining the proper
depth and spacing of drains.

5. Boundary and Outlet Conditions

The operation of a subsurface drainage system also depends on boundary conditions
such as the presence of an impermeable layer beneath the drains, the topography of
the land, and the hydraulic conditions at the outlet. The outlet should be at a lower
elevation than the drains to allow free discharge, or it may include a control structure
to regulate outflow when needed. Efficient outlet design prevents backflow and
ensures continuous removal of excess water.

6. Environmental and Agronomic Considerations

Beyond controlling water levels, subsurface drainage also helps manage soil salinity,
particularly in irrigated regions where salts can accumulate due to evaporation. By
allowing periodic leaching, the system removes excess salts from the root zone,
preserving soil fertility and preventing degradation. Moreover, proper drainage design

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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

contributes to environmental protection by reducing surface runoff, minimizing

erosion, and improving the stability of agricultural lands and infrastructure.

2.3 Flow to Drains: Darcy’s Law Application

The flow of water through soil toward subsurface drains is governed by the
fundamental principles of soil permeability and hydraulic head distribution. The
concept originates from Darcy’s Law, which defines the relationship between the rate
of flow through a porous medium and the energy gradient driving the flow.
Understanding this law is essential for predicting groundwater movement, estimating
drain discharge, and designing efficient subsurface drainage systems.

1. Flow Through Porous Soil

Soil is a heterogeneous mass consisting of solid mineral particles, organic matter, air,
and water. The spaces between these particles known as voids are interconnected,
forming continuous channels that permit water movement. The size, shape, and
arrangement of these voids determine the soil’s permeability, which is the measure of
its ability to transmit water.
When a difference in total energy (hydraulic head) exists between two points within
the soil, water naturally moves from the zone of higher energy to the zone of lower
energy. This movement occurs due to the combined effects of elevation head and
pressure head, while velocity head is negligible because flow velocities in soil pores
are very small.

2. Development of Darcy’s Law

The experimental work of Henry Darcy (1856) established a linear relationship
between the discharge rate of water and the hydraulic gradient in a saturated soil.
Consider a soil sample of length L and cross-sectional area A, as illustrated in Fig.
2.1. Water enters the soil at point A and exits at point B, producing a measurable head
loss Δh between the two ends.

Fig. 2.1 Development of Darcy’s law

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

The total head at any point in the soil is the sum of:
 Elevation head (z): the height of the point above a fixed reference or datum.
 Pressure head (h): the height of a water column producing the pressure at that
point.
According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the total heads at points A and B can be written as:
Total head at 𝐴 = 𝑧𝐴 + ℎ𝐴 , Total head at 𝐵 = 𝑧𝐵 + ℎ𝐵
The head loss between the two points is therefore:

∆ℎ = (𝑧𝐴 + ℎ𝐴 ) − (𝑧𝐵 + ℎ𝐵 ) (2.1)

The hydraulic gradient, defined as the loss of head per unit length of flow, is given by:

∆ℎ
𝑖= (2.2)
𝐿

Darcy demonstrated that the discharge velocity of water through the soil is
proportional to this hydraulic gradient:

𝑣 = 𝐾𝑖 (2.3)

Where
𝑣 : Discharge velocity,
𝑖: Hydraulic gradient, and
𝐾: Coefficient of permeability (a property of the soil).
Multiplying by the cross-sectional area A gives the total rate of seepage through the
soil:

𝑞 = 𝐾𝑖𝐴 (2.4)

3. Application to Flow Toward Subsurface Drains

When subsurface drains (such as perforated pipes or tile lines) are installed below the
soil surface, groundwater flows through the saturated zone toward these drains under
the influence of hydraulic head differences. The drains act as low-pressure boundaries
that collect and remove the infiltrating water, thereby maintaining the desired
groundwater level.

By applying Darcy’s Law to the flow domain between drains, engineers can:

 Quantify the rate of groundwater flow reaching each drain.

 Determine drain spacing and depth to achieve the target water table.
 Evaluate system performance under various recharge and soil conditions.

These analyses are extended through analytical solutions such as Hooghoudt’s,

Ernst’s, and Glover–Dumm’s equations, which adapt Darcy’s Law to layered soils,
anisotropy, and unsteady flow situations.

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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

4. Engineering Significance
The application of Darcy’s Law to subsurface drainage is not merely theoretical, it
provides a quantitative basis for practical design. It allows the prediction of:

 How quickly excess water will be removed from the root zone,
 How soil permeability influences drainage performance, and
 How different soil layers and drain depths affect flow patterns.

Understanding and correctly applying Darcy’s Law ensures that drainage systems are
both hydraulically efficient and economically feasible, contributing to long-term soil
productivity, salinity control, and environmental protection.

Example 2.1
Consider an agricultural field where subsurface drains are installed at a spacing of 20
m and a depth of 1.5 m. During a period of high recharge, the water table rises to 0.5
m above the drain invert at the midpoint between two drains. The horizontal distance
for water flow from the midpoint to the drain is therefore 10 m. The soil in the field
has a saturated hydraulic conductivity of K = 1.0 m/day, and the average thickness of
the saturated flow zone contributing to drainage is 1.2 m. Assuming steady, one-
dimensional flow toward the drain and neglecting any entrance or exit losses, use
Darcy’s Law to calculate the discharge per meter length of drain.

