COURSE NOTES

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

Qualification: Diploma: Engineering:

Chemical Engineering
CPDP311 Chemical Engineering Design &
Professional Practice Principles

2022

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Learning Module 1: The Design Process

Design constraints:
POSSIBLE designs satisfy external
 External constraints constraints
o Safety regulations
o Resources
o Physical laws PLAUSIBLE designs satisfy both
o Standards and codes internal and external constraints
o Government controls
o Economics
 Internal constraints
o Process choice
o Process conditions
o Materials
o Personnel
o Time
o Methods

Design concepts:
The design process:
 Build performance models
1. Determine customer needs  Predict fitness for service →
2. Set design specifications must meet customer needs
3. Generate design concepts and be economically
4. Evaluate economics + optimize + select design feasible
5. Detailed design  May require research and
6. Procurement + construction development (R &D)
7. Operation

Design selection and detailed design

Design basis: requires customer approval
 System of units
 National/local/company codes to be followed
 Raw materials
 Plant location details
 Utility availability and details

Types of chemical engineering projects

 Modification/addition to existing plants

 New production capacity using existing designs
 New processes (lab research → pilot plant → commercial plant)

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Anatomy of a chemical process:

Attainment/up-time = % of the year that a plant operates = [(hours operated) / 8760] × 100 %

Batch vs continuous processing

Batch Continuous
 Flexible process  Only a few products
 Niche products  Large market for products
 New technology  Established technology
 Small scale  Large scale

Advantages of batch processing:

 Multiple products from the same equipment

 Easy quality control (QC) due to batch integrity
 Flexible production rate → no turndown issues at low production rates
 Easy to clean
 Easy to scale up from chemists’ recipes
 Low capital costs for small production volumes

Disadvantages of batch processing:

 Limited productions scale

 Difficult to achieve economy of scale
 Quality can vary from batch to batch
 Recycle and heat recovery are difficult
 Lower asset utilization (due to idle time)
 Fixed costs are higher per unit

Suitability of batch processes:

 Food products
 Pharmaceuticals
 Personal care products

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  Speciality chemicals

Phases of chemical engineering projects

1. Phase 1 = process design

a. Process selection
b. Flow sheeting
c. Process equipment design
d. Piping and instrumentation
2. Phase 2 = plant design
a. Mechanical design
b. Plant layout
c. Civil/electrical design
d. Ancillary services

Structure of a chemical engineering project:

1. Project specification Which tasks will you do?

2. Preliminary evaluation and flow sheeting
3. Material and energy balances, preliminary equipment design, process flow sheeting
4. Preliminary costing and funds authorization
5. Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID)
6. Detailed process design
7. Mechanical design of equipment and utilities
8. Plant layout, civil/electrical work, piping design
9. Cost estimation and capital authorization
10. Procurement and purchasing
11. Construction and startup
12. Operation and sales

Project organization: Which team will

you be in?

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Project documentation

 General correspondence
 Calculation sheets
 Drawings
 Specification sheets
 Health, safety, and environmental information
 Purchase orders/quotes/invoices

SMART is widely used to manage objectives in complex projects

 Specific – targets speak to specific goals and apply to specific items

 Measurable – targets are used to track progress
 Achievable – targets are grounded in reality
 Relevant – targets align to the interests of stakeholders/clients
 Timely– targets include deadlines by which they must be achieved
 Project manager is responsible for reviewing objectives and ensuring indicators are SMART

Project manager’s role

 Responsible for handling the project as a whole

 Make decisions related to management and handling of resources allocated to the project
 Responsibilities, authority, level of decision-making are defined at the start of the project →
can vary from one project to another!

Project schedule

 Plan the duration of a project and compare progress with the planned schedule
 Work breakdown
o First step in planning a project
o Breakdown the work into discrete components (work packages) that must be done
to complete the project
o The work breakdown structure (WBS) is daily work tool to track progress
o 3-5 levels of complexity are recommended
o Developed by the project team
 WBS levels
o Project objective – End goal of the project components
o Components – Project outputs grouped by type
o Outputs – Results of the project deliverables
o Deliverables – Services, products, or work to complete the project
o Work packages – Activities/tasks that are performed to create the deliverables

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 Schedule
o Use the WBS to plan project timelines
o Draft your WBS to plan how long your project will take to finish!
o The schedule will show you the critical path → minimum time to complete the
project
 Sequence of activities
o Some are dependent on others being completed first (mandatory)
o Some are defined by the project team and can be switched around without changing
the outcome (discretionary)
o Some are related to outcomes outside the project (external)
 Network chart
o Activities are arranged according to how they must be completed
o Routes are illustrated from start to finish → the longest and shortest routes are
easily visible
o All tasks must be completed to finish the project → the longest route from start to
finish is the critical path

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Codes and standards:

 Materials/properties
 Testing procedures
 Preferred sizes
 Methods (design factors/fabrication techniques/inspection protocols)
 Codes of practice

Design margins/design factors/safety factors:

 Over-design accounts for uncertainties in design data and calculations

 Mechanical design margin = 4 × required tensile strength
 Process design margin = ± 10 % of material flows
 Greater uncertainties = bigger design factors

Trade-offs → “There’s no such thing as a free lunch!”

 More separation costs and higher operating costs ↔ lower product purity
 More recycle costs ↔ increased feed use and waste formation
 More heat recovery ↔ cheaper heat exchanger network
 Higher reactivity at high P ↔ more expensive reactor and higher compression costs
 Faster reactions at high T ↔ product degradation
 Marketable by-products ↔ more plant expense
 Cheaper steam and electricity ↔ more off-site capital costs

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Test yourself: The Design Process

1. Which of these is not an external constraint?

a. Government controls
b. Process choice
c. Physical laws
d. Standards and codes
2. Which of these does not form a design basis?
a. System of units
b. Raw materials
c. Plant location details
d. By-product information
3. Which of the following is not a feature of batch processing?
a. Few products
b. Process flexibility
c. Multiple products from the same equipment
d. Low asset utilization
4. Which of these products is not usually made using a batch process?
a. Parmesan cheese
b. Hand soap
c. Specialist molecular sieves
d. Naphtha
5. Which of the following activities does not take place during phase I of a chemical
engineering project?
a. Mechanical design
b. Process selection
c. Flow-sheeting
d. Process equipment design
6. Which of these design activities is not done by one of the specialist design sections?
a. Plant layout
b. Civil work
c. Equipment specification
d. Control systems
7. What is the common trade-off associated with having more separation equipment?
a. Increased waste formation
b. Lower product purity
c. Cheaper steam
8. What is the common trade-off associated with having more heat recovery?
a. Cheaper heat exchanger network
b. Increased waste formation
c. More recycle costs
9. Which of the following is not usually part of the project documentation for a chemical
engineering project?
a. E-mails between the project manager and the procurement section
b. Specification sheets for compressors
c. Company codes and standards for handling butyric acid
d. Purchase orders for piping