Solution
1. Head loss
∆ℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = 0.5 − 0.0 = 0.5 𝑚
2. Hydraulic gradient
∆ℎ 0.5
𝑖= = = 0.05
𝐿 10
3. Darcy discharge velocity
𝑣 = 𝐾𝑖 = (1.0)(0.05) = 0.05 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
4. Discharge per meter length of drain
𝑄 = 𝑣. 𝐴 = 0.05 × 1.2 = 0.06 𝑚3 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

2.4 Validity of Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s Law assumes laminar flow of water through the interconnected voids of a
saturated soil. This condition implies that the velocity of flow is directly proportional
to the hydraulic gradient. However, this relationship holds true only within a certain
range of flow velocities and soil conditions. When the flow becomes turbulent, the
linear relationship between velocity and gradient no longer applies, and Darcy’s Law
ceases to be valid.
The range within which Darcy’s Law is valid can be examined using the Reynolds
number, which represents the ratio of inertial to viscous forces within a moving fluid.
For flow through soil pores, the Reynolds number is defined as:

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

𝑣𝐷𝑝 𝜌
𝑅𝑛 = (2.5)
𝜇

Where
𝑣: Discharge (superficial) velocity (cm/s)
𝐷𝑝 : Average diameter of soil particles (cm)
𝜌 : Density of the fluid (g/cm³)
𝜇 : Dynamic viscosity of the fluid [g/(cm·s)]

Experimental studies have shown that Darcy’s Law remains valid as long as the flow
is laminar, that is, when: 𝑅𝑛 ≤ 1

For finer soils such as sands, silts, and clays, flow remains laminar and fully satisfies
Darcy’s relationship. However, as particle size increases (in coarse sands and
gravels), flow velocity increases, and turbulent effects begin to appear. In such cases,
the hydraulic gradient i is no longer linearly related to velocity v. Instead, the
relationship can be expressed as:

𝑖 = 𝑎𝑣 + 𝑏𝑣 2 (2.6)

Where a and b are empirical constants depending on soil texture and pore geometry
(Forchheimer, 1902). The first term represents viscous (laminar) resistance, while the
second term accounts for inertial (turbulent) effects.
Further investigations, summarized by Leps (1973), extended the analysis of flow
through coarse gravel and fractured rocks. It was found that the average velocity of
flow through such media can be expressed empirically as:

𝑢𝑣 = 𝐶𝑅𝐻0.5 𝑖 0.54 (2.7)

Where
𝑢𝑣 : Average velocity of flow through voids
𝐶: A constant which is a function of shape and roughness of rock particles
𝑅𝐻 : Hydraulic mean radius
𝑖: Hydraulic gradient

2.5 Steady-State Flow Equation

In the design and analysis of subsurface drainage systems, steady-state flow equations
are essential for describing the long-term, equilibrium conditions of groundwater
movement toward drains. Under steady-state conditions, the rate of recharge to the
soil equals the rate of discharge through the drains, and the water table profile remains
constant over time. Two of the most widely used analytical solutions for predicting
the relationship between drain spacing, hydraulic conductivity, and water table depth
are the Hooghoudt Equation and the Ernst Equation. These equations provide

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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

practical means for estimating the required drain spacing to maintain desired water
table levels, considering soil stratification, depth of impermeable layers, and drainage
intensity.

2.5.1 The Hooghoudt Equation

Consider a condition of steady-state groundwater flow toward vertically-walled open
drains that extend down to an impervious layer, as illustrated in Fig. 2.2. According to
the Dupuit–Forchheimer theory, the groundwater flow in the horizontal direction can
be described using Darcy’s Law. For a vertical plane at a horizontal distance x from
the drain, the unit discharge per unit width of flow, qx, is given by:

𝑑𝑦
𝑞𝑥 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (2.8)

Where
𝑞𝑥 : Unit discharge in the x-direction (m2/d)
𝐾: Hydraulic conductivity of the soil (m/d)
𝑦: Height of the water table above the impervious layer at distance x (m)
𝑑𝑦
: Hydraulic gradient at position x
𝑑𝑥

The principle of continuity requires that the total volume of water entering the soil
within the surface area between two adjacent drains must equal the volume of
groundwater flowing laterally through any vertical plane at distance x. This condition
ensures equilibrium between recharge and discharge under steady-state flow.
As shown in Fig. 2.2, water infiltrating the soil surface between drains percolates
downward and moves laterally toward the drains under the influence of the hydraulic
gradient. The flow path extends from the midpoint between drains (where x = L/2)
toward the drain wall (where x = 0), through the saturated zone above the impervious
layer.
y R

dy/dx Water table

qx H
D
x

Impervious layer L

Fig. 2.2 Steady-state groundwater movement toward vertically-walled drains

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

As discussed earlier, all water infiltrating into the soil within the surface area between
two adjacent drains must eventually flow laterally through a vertical plane located at a
distance x from the drain. If R represents the rate of recharge (infiltration) per unit
area of the soil surface, then the flow per unit width passing through this plane per
unit time can be expressed as:

1
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑅 (2 𝐿 − 𝑥) (2.9)

Where
𝑅: Rate of recharge per unit surface area (m/d)
𝐿: Drain spacing (m)

Under steady-state conditions, the flow described by Darcy’s Law must equal the
flow entering through the surface (Eq. 2.9). Thus, equating the two expressions gives:

𝑑𝑦 1
𝐾𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅 (2 𝐿 − 𝑥) (2.10)

Rearranging:

1
𝐾𝑦. 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑅 (2 𝐿 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (2.11)

To determine the relationship between the drain spacing, hydraulic conductivity, and
water table elevations, we integrate this differential equation between the appropriate
limits:

1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = 𝐷, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 2 𝐿 → 𝑦 = 𝐻

Where
𝐷: Elevation of the water level in the drain (m)
𝐻 : Elevation of the water table midway between the drains

Integrating and substituting the limits yields:

4𝐾(𝐻 2 −𝐷2 )
𝐿2 = (2.12)
𝑅

or equivalently, the discharge per unit width of drain is:

4𝐾(𝐻 2 −𝐷2 )
𝑞=𝑅= (2.13)
𝐿2

Where
𝑞: Drain discharge per unit width (m/d)
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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

This relationship, originally derived by Hooghoudt (1936) and later referred to as the
Donnan Equation (1946), provides the fundamental steady-state flow expression for
subsurface drainage design in homogeneous soils.

Eq. (2.13) can also be expressed in an alternative but equivalent form:

4𝐾(𝐻+𝐷)(𝐻−𝐷)
𝑞= (2.14)
𝐿2

This equation forms the basis for determining the required spacing between drains to
maintain a desired water table depth under steady recharge conditions.

From Fig. 2.2, it follows that H−D = h and H+D = 2D+h, where h represents the
height of the water table above the water level in the drain. Substituting these
expressions into Eq. (2.14) gives:

8𝐾𝐷ℎ+4𝐾ℎ2
𝑞= (2.15)
𝐿2

If the water level within the drain is very low (i.e., D ≈ 0), Equation (2.15) simplifies
to:

4𝐾ℎ2
𝑞= (2.16)
𝐿2

Conversely, if the impervious layer lies far below the drain level (D ≫ h), the second
term in the numerator of Equation (2.15) becomes negligible, yielding:

8𝐾𝐷ℎ
𝑞= (2.17)
𝐿2

The following sections discuss the principles governing flow in layered soil profiles,
the development and determination of equivalent depth, and the derivation of the
Hooghoudt Equation for drains installed above the impervious layer one of the most
fundamental relationships in subsurface drainage engineering.

1. Flow in Layered Soil Profiles

In many practical cases, the soil profile consists of two distinct layers with different
hydraulic conductivities. If the drain level coincides with the interface between these
two layers, Equation (2.15) can be modified to account for the difference in
permeability as follows:

8𝐾𝑏 𝐷ℎ+4𝐾𝑡 ℎ2
𝑞= (2.18)
𝐿2

Where

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

𝐾𝑡 : Hydraulic conductivity of the soil layer above the drain level (m/d)
𝐾𝑏 : Hydraulic conductivity of the soil layer below the drain level (m/d)

2. Equivalent Depth Concept for Drains Above the Impervious Layer

When the pipe or open drains do not extend down to the impervious layer, the flow
lines of groundwater tend to converge toward the drains rather than remaining
horizontal (Fig. 2.3A). As a result, the flow paths become longer, and additional head
loss occurs due to the converging flow. To maintain the same rate of discharge into
the drains, a higher water table is required, which leads to an increased hydraulic head
above the drains.
To simplify this complex flow situation, Hooghoudt (1940) introduced the concept of
equivalent depth, based on two primary assumptions (Fig. 2.3B):
1. An imaginary impervious layer is assumed to exist above the actual
impervious layer. This reduces the effective thickness of the soil layer through
which water flows toward the drains.
2. The actual drains are replaced by imaginary ditches whose bottoms lie on this
imaginary impervious layer.
Under these assumptions, the same analytical approach used for horizontal flow can
be applied, provided that the actual depth to the impervious layer (D) is replaced by a
smaller equivalent depth (d). This equivalent depth represents the reduced soil
thickness that would yield the same rate of flow toward the drains as in the real case,
but without the head losses caused by flow convergence.

Accordingly, Equation (2.15) may be rewritten as:

8𝐾𝑑ℎ+4𝐾ℎ2
𝑞= (2.19)
𝐿2

where the term d accounts for the head loss associated with the radial (or converging)
flow component near the drain.
R

A Water table
B

Impervious layer

Fig. 2.3 The concept of equivalent depth (d) is used to convert a system that involves
both horizontal and radial flow (A) into an equivalent system with purely horizontal
flow (B).

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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

3. Determination of the Equivalent Depth

The main challenge lies in determining the appropriate value of the equivalent depth
d. Using the method of mirror images, Hooghoudt derived a relationship between d,
the drain spacing L, the depth to the impervious layer D, and the radius of the drain r0.
This relationship is expressed as an infinite series, which, although mathematically
rigorous, is cumbersome to evaluate directly.
To facilitate practical design, Hooghoudt developed tables from which the equivalent
depth d can be obtained for common combinations of drain radius and spacing. One
such example is provided in Table 2.1, corresponding to r0 = 0.1 m.
From this table, it can be observed that d increases with D until D ≈ 1/4L. Beyond this
point, further increases in the depth of the impervious layer have little effect on d, as
the flow field becomes effectively independent of the actual depth.
Since drain spacing L itself depends on d, Equation (2.19) must often be solved
iteratively. Manual use of Hooghoudt’s tables can therefore be time-consuming. To
address this, Van Beers (1979) developed a set of nomographs that allow rapid
estimation of d without lengthy computation.
With the availability of modern computational tools, the equivalent depth can now be
determined precisely through analytical or numerical solutions. Later researchers,
such as Van der Molen and Wesseling (1991), extended Hooghoudt’s work to
produce exact solutions for d based on the mirror image method, improving both
accuracy and ease of application in drainage design.

4. Derivation of the Equivalent Depth Formula

The derivation of the equivalent depth (d) is based on the method of mirror images, a
mathematical approach used to model the radial component of groundwater flow
toward a drain when the impervious layer lies below the drain level.
In the actual physical system, the flow lines near the drain are curved, consisting of
both horizontal and vertical components. To simplify analysis, Hooghoudt assumed a
series of imaginary drains (mirror images) placed symmetrically above and below the
impervious layer. This arrangement ensures that the vertical components of flow are
mirrored, producing a pattern equivalent to flow between two parallel, impervious
planes.
The distance between the real drain and its first image is 2D, where D is the depth
from the drain center to the impervious layer. Using this configuration, Hooghoudt
expressed the relationship between the equivalent depth (d), the drain spacing (L), the
depth to the impervious layer (D), and the drain radius (r0) as an infinite series:

𝜋𝐿 1
𝑑= [ 𝐿 ] (2.20)
8 ln( )+𝐹(𝑥)
𝜋𝑟0

2𝜋𝐷
with 𝑥 = 𝐿
and the series 𝐹(𝑥) = 2 ∑∞
𝑛=1 ln[coth(𝑛𝑥)]

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

 Table 2.1 Values for the equivalent depth of Hooghoudt for r0 =0.1 m, D and L in m
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

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CHAPTER TWO
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

which is exactly equivalent to the rapidly convergent form

4𝑒 −2𝑛𝑥
𝐹(𝑥) = ∑∞
𝑛=1,3,5,… 𝑛(1−𝑒 −2𝑛𝑥 ) (2.21)

This form converges rapidly when x > 1, that is, when the depth to the impervious
layer is relatively large compared to the drain spacing.
For small values of x (specifically x ≤ 0.5), the convergence of the above series
becomes slow. In this range, comparison with Dagan’s formula yields an
approximation for F(x) that is highly accurate and computationally efficient:

𝜋2 𝑥
𝐹(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + ln (2𝜋) (2.22)

This approximation provides reliable results for shallow impervious layers (small
D/L) and is widely used in practical drainage design when the exact series evaluation
is unnecessary.
These assumptions imply that the entrance perimeter u is equivalent to the wet
perimeter of a semicircle (the term πr0 in Equation 2.20). Accordingly,

𝑢
𝑟0 = (2.23)
𝜋

Where
𝑟0 : Radius of the drain (m)
𝑢: Wet perimeter (m)
For open drains, the equivalent radius 𝑟0 can be determined by substituting the wet
perimeter of the open drain for 𝑢 in Equation (2.23). For pipe drains installed in
trenches, the wet perimeter is given by:

𝑢 = 𝑏 + 2𝑟0 (2.24)

where 𝑏 is the width of the trench (m).