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 10. Your job is to prepare equipment specifications. Which section of a chemical engineering
project would you be working in?
a. Specialist design section
b. Procurement section
c. Process section

Answers: 1.b, 2.d, 3.a, 4.d, 5.a, 6.c, 7.b, 8.a, 9.c, 10.c

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Learning Module 2: Project Evaluation

Fixed capital investment → investment that isn’t returned if the plant closes

 ISBL (inside battery limits) = cost of the plant itself

 OSBL (outside battery limits) = necessary improvements/modifications to the site
infrastructure
 Engineering/construction costs
 Contingency costs

ISBL costs

 Direct field costs

o Major process equipment (e.g. columns and vessels)
o Bulk items (e.g. piping and valves)
o Civil works
o Installation labour and supervision
 Indirect field costs
o Construction costs (e.g. equipment rental)
o Field expenses (e.g. overtime and canteens)
o Construction insurance
o Labour benefits
o Miscellaneous overhead (e.g. import duties, freight costs)

OSBL costs

 Electrical infrastructure
 Power generation system
 Boiler and steam plant infrastructure
 Cooling water system
 Water pipes and water treatment system
 Air separation plant (e.g. for inert N2 gas)
 Dryers/blowers for instrumentation
 Pipe bridges and feed/product pipelines
 Tanker farms/loading facilities/warehouses/etc.
 Laboratories
 Workshops
 Emergency services
 Site security

Engineering costs (also called “home office costs” or “contractor charges”)

 Detailed process equipment design work

 Procurement of main equipment and bulk items
 Construction supervision and services
 Engineering administration charges

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  Bonding
 Contractor’s profit

Contingency charges → funds for things that can go wrong

 Changes in scope
 Changes in prices
 Currency fluctuations
 Labour disputes
 Subcontractor problems
 Unexpected problems

Working capital → investment that can be returned if the plant closes

 Value of raw material inventory (≈2 weeks’ supply)

 Value of product and by-product inventory (≈2 weeks’ supply)
 Cash on hand (≈1 week’s cost of production)
 Accounts receivable → products shipped but not yet paid for (≈1 month’s cost of
production)
 Credit for accounts payable → feed, catalyst, solvents, etc that are received but not yet paid
for (≈1 month’s worth)
 Spare parts inventory (1-2 % of OSBL + ISBL costs)

Variable costs → costs that change in price all the time

 Raw materials
 Utilities
 Consumables
 Effluent disposal
 Packaging and shipping

Fixed costs → costs that are generally steady

 Operating labour
 Supervision (≈25 % of operating labour)
 Direct salary overhead (40-60 % of operating labour + supervision)
 Maintenance (3-5 % of ISBL)
 Property tax + insurance (1-2 % of ISBL)
 Land/building rent (1-2 % of ISBL + OSBL)
 General plant overhead (≈65 % of total labour + maintenance)
 Environmental charges (≈1 % of ISBL + OSBL)
 License fees/royalties (depends on the process and technology used)
 Capital charges (for debt/loans only)
 Sales and marketing costs (highly variable)

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Revenue = income from sales of products + by-products

Gross margin = revenues – raw material costs

Cash cost of production (CCOP) = Σ(fixed costs) + Σ(variable costs)

Gross profit = main product revenues – CCOP

Net profit = gross profit – taxes

Total cost of production (TCOP) = CCOP + annual capital charges

Cash flows at the end of the project

 Working capital is recovered if a plant is mothballed

 Working capital must be reinvested if a plant restarts
 Scrap value < 10 % of ISBL
 OSBL costs are not recovered if a site closes

Accuracy of cost estimates

 Check/tender/as-bid = 5-10 %
 Detailed/quotation/tender/firm estimate = 5-10%
 Definitive/authorization/budgeting = 10-15 %
 Preliminary/approximate/feasibility = ±30 %
 Order of magnitude/ballpark/guesstimate = 30-50 %

Influence of design decisions on total cost

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Six-tenths rule (using cost vs plant capacity)

 Most accurate when projects are similar (plant design, plant location, feedstocks, products,
market conditions, etc.)
 Analogous estimation technique

C2 = C1 (S2 / S1)0.6

C2 = ISBL cost of plant with capacity S2

C1 = ISBL cost of plant with capacity S1

Cost escalation (inflation):

Cost in year A = cost in year B × (cost index in year A / cost index in year B)

Cash flow diagram:

 A-B = investment required to design the plant

 B-C = capital to build the plant and provide funds for startup, including working capital

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  C-D = process comes on stream and income is generated from sales until the investment is
paid off at D
 D-E = cumulative cash flow is positive and the project earns a return on the investment
 E-F = cash flow tends to drop off towards the end of a project due to the plant’s age and newer
technologies
 A-G = total lifespan of the project = design phase + construction + startup + production

Return on investment (ROI) = (net annual profit / total investment) × 100 %

Or

ROI = (cumulative net profit / [plant life × initial investment]) × 100 %

Typical startup schedule:

Year Costs Incomes Description

1 30 % of fixed capital costs 0 revenues engineering costs
2 40-60 % of fixed capital costs 0 revenues procurement and
construction
3 10-30 % of fixed capital costs + working 30 % of design construction completes and
capital + fixed costs + 30 % of variable basis revenues initial production starts
costs
4 Fixed costs + 50-90 % of variable costs 50-90 % of design Plant shakedown
basis revenue
5 Fixed costs + variable costs 100 % of design Full scale production
basis revenue

Piping costs

Economic pipe diameter gives the lowest total annualized cost (balance between capital and pumping
costs); rule of thumb:

ID in m = (flow in kg/s / density in kg/m3)0.5

Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) suggests using

Carbon steel → ID in mm = 293(flow in kg/s)0.53(density in kg/m3)-0.37

Stainless steel → ID in mm = 260(flow in kg/s)0.52(density in kg/m3)-0.37

Factorial cost estimation for equipment

 Based on the purchase cost of equipment, with other costs being factors of the equipment
cost
 Costs can be summed for all pieces of equipment
 ISBL fixed capital cost as a function of total purchased equipment cost
C = F (∑ Ce)

C = total plant ISBL capital cost (including engineering costs)

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 ∑ Ce = total delivered cost of all major equipment

F = installation factor (Lang factor)

Values of the Lang factor:

F = 3.1 for solids processing

F = 4.74 for fluids processing

F = 3.63 for mixed solids-fluids processing

 Analogous equipment cost estimation

o Based around a characteristic size parameter (S) e.g. power in kW, length in m,
capacity in L/h, area in m2, etc., a specific index (n), and a cost constant C