If an envelope material is placed around the pipe drain (Figure 2.4), Equation (2.24) is
modified to:

𝑢 = 𝑏 + 2(2𝑟0 + 𝑚) (2.25)

Where
𝑚 : Height of the envelope above the drain (m).

5. Modern Computation of Equivalent Depth

With the advent of digital computation, the evaluation of d no longer requires tables
or nomographs. The exact Hooghoudt equation can be easily solved using numerical
methods. Modern drainage design software, such as DRAINMOD, and EnDrain,

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

routinely incorporate these formulations to compute d accurately for a wide range of

soil and drain configurations.

trench backfill

undisturbed soil

m
envelop material
2r0

b
Fig. 2.4 Drain pipe with gravel envelop in drain trench

Example 2.2
A natural-grass soccer field is located in a sandy-loam area with poor natural
drainage. To maintain playability after rainfall and prevent waterlogging of the turf, a
subsurface drainage system is to be installed. The objective is to design the spacing
between parallel pipe drains required to keep the water table approximately 1.5 m
below the ground surface midway between the drains under steady recharge
conditions.
The drain pipes are to be laid at a depth of 2.5 m and have a radius of r0 = 0.10m. The
underlying soil has a hydraulic conductivity of K = 1.0 m d−1, and the design recharge
rate is q = 0.005 m d−1. A low-permeability layer is encountered at a depth of 9.5 m,
which represents the base of the flow region.
Using Hooghoudt’s equation and the equivalent-depth concept, determine the required
drain spacing, L, to satisfy the design conditions.

Solution
Using the Hooghoudt equation (for parallel drains above an impervious layer):

8𝐾𝑑ℎ+4𝐾ℎ2 8𝐾𝑑ℎ+4𝐾ℎ2 8(1.0)𝑑(1.0)+4(1.0)(1.0)2

𝑞= → 𝐿2 = =
𝐿2 𝑞 0.005
2
𝐿 = 1600𝑑 + 800
Trial and Error Solution
Since d depends on L, we must find L by trial and error, using the Hooghoudt
equivalent depth table for r0 = 0.1 m.
First Estimate: L = 90 m, depth to impervious layer (D) = 9.5 – 2.5 = 7.0 m (Fig. 2.5),
from Table 2.1, d = 4.42 m ⇒ L = 88.7 m.
Second Estimate: L = 88 m, interpolate for d = 4.386 m ⇒ L = 88.4 m.

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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

Hence, the correct drain spacing is approximately 88 m.

R=0.005 m/day

1.5 m
Water table

h= 1.0 m

qx H=8.0 m
D=7.0 m

Impervious layer L

Fig. 2.5 Flow to subsurface drains and definition of drainage parameters

Example 2.3
The objective is to design the spacing between parallel open drains required to keep
the water table approximately 1.5 m below the ground surface midway between the
drains under steady recharge conditions. The underlying soil has a hydraulic
conductivity of 1.0 m/day. The design recharge rate is 0.005 m/day, and a low-
permeability layer is encountered at a depth of 9.5 m, which represents the base of the
flow region. Using Hooghoudt’s equation and the equivalent-depth concept,
determine the required drain spacing, L, to satisfy the design conditions. The open
drains have a depth of 3.0 m, a bottom width of 0.5 m, and side slopes of 1:1. The
design water depth in the ditches is 0.5 m, meaning that the water level in the drains is
2.5 m below the soil surface.

Solution
For a trapezoid, the wetted perimeter u, will be
𝑢 = 𝑏 + 2ℎ√1 + 𝑧 2 ⇒ 𝑢 = 0.5 + 2(0.5)√1 + 12 = 1.91𝑚
and consequently the equivalent radius (Equation 2.23)
𝑢 1.91
𝑟0 = 𝜋 = = 0.61𝑚
𝜋
Using the Hooghoudt equation (for parallel drains above an impervious layer):

8𝐾𝑑ℎ+4𝐾ℎ2 8𝐾𝑑ℎ+4𝐾ℎ2 8(1.0)𝑑(1.0)+4(1.0)(1.0)2

𝑞= → 𝐿2 = =
𝐿2 𝑞 0.005
2
𝐿 = 1600𝑑 + 800
2𝜋𝐷 2𝜋(7.0)
First estimate: L = 90 m, 𝑥 = = = 0.49
𝐿 90
𝜋2 𝑥 𝜋2 0.49
𝐹(𝑥) = + ln ( ) = + ln ( ) = 2.48
4𝑥 2𝜋 4(0.49) 2𝜋

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

𝜋𝐿 1 𝜋(90) 1
𝑑= [ 𝐿 ]= [ 90 ] = 5.58
8 ln( )+𝐹(𝑥) 8 ln( )+2.48
𝜋𝑟0 𝜋(0.61)

𝐿2 = 1600𝑑 + 800 = 1600(5.58) + 800 ⇒ L = 98.6 𝑚

Second estimate: L = 95 m, 𝑥 = 0.46, 𝐹(𝑥) = 2.76, 𝑑 = 5.6, 𝐿 = 98.8𝑚
Third estimate: L = 98 m, 𝑥 = 0.45, 𝐹(𝑥) = 2.84, 𝑑 = 5.7, 𝐿 = 99.4𝑚
(use ∼ 99 – 100 m for design)

Example 2.4
The design objective is to determine the required spacing between parallel pipe drains
so that the water table remains approximately 1.5 m below the ground surface midway
between the drains under steady recharge conditions.
The drain pipes are to be laid at a depth of 2.5 m and have a radius of r0 = 0.10 m. The
soil profile, however, is not homogeneous; it consists of two distinct layers. The upper
layer, 2.5 m thick, has a hydraulic conductivity of Kt = 0.06 m/day, while the
underlying layer, extending 7.0 m to the impervious base, has a hydraulic
conductivity of Kb = 0.30 m/day. The design recharge rate is q = 0.005 m/day, and a
low-permeability layer is encountered at a depth of 9.5 m, representing the base of the
flow region.
Using Hooghoudt’s equation and the equivalent-depth concept for layered soils,
determine the required drain spacing L that will maintain the desired water table level
under the given steady-state drainage conditions.

Solution
Modified Hooghoudt (drain at layer interface):

8𝐾𝑏 𝑑ℎ+4𝐾𝑡 ℎ2 8(0.3)𝑑(1.0)+4(0.06)(1.0)2

𝑞= 𝐿2
= 𝐿2
2
𝐿 = 480𝑑 + 48

From table (Hooghoudt equivalent depth for r0 = 0.10 m), read d at the given D = 7m
for the current trial L. (Interpolations are linear between tabulated L values.)
Trial L = 40 m, d = 3.03
𝐿2 = 480𝑑 + 48 = 480(3.03) + 48 ⇒ L = 38𝑚
Trial L = 38m,
Table (interpolate near L = (35 – 40) at D = 7m → d = 2.942
𝐿2 = 480𝑑 + 48 = 480(2.942) + 48 ⇒ L = 38𝑚
The smaller spacing compared with the homogeneous. Because the top layer (with Kt
4𝐾𝑡 ℎ2
= 0.06 m/d) (Fig. 2.6) restricts the flow of water toward the drains, the term in
𝐿2
the Hooghoudt equation becomes much smaller, reducing the total drainage capacity
and therefore requiring the drains to be placed closer together to maintain the same
water-table level.

16
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

R=0.005 m/day

1.5 m
Kt= 0.06 m/day Water table

h= 1.0 m

qx H=8.0 m

Kb= 0.3 m/day D=7.0 m

Impervious layer L

Fig. 2.6 Subsurface drainage between parallel drains in a two-layer soil profile

2.5.2 The Ernst Equation

In previous discussions, the presented drainage solutions were restricted to either
homogeneous soil profiles or two-layered profiles where the interface between the
two layers coincides with the drain level. The Ernst Equation, however, extends
beyond these limitations, providing a versatile approach applicable to any
configuration of a two-layered soil system.
A key advantage of the Ernst Equation over the Hooghoudt Equation lies in its
flexibility: the interface between the soil layers may occur either above or below the
drain level. This feature is particularly beneficial in cases where the upper layer
exhibits a significantly lower hydraulic conductivity compared to the underlying
layer, as it allows for a more accurate representation of flow conditions across
stratified soils.
To develop a general solution for soil profiles comprising layers of differing hydraulic
conductivities, Ernst (1956; 1962) conceptualized the total flow toward the drains as
comprising three distinct components:

ℎ = ℎ𝑣 + ℎℎ + ℎ𝑟 (2.26)

Where the total available head (ℎ) is expressed as the sum of the head losses
attributed to each flow component, the vertical head loss (ℎ𝑣 ), the horizontal head loss
(ℎℎ ), and the radial head loss (ℎ𝑟 ).
The vertical flow is considered to occur within the soil layer bounded by the water
table and the drain level (Figure 2.7). The corresponding head loss associated with
this vertical movement of water can be determined by applying Darcy’s Law.

ℎ
𝑞 = 𝐾𝑣 𝐷𝑣 (2.27)
𝑣

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

The head loss due to vertical flow can be expressed as:

𝐷
ℎ𝑣 = 𝑞 𝐾𝑣 (2.28)
𝑣

Where
𝐷𝑣 : Thickness of the layer through which vertical flow occurs (m)
𝐾𝑣 : Vertical hydraulic conductivity (m/d)

Water table
Vertical

Horizontal
Radial

Impervious layer

Fig. 2.7 Geometry of two-dimensional flow toward subsurface drains (after Ernst)

The horizontal flow is assumed to occur below the drain level (Figure 2.7). Analogous
to Eq. 2.17, the head loss due to horizontal flow, hh, can be expressed as:

𝐿2
ℎℎ = 𝑞 8 ∑(𝐾𝐷) (2.29)
ℎ

Where
∑(𝐾𝐷)ℎ : Transmissivity of the soil layers through which water flows
horizontally (m²/d)
If the impervious layer lies at a considerable depth, the value of ∑(𝐾𝐷)ℎ approaches
infinity, causing the horizontal head loss to approach zero. To avoid this condition,
the effective thickness of the soil layer below the drain level through which horizontal
flow is considered is limited to a maximum of ¼ L.

The radial flow is also assumed to take place below the drain level (Fig. 2.7). The
head loss associated with radial flow can be determined from the following
relationship:

𝐿 𝑎𝐷𝑟
ℎ𝑟 = 𝑞 𝜋𝐾 ln (2.30)
𝑟 𝑢

Where
𝐾𝑟 : Radial hydraulic conductivity (m/d)

18
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

𝑎: Geometry factor of radial resistance (-)

𝐷𝑟 : Thickness of the layer in which radial flow occurs (m)
𝑢 : Wet perimeter of the drain (m)

In layered soil profiles, the geometry factor 𝑎 plays an important role in describing
subsurface drainage behavior. This factor depends on both the soil stratification and
the vertical position of the drain.
For a homogeneous soil profile, the geometry factor equals unity (𝑎 = 1). In a layered
soil, however, 𝑎 varies depending on whether the drains are located in the upper or
lower layer. When the drains lie within the bottom layer, radial flow is primarily
confined to that layer, and therefore 𝑎 = 1. Conversely, when the drains are installed
in the top layer, the geometry factor 𝑎 depends on the relative hydraulic conductivities
of the top (Kt) and bottom (Kb) layers.