Purchased cost = CSn

Analogous equipment cost estimation data:

Equipment Size unit (S) Size range Constant (C) in 2004 USD Index (n)

Boiler up to 10bar Kg/h steam (5- 120 0.8

50)×103

Centrifugal compressor Power in kW 20-500 1 920 0.8

Vertical tube evaporator Area in m2 10-100 20 000 0.53

Falling film evaporator Area in m2 10-100 10 000 0.52

Plate and frame filter Area in m2 5-50 8 800 0.6

Process box furnace Heat in kW 103-105 560 0.77

Stirred jacketed reactor Capacity in m3 3-30 15 000 0.40

Vertical tank Capacity in m3 1-50 2 400 0.6

Horizontal tank Capacity in m3 10-100 2 900 0.6

Floating roof storage tank Capacity in m3 50-8000 4 350 0.55

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Test yourself: Project Evaluation

1. Which of the following does not count as an ISBL cost?

a. Construction insurance
b. Bulk items
c. Installation supervision
d. Installation labour
2. Which of these is an indirect field cost?
a. Piping
b. Valves
c. Jackhammer rental
d. Solvents
3. Which of these is not an OSBL cost?
a. Blower for instrumentation air
b. Steam plant
c. Pipe bridge
d. Wiring
4. Select an approximate quantity for the raw material inventory that would typically form the
working capital for a chemical plant:
a. 1 week’s supply
b. 2 weeks’ supply
c. 1 month’s supply
5. Select an approximate quantity for the by-product inventory that would typically form the
working capital for a chemical plant:
a. 1 week’s supply
b. 2 weeks’ supply
c. 1 month’s supply
6. Select an approximate quantity for the credit for accounts payable that would typically form
the working capital for a chemical plant:
a. 1 week’s supply
b. 2 weeks’ supply
c. 1 month’s supply
7. Select an approximate quantity for the product inventory that would typically form the
working capital for a chemical plant:
a. 1 week’s supply
b. 2 weeks’ supply
c. 1 month’s supply
8. Which of these is an approximate quantity for the fixed cost associated with property tax
and insurance?
a. 1-2 % of ISBL
b. 3-5 % of ISBL
c. 25 % of ISBL
9. Which of these is an approximate quantity for the fixed cost associated with maintenance?
a. 1-2 % of ISBL
b. 3-5 % of ISBL
c. 25 % of ISBL

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 10. How accurate are feasibility cost estimates?
a. ±30 %
b. 30-50%
c. 10-15%
d. 5-10%

Answers: 1.a, 2.c, 3.d, 4.b, 5.b, 6.c, 7.b, 8.a, 9.b, 10.a

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Learning Module 3: Flow-Sheeting

Block flow diagram (BFD) = 1 block represents a piece of equipment or a process stage

Process flow diagram (PFD) = pictorial representation of the plant or a section of the plant

Essential information for PFDs:

 Stream composition
o Component flows in kg/h
o Composition in wt-%
 Total stream flows in kg/h
 Stream temperature in oC
 Nominal operating pressure in bar
 Stream enthalpy in kJ/h

Optional information for PFDs:

 Molar compositions/flow rates

 Physical property data
o Density in kg/m3
o Viscosity in mPa.s
 Stream names

PFD layout:

 Main equipment sequence should match the plant

 Equipment is approximately to scale/in proportion
 Table of stream flows and data should be placed above or below the equipment layout
 Stream line numbers ordered from left to right
 Label streams even if there is just mixing or a phase change

Precision of data

 3 or 4 significant figures
 Small imprecise flows = TRACE
 Trace components relevant to specifications or constraints are shown in ppm

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Basis for calculations → MUST be shown

 Hours operated per year

 Reaction yield
 Physical yield
 Etc.

For batch processes → quantities are shown PER BATCH

Utilities

 Only show utility connections for equipment

 Utility requirements for equipment are tabulated

Equipment identification

 ID tag/ID number = letter + digits (e.g. C001 = column no. 1, R012 = reactor no. 12, etc.)
 Companies have their own guidelines
 If there is no internal standard, a key should be provided on the flow-sheet

Some common flow-sheet symbols:

Heat exchanger
or
Fixed tube sheet shell and tube heat exchanger

U-tube shell and tube heat exchanger

Kettle reboiler

Fired heater

Pressure vessel

Tray column

Fluid contacting vessel

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 Reactor or absorber

Open tank

Centrifugal pump

Compressor

Mixer

Filter

Cyclone or hydrocyclone

Turbine

Component lists for flow-sheet calculations

 Include components with specified limits in product streams if they are in the feed streams
or could be formed in the process
 Include components with specified limits in the feeds → by-products/feed impurities
 Include components that are formed by reactions→ accumulation!
 Include components with significant health, safety, or environmental concerns → toxicity,
explosivity, carcinogens, pollutants
 Include other components with a mass or mole fraction ≥ 2 %
 Do NOT include isomers unless the process specifically requires it!
 Component lists should generally have ≤ 40 components
 Mixture properties can be estimated from the pure component list

Common computer simulation programs:

Name Type Software details

Aspen Plus Steady-state Commercial
COCO Steady-state Free
DWSim Steady-state Free
ChemCAD Steady-state Commercial
HYSYS Steady-state + dynamic Commercial

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Simulation program structure is generally the same across all programs or if you build your own
simulation in e.g. Excel:

Information flow diagrams:

 Can help to build a model of the process to develop a simulation

 Units/equipment are replaced by calculation steps → e.g. isothermal compression
 Lines/streams are replaced by information → stream flow rates, stream properties (e.g. T)

Solution strategies for flow-sheets:

Sequential/modular = one unit at a time Simultaneous = all at once

 Hand calculations  Advanced software
 Older software  More computing power required
 Most homemade simulators  Harder to implement

Solving flow-sheets with recycle streams:

 For sequential/modular solution, initial estimates are needed

 First, “tear” the flow-sheet by disconnecting the recycle and solve for all flows without
recycle
 Then, use the calculated values for the recycle stream to calculate a new mixed feed
 Recalculate to solve for the recycle stream
 Repeat this procedure until the component flow of the main recycled component has
converged
 Use the following convergence criteria:
o |FBk – FBk-1| < 10-3
o where B is the recycled component, k is the current iteration step, and k-1 is the
previous iteration step
 This calculation is undertaken using SUCCESSIVE SUBSTITUTION:
xk+1 = f(xk)
xk+2 = f(xk+1) etc.