Based on the relaxation method, Ernst (1962) proposed the following classification
for determining the geometry factor 𝑎:

𝐾𝑏
 For < 0.1: The bottom layer can be regarded as impervious, and the
𝐾𝑡
problem simplifies to that of a homogeneous soil, where 𝑎 = 1.
𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑏 𝐷𝑏
 For 0.1 < < 50 ∶ The geometry factor 𝑎 depends on the ratios and , as
𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡 𝐷𝑡
presented in Table 2.2.
𝐾𝑏
 For > 50: The geometry factor is taken as 𝑎 = 4.
𝐾𝑡

The total hydraulic head h at the drain level may be expressed as the sum of vertical,
horizontal, and radial flow components. Substituting the respective expressions for
these components (Equations 2.28, 2.29, and 2.30) into the general head equation
(Equation 2.26), we obtain:

𝐷 𝐿2 𝐿 𝑎𝐷𝑟
ℎ = 𝑞 (𝐾𝑣 + 8 ∑(𝐾𝐷) + 𝜋𝐾 ln ) (2.31)
𝑣 ℎ 𝑟 𝑢

This relationship is commonly referred to as the Ernst Equation, and it provides a

comprehensive means of estimating the total head loss in subsurface drainage
systems, accounting for both layered soil conditions and variable hydraulic
conductivities.
When both the drainage discharge rate (𝑞) and the available total hydraulic head (h)
are known, the Ernst Equation can be rearranged into a quadratic form with respect to
the drain spacing (L). This allows the spacing between drains to be determined
directly by solving the quadratic relationship, either analytically or through numerical
computation. The resulting value of L represents the optimal spacing that satisfies the
given hydraulic and soil conditions while maintaining the desired drainage
performance.

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

Table 2.2 The geometry factor (𝑎) obtained by the relaxation method (after Van
Beers, 1979)
𝐷𝑏
𝐾𝑏
𝐷𝑡
𝐾𝑡
1 2 4 8 16 32
1 2.0 3.0 5.0 9.0 15.0 30.0
2 2.4 3.2 4.6 6.2 8.0 10.0
3 2.6 3.3 4.5 5.5 6.8 8.0
5 2.8 3.5 4.4 4.8 5.6 6.2
10 3.2 3.6 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.0
20 3.6 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6
50 3.8 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.2 4.6

If the drains are positioned at the interface between two soil layers, the Hooghoudt
Equation is applied. This equation explicitly distinguishes between the hydraulic
conductivities above and below the drain level, allowing accurate modeling of flow
conditions across the interface.
When the drains are installed either above or below the interface, the hydraulic
conductivities cannot be treated separately in this manner, and therefore the Ernst
Equation must be used. However, when the bottom layer possesses a much lower
hydraulic conductivity than the top layer, it can be considered effectively impervious,
reducing the system to a single-layer profile underlain by an impermeable stratum. In
such cases, the Hooghoudt Equation may still be applied with negligible error.
In practical design, the Ernst Equation is primarily employed for two-layered soil
profiles where the top layer is less permeable than the bottom layer (𝐾𝑡 < 𝐾𝑏 ). This
condition allows Ernst’s method to account for the contrasting conductivities between
layers, yielding more realistic predictions of subsurface drainage behavior.
When the drains are located within the bottom soil layer, several simplifying
assumptions can be made to reduce the general form of the Ernst Equation:
The vertical resistance in the bottom layer can be neglected compared with that in the
top layer, since the hydraulic conductivity of the bottom layer (𝐾𝑏 ) is typically much
greater than that of the top layer (𝐾𝑡 ).
The transmissivity of the top layer may also be neglected because 𝐾𝑡 < 𝐾𝑏 and, in
general, 𝐷𝑡 < 𝐷𝑏 . Consequently, in Equation 2.31, the summation term ∑(𝐾𝐷)ℎ may
be replaced by 𝐾𝑏 𝐷𝑏 .
The radial flow is confined to the portion of the soil below the drain level (𝐷𝑟 ), and
therefore the geometry factor a is taken as unity (a = 1).

Applying these simplifications, Equation 5.31 reduces to:

𝐷 𝐿2 𝐿 𝐷𝑟
ℎ = 𝑞 (𝐾𝑣 + 8𝐾 + 𝜋𝐾 ln ) (2.32)
𝑣 𝑏 𝐷𝑏 𝑏 𝑢

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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

When the drains are positioned within the top soil layer, further simplification is
possible. In this case:
 There is no vertical flow in the bottom layer; therefore, the vertical component
of head loss is simply represented by 𝐷𝑣 = ℎ. This formulation reflects the
limiting case where drainage flow occurs entirely within the upper, less
permeable layer, while the lower layer provides minimal hydraulic interaction.
 When the horizontal flow component is considered, the transmissivity of the
top layer cannot be neglected. In this case, the total transmissivity term in
1
Equation 2.29 is expressed as: ∑(𝐾𝐷)ℎ = 𝐾𝑏 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐷𝑡 , where 𝐷𝑡 = 𝐷𝑟 + 2 ℎ
 Furthermore, the radial flow is confined to the region of the top soil layer
below the drain level, and the geometry factor (a) depends on the ratio of the
hydraulic conductivities of the top and bottom layers

Accordingly, Equation 2.31 can be simplified to the following form:

𝐷 𝐿2 𝐿 𝑎𝐷𝑟
ℎ = 𝑞 (𝐾𝑣 + 8(𝐾 + 𝜋𝐾 ln ) (2.33)
𝑡 𝑏 𝐷𝑏 +𝐾𝑡 𝐷𝑡 ) 𝑡 𝑢

Example 2.5
An experimental field has a soil profile consisting of two distinct layers. Subsurface
pipe drains with a diameter of 0.12 m are to be installed in the upper layer, at a depth
of 1.1 m above the interface between the two layers (Fig. 2.8). The relevant
parameters for the design are as follows:

R=0.0075 m/day

Kt= 0.6 m/day Water table

h= 0.75 m

qx
D0= 1.1 m

Kb= 2.1 m/day Db= 4.2 m

Impervious layer L

Fig. 2.8 Drain spacing in a two-layered soil profile with the drain in top layer
0.0075𝑚 0.6𝑚 2.1𝑚
𝑞= , ℎ = 0.75𝑚, 𝐾𝑡 = , 𝐾𝑏 = , 𝐷0 = 1.1𝑚, 𝐷𝑏 = 4.2𝑚
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

Solution
𝐷𝑣 = ℎ (vertical loss across the upper layer in the limiting top − layer case)
= 0.75m
Drain is (𝐷0 = 1.1𝑚) above the layer interface ⇒ thickness of top layer below the
drain: 𝐷𝑟 = 𝐷0 = 1.1𝑚

ℎ 0.75
𝐷𝑡 = 𝐷𝑟 + = 1.1 + ( ) = 1.475𝑚
2 2
𝑢 = 𝜋𝑑 = 𝜋(0.12) = 0.377𝑚
Transmissivity for horizontal flow:
∑(𝐾𝐷)ℎ = 𝐾𝑏 𝐷𝑏 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐷𝑡 = (2.1)(4.2) + (0.6)(1.475) = 9.705𝑚2 𝑑 −1
𝐾𝑏 𝐷𝑏 4.2
Geometry factor a: = 3.5, = 1.475 = 2.85, bilinear interpolation in Table 2.2
𝐾𝑡 𝐷𝑡
gives a = 3.83
For radial flow in the top layer: 𝐾𝑟 = 𝐾𝑡 = 0.6 m d−1
Solve the quadratic for spacing L
Write AL2 + BL + C = 0 with

𝑞
𝐴= = 9.66 × 10−5
8 ∑(𝐾𝐷)ℎ
𝑞 𝑎𝐷𝑟
𝐵= ln = 9.6 × 10−3
𝜋𝐾𝑡 𝑢
𝑞𝐷𝑣
𝐶= − ℎ = −0.740625
𝐾𝑡
Discriminant: ∆= 𝐵 2 − 4𝐴𝐶 = 3.7834 × 10−4
−𝐵+√∆
Positive root: 𝐿 = = 50.99 𝑚, take 51 m
2𝐴
𝐷 𝐿2 𝐿 𝑎𝐷𝑟
Check (decompose the head) 𝑞 (𝐾𝑣 + 8 ∑(𝐾𝐷) + 𝜋𝐾 ln )
𝑣 ℎ 𝑟 𝑢
𝑞ℎ
ℎ𝑣 = = 0.00938 𝑚
𝑘𝑡
𝑞𝐿2
ℎℎ = = 0.251 𝑚
8 ∑(𝐾𝐷)ℎ
𝑞𝐿 𝑎𝐷𝑟
ℎ𝑟 = ln = 0.489
𝜋𝐾𝑟 𝑢
Sum ℎ𝑣 + ℎℎ + ℎ𝑟 = 0.75 𝑚✔️
The non-rounded value of L was used in the calculations.

2.6 Unsteady-State Flow Equation

In subsurface drainage, the unsteady-state (transient) flow equation describes the
time-dependent movement of water toward drains when the water table fluctuates
after rainfall or irrigation. Unlike steady-state conditions, where inflow equals
outflow, unsteady flow accounts for changes in water storage within the soil. The
governing equation is derived from Darcy’s law combined with the continuity

22
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

equation, resulting in a partial differential form that relates hydraulic head, time, and
spatial position.
This approach allows for the determination of drain spacing under transient
conditions, providing more realistic designs when equilibrium has not yet been
reached, particularly in fine-textured soils or during the early stages of drainage. The
Glover–Dumm equation is commonly applied to estimate water table decline and to
determine the optimum drain spacing under unsteady flow conditions.

2.6.1 The Glover–Dumm Equation

In the case of unsteady (transient) flow, the groundwater movement is not constant
with time; instead, it varies as water is either stored within, or released from, the soil.
This temporal change in storage manifests as a rise or fall of the water table. To
analyze this condition, the Dupuit–Forchheimer approach can be applied to derive a
differential equation describing unsteady flow.
Consider a soil column bounded at the bottom by an impervious layer and at the top
by the water table. When the water table fluctuates, the change in storage within the
soil profile per unit surface area is expressed as (Figure 2.9):

∆𝑊 = 𝜇∆ℎ. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦 (2.34)

Where
∆𝑊: Change in water storage per unit surface area over the time considered
(m)
𝜇 : Drainable pore space (–)
∆ℎ : Change in the level of the water table during the time considered (m)

For an infinitesimally small time interval dt, the corresponding change in storage can
be written as:

𝜕ℎ
𝑑𝑊 = 𝜇 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (2.35)

Applying the principle of continuity, the total difference between the outgoing and
incoming flow in the x- and y-directions must equal the rate of change in storage.
Thus, the continuity equation for transient groundwater flow becomes:

𝜕 𝜕ℎ 𝜕 𝜕ℎ 𝜕ℎ
−𝐾 [𝜕𝑥 (ℎ 𝜕𝑥 ) + 𝜕𝑦 (ℎ 𝜕𝑦)] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝜇 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 (2.36)

To simplify the continuity equation, we assume that the total depth of flow, h, is
significantly greater than the incremental changes Δh. Hence, h may be regarded as a
constant and represented by D, denoting the average thickness of the water-
transmitting layer. Considering that flow occurs only in one horizontal direction,

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

Equation (2.36) can therefore be expressed in the following simplified differential

form for unsteady flow:

∆ℎ

Fig. 2.9 Element of soil column for derivation of the Glover–Dumm equation

𝜕2 ℎ 𝜕ℎ
𝐾𝐷 𝜕𝑥 2 = 𝜇 𝜕𝑡 (2.37)

Dumm (1954) applied this differential equation to describe the recession of the water
table following an instantaneous rise to a height h0 above the drain level (Figure 2.10).
His analytical solution derived from a formulation originally developed by Glover
expresses the decline of an initially horizontal water table as a function of time,
distance, drain spacing, and soil properties. The resulting equation is given as:

4ℎ0 1 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
ℎ(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑛=1,3,5,.. 𝑛 𝑒
−𝛼𝑛 𝑡
sin ( ) (2.38)
𝜋 𝐿

Where
𝐾𝑑𝜋 2
𝛼= 𝜇𝐿2
ℎ(𝑥, 𝑡): Height of the water table at distance x and time t (m)
ℎ0 : Initial height of the water table at t = 0 (m)
𝛼: Reaction factor (d−1)
𝐾: Hydraulic conductivity (m/d)
𝑑: Equivalent depth of the soil layer below the drain level (m)
𝐿: Drain spacing (m)
𝑡 : Time elapsed after the instantaneous rise of the water table (d)

The height of the water table midway between the drains is determined by substituting
𝑥 = 1⁄2 𝐿 into Equation (2.38). Thus,

24
DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

Initial position of water table (t = 0)

Intermediate position of water table (t ˃ 0)

ht h0

qx
D

Impervious layer L

Fig. 2.10 Boundary conditions for the Glover–Dumm equation illustrating the fall of
an initially horizontal water table

4ℎ0 1
ℎ𝑡 = ℎ(𝑥 = 1⁄2 𝐿) =
2𝑡
∑∞
𝑛=1,3,5,.. 𝑛 𝑒
−𝛼𝑛
(2.39)
𝜋

Where
ℎ𝑡 : Height of the water table midway between drains at t > 0 (m)

When αt > 0.2, the second and subsequent terms of Equation (2.39) become
negligible. Therefore, the equation can be simplified to:

4
ℎ𝑡 = 𝜋 ℎ0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 = 1.27ℎ0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (2.40)

If the initial water table is not horizontal but follows a fourth-degree parabolic profile,
Dumm (1960) modified the expression to:

ℎ𝑡 = 1.16ℎ0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (2.41)

𝐾𝑑𝜋 2
By substituting Equation (𝛼 = ) into Equation (2.41), we obtain an expression for
𝜇𝐿2
the drain spacing, L, as follows:

1⁄ 1
𝐾𝑑𝑡 2 ℎ0 − ⁄2
𝐿 = 𝜋( ) (ln 1.16 ℎ ) (2.42)
𝜇 𝑡

This expression is known as the Glover–Dumm Equation.

The drain discharge at any time t, expressed per unit surface area, can be derived from
Darcy’s law as:

2𝐾𝑑 𝑑ℎ
𝑞𝑡 = − [𝑑𝑥 ] (2.43)
𝐿 𝑥=0

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi

DRAINAGE ENGINEERING CHAPTER TWO

Where
𝑞𝑡 : Drain discharge per unit surface area at time t > 0 (m/d)

By differentiating Equation (2.38) with respect to x, and neglecting all terms where n
> 1, then substituting x = 0 and combining the result with Equation (2.43), we obtain:

8𝐾𝑑
𝑞𝑡 = ℎ0 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (2.44)
𝐿2

Substituting Equation (2.40) into the above expression gives:

2𝜋𝐾𝑑
𝑞𝑡 = ℎ𝑡 (2.45)
𝐿2

The original Glover–Dumm Equation assumes horizontal flow only and therefore
does not account for the radial resistance encountered by water as it converges toward
drains that do not extend to the impervious layer. However, in analogy with the
steady-state approach, this limitation can be addressed by incorporating Hooghoudt’s
concept of equivalent depth (d) into Equation (2.42).
By doing so, the analysis accounts for the additional resistance produced by the
converging flow toward the drains, thereby improving the applicability of the Glover–
Dumm formulation to practical field conditions.

Example 2.6
In an irrigated area, a subsurface drainage system is required to control the water table
under the following conditions (see schematic similar to Figure 2.11):

1.2 m 2.0 m
K = 0.9 m/day
Water table

qx

D = 6.8 m

Impervious layer L

Fig. 2.11 Drain spacing under unsteady-state condition

 The maximum permissible water-table height is 1.2 m below the soil surface.
 Irrigation is applied every 8 days, and the field application loss percolating to
the water table is 20 mm per irrigation.
 Drains are installed at a depth of 2.0 m below the soil surface.

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DRAINAGE ENGINEERING SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

 PVC laterals with a radius r0 = 0.10 m are used.

 The impervious layer is at a depth of 8.8 m below the soil surface.
 Average hydraulic conductivity (K= 0.9 m d−1).
 Drainable porosity (μ = 0.06).

Determine a suitable drain spacing L using the Glover–Dumm equation. Use the
accompanying equivalent-depth table to obtain the equivalent depth d for the given D,
r0, and trial values of L.

Solution
Step 1: Geometry and recharge
Depth from drain level to the impervious layer: D = 8.8-2.0 = 6.8 m
𝑅𝑖 0.02
Instantaneous recharge head rise from one irrigation: ∆ℎ = = 0.06 = 0.333𝑚
𝜇
Initial water-table height above drain level immediately after irrigation (limited by the
permissible level):
ℎ0 = 2.0 − 1.2 = 0.8𝑚
Required water-table height after t = 8 days (i.e., drawdown over the interval):
ℎ𝑡 = ℎ0 − ∆ℎ = 0.8 − 0.333 = 0.467𝑚
Step 2: Glover–Dumm spacing formula
1⁄ −1⁄2 1⁄ −1⁄2
𝐾𝑑𝑡 2 ℎ 0.9.𝑑.8 2 0.8
𝐿 = 𝜋( ) (ln 1.16 ℎ0 ) = 𝜋( ) (ln 1.16 0.467)
𝜇 𝑡 0.06

𝐿 = 41.5√𝑑
Step 3: Use the table to get d (trial and error)
Use the column for r0=0.10 m. For each trial L, read d at D = 6.8 m by interpolating
between the D = 6.5 and D = 7.0 rows.
Trial 1. Assume L = 80 m.
From the table at L = 80 m: Linear interpolation, d ≈ 4.17 m
Compute spacing: 𝐿 = 41.5√4.17 = 84.7𝑚
Trial 2. Assume L = 85 m: Linear interpolation, d ≈ 4.26 m
Compute spacing: 𝐿 = 41.5√4.26 = 85.7𝑚
Now the computed L (≈ 85.7 m) essentially matches the trial value L = 85 m →
convergence achieved.

Prof. Ali H. Al-Aboodi