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Test yourself: Flow-sheeting

1. Which of the following statements typically applies to PFDs?

a. Stream temperatures are shown in degrees Celsius.
b. Each piece of equipment is represented by a block.
c. Nominal operating pressures are shown in MPa.
d. Stream compositions are shown in kg/s of each component.
2. What does it mean when a component flow is described as being "trace" in a PFD?
a. It is a tracer species used for diagnostics and troubleshooting.
b. It is not relevant to the design specifications.
c. It is a small imprecise amount.
3. A flow-sheet has a unit labelled R101. What do you expect it to be?
a. Column
b. Reactor
c. Centrifugal pump
d. Heater
4. A flow-sheet has a unit labelled P207. What do you expect it to be?
a. Column
b. Reactor
c. Centrifugal pump
d. Heater
5. A flow-sheet has a unit labelled H209. What do you expect it to be?
a. Column
b. Reactor
c. Centrifugal pump
d. Heater
6. A flow-sheet has a unit labelled C014. What do you expect it to be?
a. Column
b. Reactor
c. Centrifugal pump
d. Heater
7. Which of the following is not a process simulation computer program?
a. DWSim
b. Aspen Plus
c. GULP
d. ChemCAD
8. Which of the following items would typically form a calculation block on an information flow
diagram of a chemical plant?
a. Splitting tee
b. Fixed bed reactor
c. Mixing tee

Answers: 1.a, 2.c, 3.b, 4.c, 5.d, 6.a, 7.c, 8.a+b+c

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Learning Module 4: Safety and Loss Prevention Layers of safety:
Safety in process design: 1. Plant design
1. Identify and assess hazards 2. Process control
2. Control hazards 3. Alarms and operator
3. Control the process intervention →human
4. Limit the loss error!
4. Automatic shutdown
5. Pressure relief
Intrinsic safety → inherently safe (“what you don’t have can’t 6. Plant emergency response
7. Community emergency
leak out!”)
response
Vs

Extrinsic safety → safety MUST be engineered in

Materials hazards:

 Toxicity
o LD50 (LD = “lethal dose”) = dosage in mg/kg body weight at which 50 % of subjects
die
 Threshold limit value (TLV) on ppm = limit of exposure for no ill effects for 8 hrs/day for 5
days/week
 Controlling health hazards Good practice:
o Substitute components 1. Written instructions
o Containment 2. Training
o Ventilation 3. Protective gear
o Disposal 4. Housekeeping
o Emergency equipment 5. Monitoring
 Flammability 6. Medical check-ups
o Flash point = lowest T at which ignition will
occur from an open flame
o Autoignition temperature = T at which spontaneous ignition in air occurs
o Flammability limits = min/max concentrations in air at normal T and P for flame
propagation
o Flame traps = devices to prevent flame propagation through vents
 Explosions
o Confined vapour cloud explosion (CVCE) = a few kg of something flammable ignites
inside a structure
o Unconfined vapour cloud explosion (UCVCE) = large amount of a flammable gas
escapes into the air and ignites
o Boiling liquid expanding vapour cloud explosion (BLEVE) = a liquid boils and a sudden
vapour release occurs
o Dust explosions = fine solids + air + ignition source can explode (e.g. coal or grain)
 Ignition sources: Electrical equipment/static electricity/flames

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  Process hazards Pressure relief valves
 Pressure
o Over-pressure = pressure exceeding design P  Directly actuated =
o Vent piping → be careful about toxicity and weight/spring operates the
flammability when venting to relieve pressure! valve
o Under-pressure = pressure drops well below  Indirectly actuated =
design P → implosion risk! pressure sensor triggers the
 Temperature valve
o Steam/vapour is inherently safe since the max T  Bursting discs = thin disc
= T of vapour that bursts at a design P
o High T protection
 Alarms and interlocks
 Emergency cooling
 Structural design to resist high T
 Intrinsically safe heating systems
 Noise
o Sound level (dB) = 20 log10 [RMS sound P (Pa) / 2×10-5]
o Distracts personnel → HUMAN ERROR
o Loud noise → hearing loss
o Very loud noise → injury

Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

 Sections:
a. Chemical and company information
b. Composition and ingredients
c. Hazards and health effects
d. Aid measures
e. Firefighting measures
f. Accidental release measures
g. Handling and storage
h. Exposure and personal protection
i. Physical and chemical properties
j. Stability and reactivity
k. Toxicological information
l. Ecological information
m. Disposal
n. Transport
o. Regulations
p. Additional information (e.g. date of creation/revision)
 Must be available for all components being used
 Easily available online from various laboratories and chemical supply firms

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Hazard and operability studies (HAZOP)
Deviations are determined by
Basic outline:
GUIDE WORDS:
1. Intention = purpose of the line or vessel
1. No/not = complete negation
2. Deviation = departure from designer’s intention
of intention
3. Causes = why the deviation occurs
2. More/less = quantitative
4. Consequences = what happens when the deviation
increase/decrease
occurs
3. As well as/part of =
5. Hazards = consequences causing loss/injury
qualitative
6. Actions = what can be done to fix things
increase/decrease
4. Reverse = opposite of
intention
Procedure:
5. Other than = complete
1. Select a vessel and determine its intention substitution
2. Select attached lines and determine their intentions
3. Go through deviations + causes + consequences +
hazards + actions for each line
4. Move onto the next vessel and repeat
5. Repeat for auxiliary units
6. Complete for the current flow sheet and all other flow sheets

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Test yourself: Safety and Loss Prevention
1. In which layer of safety is human error a major factor?
a. Plant design
b. Process control
c. Operator intervention
d. Pressure relief
2. What does the term “LD50” mean?
a. It is the dosage in mL/kg body weight at which 50% of subjects die.
b. It is the limit of exposure for a typical 40 hour working week.
c. It is the limit of exposure for a 22 hour working week.
d. It is the dosage in mg/kg body weight at which 50% of subjects die.
3. Which of these is the most accurate description of the flash point of a substance?
a. Maximum conc. in air at STP for flame propagation.
b. Minimum conc. in air at STP for flame propagation.
c. T at which spontaneous ignition in air occurs.
d. Lowest T at which ignition from an open flame will occur.
4. A storage tank containing liquid nitrogen suddenly experiences a refrigeration failure and
the pressure inside the tank is suddenly 8 times the maximum pressure that the tank can
withstand. The storage tank is located outside a warehouse building. Which of these most
accurately describes what will happen?
a. BLEVE
b. UCVCE
c. CVCE
d. Dust explosion
5. Which of these is not a typical example of high temperature protection?
a. Alarms
b. Interlocks
c. Noise cancellation
d. Steam for heating
6. A pressure relief valve on a plant failed and there was no pressure sensor on the pressurized
vessel it was attached to. This failure resulted in the pressure vessel exploding. The model of
pressure relief valve that failed has an annual probability of failure of about 0.001 %. What
do you estimate the risk probability number for this failure to be?
a. 1000
b. 280
c. 343
d. 70

7. In the context of a HAZOP, is the guide word "MORE FLOW" quantitative or qualitative?
a. Quantitative
b. Qualitative
c. Neither
d. Both

26
 8. Which of these is the most accurate description of the guide word "OTHER THAN" in a
HAZOP?
a. Opposite of intention
b. Complete negation of intention
c. Complete substitution
d. Qualitative increase
9. Which of these best describes how an indirectly actuated pressure relief valve works?
a. Pressure sensor triggers the valve
b. Spring operates the valve
c. Weight operates the valve
d. A thin disc is designed to burst at a specific P

Answers: 1.c, 2.d, 3.d, 4.a, 5.c, 6.d, 7.a, 8.c, 9.a

27
Learning Module 5: Materials

Mechanical properties

 Strength (tensile strength) = maximum stress something can withstand

 Stiffness (elastic/Young’s modulus) = ability to resist bending/buckling
 Hardness = resistance to wear
 Fatigue resistance = ability to resist cyclic loading
 Creep resistance = ability to resist gradual extension (creep) under steady tensile stress

Effect of temperature on mechanical properties

 Tensile strength and elastic modulus decrease as T increases

 Creep resistance is very important at high T
 At T < 10 oC, metals that would normally be ductile can become brittle

Corrosion

 Uniform corrosion is measured in ipy (inches per year) or mmpy (mmpy); 1 ipy = 25 mmpy
Ipy = 12 w / (t A ρ)
w = mass lost in lb
t = time in years
A = surface area in ft2
ρ = material density in lb/ft3
 Galvanic corrosion
 Dissimilar metals
o Anode = active electrode = corrosion occurs here
o Cathode = passive electrode = no corrosion
o Galvanic/electrochemical series will help to analyse the situation
 Pitting = localized attack
 Intergranular corrosion = corrosion at crystal boundaries
 Stress corrosion → some combinations of stress + T + surrounding medium will lead to stress
cracking → brittle failure!
 Erosion-corrosion = increased rate of attack due to:
o Corrosion and
o Erosion → abrasion due to particles or high fluid velocity/turbulence
 High temperature oxidation → high T can cause rapid oxidation → rate of oxidation reaction
increases!
 Hydrogen embrittlement → absorption and reaction of H2 + metal causes a decrease in
ductility → brittle failure!
 Guide to characterizing corrosion rates:
Description ipy mmpy
Satisfactory < 0.01 < 0.25
Use with caution 0.01 – 0.03 0.25 – 0.75
Short exposure only 0.03 – 0.06 0.75 – 1.5
Unsatisfactory > 0.06 > 1.5

28
Other material properties to consider:
 Thermal conductivity
 Magnetism
 Electrical conductivity
 Availability in standard sizes
↕interconnected↕
 Ease of fabrication → related to mechanical properties
↕interconnected↕
 Cost → material cost + fabrication cost

Fabrication

 Determines to some extent which metals are used for which items and applications
 Strongly influences cost
 Guide to fabrication properties (S = satisfactory, U = unsatisfactory, D = difficult → special
expensive methods needed):

Metal Machining Cold working Hot working Casting Welding

Mild steel S S S D S
Cast iron S U U S D
18/8 stainless steel S S S D S
Copper D S S S D
Aluminium S S S D S
Titanium S S U U D

Factors affecting corrosion rates

 Temperature → affects corrosion directly and indirectly (material properties)

 Pressure
 pH
 Trace impurities → stress corrosion
 Aeration → differential oxidation cells
 Stream velocity and agitation → erosion-corrosion
 Heat transfer rate → differential temperature

Material costs

 Examples of metal costs (in 2004 prices; the ratios are approximately steady)

Metal US$/t
Carbon steel 500
304 stainless steel 2 400
Copper 2 500
Aluminium 1 500
Titanium 34 000

29
  Cost rating is useful to compare costs for materials that will be used in the same application:
Cost rating = C × ρ / σd
C = cost per mass (R/kg)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
σd = design stress (N/mm2)

Iron and steel

 Mild steel (low carbon steel) is the most commonly used metal
 Only resistant to corrosion by concentrated H2SO4 or caustic alkalis
 Resistant to solvents except chlorinated organic solvents
 Susceptible to stress corrosion
 Low alloy steels (< 5 % elements) have enhanced mechanical properties but are not resistant
to corrosion
 High Si steels (14-15 %) are resistant to mineral acids BUT are very brittle

Stainless steel

 Cr content must be > 12 % to offer corrosion resistance, and more Cr = more resistance to
corrosion under OXIDIZING CONDITIONS
 Ni adds corrosion resistance under REDUCING CONDITIONS
 Ferritic stainless steel → 13-20 % Cr + < 0.1 % C + 0 % Ni
 Austenitic stainless steel → 18-20 % Cr + > 7 % Ni → most resistant to corrosion and widely
used
 Martensitic stainless steel → 10-12 % Cr + 0.2-0.4 % C + ≤ 2 % Ni
 Common grades of stainless steel:
 Type 304 (also called 18/8) → minimum Cr/Ni = 18 %/8 %
 Type 304L → low carbon type 304 (< 0.03 % C)
 Type 316 → molybdenum added to improve corrosion resistance
 Type 316L → low carbon version of type 316
 Low carbon content → heat treatment can cause carbide precipitation
 Austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic, are stronger than carbon steel, and do not
become brittle at low T
 Higher alloy content = higher corrosion resistance (and higher cost!)
 Intergranular corrosion (weld decay) and stress corrosion can be issues with stainless steel

Copper/copper alloys

 Soft and easily worked

 Traditionally used in the food and brewing industries but not for chemical processes
 Attacked by mineral acids (except for cold, diluted, un-aerated H2SO4)
 Resistant to caustic alkalis (except ammonia)
 Resistant to organic acids and salts
 Has high thermal conductivity → often used for fittings and in heat exchangers

30
Aluminium

 Duralumin (Cu-Al alloy with 4-5 % Cu + 0.5 % Mg) has similar strength to mild steel
 Pure Al is NOT strong!
 A thin oxide layer forms quickly on aluminium, which protects the underlying metal → Al is
good to use under strong OXIDIZING CONDITIONS
 Attacked by mineral acids and alkalis
 Resistant to concentrated HNO3 (> 80 %)
 Used in the textile and food industries and to store demineralized water

Titanium

 Resistant to Cl- solutions, seawater, and brines

 Attacked by DRY chlorine
 Used for heat exchangers

Plastics
Thermoplastic polymers:
 Weaker than metals (in terms of mechanical
strength)  Soften as T increases
 Plastic + glass/carbon fibre composites have  e.g. PVC, polyethylene
similar strength to mild steel
 Good resistance to dilute acids and inorganic salts
 Poor resistance to organic solvents Thermosetting polymers:
 Swelling → density decreases and the material  Rigid cross-linked structure
weakens  e.g. resins (polyester/epoxy)

Polyvinylchloride (PVC)

 Widely used for water piping

 Resistant to inorganic acids except for strong HNO3 or H2SO4
 Resistant to inorganic salts
 Maximum T of applications is 60 oC!

Polyolefines (e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene)

 Polyethylene has two common varieties:

o High density (HDPE) → stronger and tougher
o Low density (LDPE) → weaker but more flexible
 Generally cheap, tough, and flexible
 Maximum T = 60 oC → PE softens above 60 oC
 Maximum T for polypropylene (PP) = 120 oC

31
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

 Teflon (DuPont trade mark) is made out of PTFE → famous non-stick coating
 Resistant to almost everything except molten alkalis and F2
 Maximum T = 250 oC
 Mechanically weak → typically used as a coating or combined with fillers (e.g. carbon fibre)

Polymer fluorination

 Cheaper polymers such as polyethylene may be fluorinated via surface reaction to form a
material with a fluoropolymer surface coating
 Bulk properties are similar to polyethylene, but there is now chemical resistance at the
surface due to the fluoropolymer layer
 E.g. petrol tanks for cars are often produced this way
 Polyethylene
o -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-
o Mechanical tough
o Not chemically resistant
o 0 % fluorination
o Flexible polymer molecules
 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
o -CH2-CF2-CH2-CF2-
o 50 % fluorination
o Some chemical resistance
 PTFE
o -CF2-CF2-CF2-CF2-
o 100 % fluorination
o Strong chemical resistance
o Rigid helical polymer molecules
o Mechanically weak

Polymer structure

 Polymer molecules are often referred to as “polymer chains” since they are chains of a
repeated unit, the monomer
 Linear chains
o Flexible and soft

32
  Branched chains

 Cross-linked chains
o Rigid, brittle, and hard

Glass fibre reinforced plastics (GRP)

 Resin + glass (silicate) fibres → fibres add mechanical strength

 Complex shapes are easy to form
 Mechanically strong and resistant to most chemicals → resistance depends on the resin used
 Polyester resin = resistance to dilute mineral acids, inorganic salts, and many solvents
 Epoxy resins = resistance is similar to polyester, but with more resistance to alkalis
 Increasing the glass fibre content = more mechanical strength but less chemical resistance

Rubbers

 Used for linings and coatings in tanks and pipes

 Natural rubber (from rubber trees)
o Resistant to acids and alkalis (except for concentrated HNO3)
o Not resistant to organic solvents

33
Ceramics
Thermal shock is when
 Glass there is a sudden
o Borosilicate glass (e.g. Pyrex) is resistant to thermal temperature change → can
shock and many chemicals → attacked by caustic cause cracks in materials!
alkalis and F2
 Stoneware
o Used for absorber/distillation column packing (e.g. Raschig rings)
o Not resistant to alkalis and F2
 Refractory materials Raschig rings
o Used in furnaces, heaters, or boilers (very
high T)
o Silica (SiO2) + Alumina (Al2O3)
o Low thermal conductivity
Commonly used to increase contact
o Special types can resist alkalis
area to improve mass transfer

Carbonaceous materials Activated carbon and graphite have

 Used in specialized equipment (sometimes heat a similar structure:
exchangers)
 Good resistance in general (except against oxidizing
acids with concentrations > 30 %)
 Good electrical and thermal conductivity
 Activated carbon and graphite are used as adsorbents
→ large specific surface area
 Graphene Graphene sheets with gaps in
o Basic allotrope for many carbonaceous between where adsorption occurs
materials
o 100 times stronger than steel per unit thickness
 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) Graphene comprises 6-membered
o VERY expensive carbon rings arranged in thin sheets
o Similar mechanical strength to glass fibres used
in GRP
o Most common technique to manufacture them
is chemical vapour deposition (CVD) → batch
process

34
Test yourself: Materials

1. Which of the following statements is incorrect?

a. Creep is the gradual extension of a material under irregular tensile stress.
b. Toughness is the resistance to crack propagation.
c. The ability to resisting buckling is also called stiffness.
d. The Young's modulus of a material is related to its stiffness.
2. A company has been using carbon steel storage spheres to store cold hydrogen gas (T = 273
K). Which of these statements describes potential problems most thoroughly?
a. The carbon steel is likely to become brittle since T < 10 degrees Celsius.
b. Carbon steel will experience galvanic corrosion in this situation.
c. The low temperature and hydrogen gas could make the container brittle.
d. Hydrogen embrittlement can compromise the storage vessel.
3. Which of these statements regarding corrosion is incorrect?
a. Galvanic corrosion occurs at the anode.
b. Stress cracking can cause creep failure.
c. Another name for localized attack is "pitting"
d. Galvanic corrosion follows the electrochemical series.
4. Which of these factors doesn't usually affect corrosion?
a. Fluid density.
b. Trace impurities.
c. Stream velocity.
d. pH
5. Which of these statements does not apply to iron and steel as materials of construction?
a. They are resistant to caustic alkalis.
b. They can resist corrosion by concentrated H2SO4.
c. They are resistant to HNO3.
d. They are susceptible to stress corrosion.
6. Which of the following statements about stainless steel is incorrect?
a. The Cr content should be >12 % to offer corrosion resistance.
b. Austenitic stainless steels don't usually become brittle at low T.
c. Nickel content adds corrosion resistance under reducing conditions.
d. Ferritic stainless steel contains up to 1 % nickel.
7. Which of these comments doesn't apply to copper and copper alloys?
a. They are soft and easily worked.
b. They are generally not resistant to mineral acids.
c. They are resistant to ammonia.
d. They have a high thermal conductivity.
8. Which of these is not an example of a thermoplastic polymer?
a. PVC
b. HDPE
c. Teflon
d. Epoxy
9. Which of these comments does not apply to GRP?
a. Polyester resins are resistant to dilute mineral acids.
b. Increasing the glass fiber content increases the mechanical strength.
c. They are easy to form into complex shapes.
d. Glass fiber helps to boost chemical resistance.

35
 10. Which of these statements regarding carbonaceous materials is correct?
a. Chemical vapour deposition is used to produce graphite.
b. CNTs typically occur as layered graphene sheets.
c. Adsorption can occur in gaps between the thin sheets forming graphite.
d. Carbon nanotubes have poor electrical conductivity.

Answers: 1.a, 2.c, 3.b, 4.a, 5.c, 6.d, 7.c, 8.d, 9.d, 10.c

36
Learning Module 6: Piping and Instrumentation

Increasing level of detail:

Block flow diagram (BFD) – major process steps

Process flow diagram (PFD) – process equipment

Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) – process equipment + piping + pumps + valves

P&ID should include:

 All process equipment with ID numbers; equipment should be roughly proportional in size
and include nozzles
 All pipes with line numbers + pipe sizes + pipe material
 All valves (control + block valves) with ID numbers + types + size
 Ancillary fittings in the piping with ID numbers (e.g. in-line sight-glasses, steam traps)
 Pumps with ID numbers
 ALL control loops and instruments with ID numbers

Control valve symbols

Fails open

Fails closed

Maintains position at failure

Valve types

 Block/shut-off valves
o Minimum resistance to flow while open
o Positive seal when closed
o Gate/plug/ball valves are suitable
 Control valves
o Should have smooth control over the full range of flow
o Globe valves are generally suitable for liquids
o Butterfly valves are often used for gases and vapours
 Non-return valves are used to prevent back-flow in process lines

37
Valve constructions

Gate valve

Plug valve

Ball valve

38
Globe valve

Diaphragm valve

Butterfly valve

Non-return valve

39
Control valve selection

 Determine the valve coefficient CV for a desired pressure drop; additionally determine the
valve authority and rangeability
o For liquids
CV = Q (SG / ΔP)0.5

Where

Q = flow rate in gpm

ΔP = pressure drop at design flow rate in psi

o For steam
CV = WK / [2.1 (ΔP (P1 + P2)0.5 ]

Where

W = steam flow in lb/h

K = 1 + (0.0007×T superheat) for T in oF

ΔP = pressure drop at maximum flow in psi

P1 = inlet pressure in psi

P2 = outlet pressure in psi

o In metric units, one considers the flow factor KV using flow in m3/h and pressure
drop in bar; KV =0.865CV
 Valve authority (ratio between control valve pressure drop compared to total pressure drop
across the system)
N = ΔPV / (ΔPV + ΔPL)

Where

ΔPV = pressure drop across the control valve

ΔPL = pressure drop due to pipe frictional losses

 Rangeability (ratio of maximum to minimum flow that can be acted upon by a control valve
after receiving a signal from a controller)
R = (Qmax / Qmin) N0.5

Where

Qmax = design flow rate

Qmin = minimum flow rate

o Affected by
 Valve geometry (i.e. the geometry of the closure element and seat) has an
inherent rangeability due to the design and configuration of the body and
the regulating element. Sometimes the configuration can be modified,
improving rangeability as long as the valve’s sensitivity is not affected.
 Seat leakage also affects rangeability. Excessive seat leakage can cause
instability as the valve lifts off the seat.

40
  Valve Actuation (or Actuator) – Some actuators are much more stiff at near
closure than others.

Pump types

 Dynamic/centrifugal pumps → widely used in the chemical industry

 Positive displacement → reciprocating/diaphragm pumps

Pump selection guide:

Pump speed (centrifugal pumps)

 Specific speed:
NS = N Q1/2 / (g H) ¾
NS = specific speed (dimensionless)
N = speed in 1/s (i.e. Hz)
Q = flow rate in m3/s
g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
H = head supplied in m
 However, many manufacturers use a dimensional form:
N’S = N Q1/2 / H3/4
N’S = speed in rpm
N = speed in rpm
Q = flow rate in gal/min (gpm)
H = head supplied in ft

41
Affinity laws

 Relationships between flow rate (Q), head (H), speed (N), impeller diameter (D), and power
(Π)
 Assuming constant pump efficiency (η), there are two sets of laws:
With constant D With constant N
Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2 Q1 / Q2 = (D1 / D2)3
H1 / H2 = (N1 / N2)2 H1 / H2 = (D1 / D2)2
3
Π1 / Π2 = (N1 / N2) Π1 / Π2 = (D1 / D2)5

Pressure drop in pipelines

 Pressure drop due to friction:

∆Pf = 8 f (L / Di) (ρ u2 / 2)
∆Pf = pressure drop due to friction in Pa
f = friction factor The friction factor f is a function of the Reynolds
L = pipe length in m number (Re)
Di = internal diameter of the pipe
Re = Di u ρ / μ
ρ = fluid density in kg/m3
u = fluid velocity in m/s and the relative roughness (ε/Di), which is related to
 Miscellaneous losses due to fittings and valves the absolute roughness (ε)
o Using velocity heads:
∆Pfittings = Σi(Ki × u2 / 2g)
Ki = velocity heads per fitting Absolute roughness depends on the material of the
u2 / 2g = 1 velocity head piping.
 Using equivalent pipe diameters:
o Effective pipe length
Le = L + Σi(De)i
(De)i = effective pipe diameter per fitting
o This replaces the length of the piping used in the calculation of pressure drop due to
friction

A friction factor chart is on the next page:

42
43
Power requirements for pumping

 Energy needed to overcome friction in the pipe

 Energy to overcome friction and pressure drops across pipe fittings
 Energy to overcome pressure drops across equipment (e.g. heat exchangers)
 Energy for overcoming elevation changes
 Energy to overcome pressure differences between the inlet and outlet of the pipe
 Total energy required W:
W = (g ∆z) + (∆P / ρ) - (∆Pf / ρ)
W in J/kg
g = 9.81 m/s2
∆z in m
∆P across the piping system in Pa
ρ in kg/m3 Head has several contributions:
∆Pf in Pa
 Total head required H (in m):  Dynamic head depends on the
H = (∆Pf / ρg) - (∆P / ρg) - ∆z flow rate = (∆Pf / ρg)
 Power (Π) in kW:  Static head is independent of the
Π = (W × m) / η for pumps flow rate = (∆P / ρg) + ∆z

Characteristic curves for centrifugal pumps

 Each curve in a “family” of pump curves corresponds to the performance characteristics of

one specific pump type over a range of impeller sizes
 Maximum efficiency is typically at the apex of the curve (stars in the diagram)

44
 At the design Q, the pump supplies
just enough head to match the head
requirements of the pipeline, within
the design margins

The static head is the asymptote

that is found as Q → 0

Dynamic head increases

geometrically with Q

Information on a pumping diagram:

45
Net positive suction head (NPSH)

Suction end Discharge end

There must be The pump must

enough head deliver enough head
available to allow the to overcome the
fluid to enter the head losses in the
pump easily pipeline

NPSH available > NPSH required to prevent cavitation: Cavitation:

NPSH available = (P1 / ρ) + HL – (Pf / ρ) – (Psat / ρ)
P = pressure above the liquid in the feed tank  When the pressure of the liquid drops
below the vapour pressure, and starts to
HL = height of liquid level above the pump suction vaporize
Pf = pressure loss in suction piping  Small vapour bubbles form at the suction
end of the pump
Psat = vapour pressure of the liquid at the pump  As the pressure of the liquid increases
suction T → Antoine equations give Psat = f(T) towards the discharge end, the bubbles
collapse
 Collapsing vapour bubbles send tiny
Design of piping systems shockwaves throughout the liquid,
 Pipe wall thickness = pipe schedule causing mechanical damage to the pump
 Schedule 40 is most commonly used

Schedule number = Ps × 1000 / σs

Ps = safe working pressure (N/mm2)

σs = safe working stress (N/mm2)

Pipe wall thickness = t = (Pi × Do) / (20 σd + Pi)

Pi = internal pressure in bar

Do = outer/external pipe diameter in mm

σd = design stress at operating T in N/mm2

46
Pipe size selection

 Continuity equation: Q = u A → pipe size influences fluid velocity, since A = π D2 / 4

 Fluid velocity guidelines:

Pumped liquids 1-3 m/s

Gases/vapours 15-30 m/s
Steam (P > bar) 30-60 m/s
 Optimal pipe diameter balances capital costs and operating costs
o Larger pipes are more expensive
o Narrower pipes result in more friction, and thus increase pumping costs

Optimum pipe diameter

 Based on IChemE guidelines, the following is recommended for carbon steel:

Doptimum = 293 (m)0.53 (ρ)-0.37
Doptimum = optimal internal pipe diameter in mm
m = flow rate in kg/s
ρ = fluid density in kg/m3
 Carbon steel can be used as a basis since it is the most widely used material

Instrumentation and control objectives

Process control objectives
1. Safe plant operation are not separate and MUST
a. Keep process variables within limits be achieved together!
b. Detect dangerous situation
c. Provide alarms and interlocks
2. Achieve desired production rate
3. Maintain product quality according to product specifications
4. Operate at the lowest cost WITHOUT sacrificing any other objectives

Guidelines for sketching control systems

1. Identify and draw obvious control loops needed for steady-state operation
a. Level control
b. Flow control
c. Pressure control
d. Temperature control
2. Identify key variables for product quality and control those directly or indirectly (via a proxy
variable)
3. Identify loops for safe operation that are not already covered Successful trouble-
4. Add ancillary sensors needed for monitoring and trouble-shooting shooting can help
5. Locate sample points with future plant
6. Decide on instrument types, signal types, and information displays development and
(local vs main panel) modification!
7. Decide on alarms and interlocks

47
Important notes for control loops

 Only 1 control valve between unit operations on any given stream

 Level control should be used wherever a vapour-liquid or liquid-liquid interface is
maintained
 Pressure control is more responsive when the control valve acts on a vapour stream
 2 operations cannot be controlled at different pressures unless there is a control
valve/pump/compressor/turbine/expander in between
 Temperature control is usually achieved by controlling a utility stream (e.g. steam or cooling
water)

Instrument symbols

Field/locally mounted

Panel mounted in the primary control room

Panel mounted in a secondary location

Instrumentation lines

Pneumatic (air pressure signal); 3-15 psi

Electric signal; 4-20 mA
Electrical binary signal; on/off or I/O
Internal system link (software or data link)

Other common symbols

Pressure relief or safety valve

Hand-operated control valve

Gate valve/isolation valve

Non-return valve/check valve

Examples of letter codes for instruments and controllers

 FIC = flow indicator controller (it displays the measured value)

 PC = pressure controller that is “blind” (does not display the value)

48
  TRC = temperature recorder controller (it records the measured value)
 TD = temperature differential
 PD = pressure differential
 FF = flow ratio
 L = level
 A = composition (A for analysis)
 LAH = level alarm when the liquid level is too high
 TAL = temperature alarm when the temperature is too low

Common control loops:

Level control

Flow control

Or with a variable-speed pump

49
Pressure control

Temperature control

Or via bypass

Ratio control

50
 Condenser control Via the coolant flow

Or via the heat transfer area using liquid level in the condenser

Vaporizer control

Automatic trip system

 Takes action automatically to avoid hazards

 Basic components
1. Sensor to monitor the variable
2. Link to transfer signal to an actuator
3. Actuator to carry out action (e.g. close a block valve)

Interlocks
 Prevent actions that deviate from a SPECIFIC order of operations
 e.g. during startup or shutdown

51
Test yourself: Piping and Instrumentation

1. Which of the following statements applies to control valves?

a. Gate valves are often used.
b. They should have a positive seal when closed.
c. Globe valves are suitable.
2. Capacity (Q), head (H) and power (P) are related to pump speed (N) via the so-called affinity
laws. Which affinity law is the ratio H1/H2 related to?
a. N1/N2
b. (N1/N2)2
c. (N1/N2)3
3. Capacity (Q), head (H) and power (P) are related to pump speed (N) via the so-called affinity
laws. Which affinity law is the ratio H1/H2 related to?
a. N1/N2
b. (N1/N2)2
c. (N1/N2)3
4. Capacity (Q), head (H) and power (P) are related to pump speed (N) via the so-called affinity
laws. Which affinity law is the ratio H1/H2 related to?
a. N1/N2
b. (N1/N2)2
c. (N1/N2)3
5. Which of the following does not contribute to the power requirements for pumping?
a. Elbow joints
b. T-junctions
c. Signal line friction
d. Pipe friction
6. Which of these diagrams shows a typical condenser control scheme?

a. b.
c. d.

52
 7. Which of these shows a temperature control scheme?
a. b.

c. d.

8. By referring to the pump selection guide, recommend which pump will be appropriate for
this scenario: Q = 100 m3/h & system H= 75 m.
a. Single stage centrifugal pump (3500 rpm)
b. Single stage centrifugal pump (1750 rpm)
c. Multi-stage centrifugal pump
9. By referring to the pump selection guide, recommend which pump will be appropriate for
this scenario: Q = 117 m3/h & system H= 110 m.
a. Single stage centrifugal pump (3500 rpm)
b. Single stage centrifugal pump (1750 rpm)
c. Multi-stage centrifugal pump
10. By referring to the pump selection guide, recommend which pump will be appropriate for
this scenario: Q = 10 m3/h & system H= 10-150 m.
a. Single stage centrifugal pump (3500 rpm)
b. Single stage centrifugal pump (1750 rpm)
c. Multi-stage centrifugal pump

Answers: 1.c, 2.b, 3.a, 4.c, 5.c, 6.c, 7.a, 8.a, 9.b, 10.c

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