Accelerometer

An accelerometer can be defined as a device that is used to measure

acceleration forces, the forces which are defined by this can be
static, like the continuous force of gravity or light we have seen in
the case of mobile phones and it can also be said in the case of
dynamics to sense movement or vibrations.

An accelerometer is a device that senses the different types of

accelerations or vibrations. Acceleration is the change in velocity
caused by the movements of a body.

An accelerometer absorbs the vibrations created by the body and

uses it to know the orientation of the body. A piezoelectric
accelerometer has two types which are high impedance output
accelerometer and low impedance output accelerometer.

On the basis of the working mode, it is mainly of three types. The

compression mode, the capacitive mode, and the shear mode. All of
them work on sensing the vibrations.
• Applications
• The Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:
• For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive accelerometers are used.
• To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
• To display images in an upright position on screens of digital cameras.
• For flight stabilization in drones.
• Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, coordinate acceleration,
vibration, shock.
• Used to detect the position of the device in laptops and mobiles.
• High-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial acceleration in biological
applications for discrimination of behavioral patterns of animals.
• Machinery health monitoring.
• To detect faults in rotator machines.
• These are also used for building and structural monitoring to measure the
motion and vibration of the structure when exposed to dynamic loads.
• To measure the depth of CPR chest compressions.
• Navigation systems make use of accelerometer sensors for knowing the
direction.
• Remote sensing devices also use accelerometers to monitor active
volcanoes.
VELOCITY SENSOR

Tachogenerator
• Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable
reluctance. It consists of an assembly of a toothed
wheel and a magnetic circuit as shown in figure.
Toothed wheel is mounted on the shaft or the element
of which angular motion is to be measured.
• Magnetic circuit comprising of a coil wound on a
ferromagnetic material core. As the wheel rotates, the
air gap between wheel tooth and magnetic core
changes which results in cyclic change in flux linked with
the coil.
• The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular
motion. A pulse shaping signal conditioner is used to
transform the output into a number of pulses which can
be counted by a counter.
•
 Tachogenerator
•An alternating current (AC) generator can also be used as a
techogenerator. It comprises of rotor coil which rotates with the
shaft. Figure shows the schematic of AC generator.
•The rotor rotates in the magnetic field produced by a stationary
permanent magnet or electromagnet.
•During this process, an alternating emf is produced which is the
measure of the angular velocity of the rotor.
• In general, these sensors exhibit nonlinearity error of about ±
0.15% and are employed for the rotations up to about
• A proximity sensor
• Proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects
the presence of an object (often referred to as the
“target”) when the target enters the sensor’s field.
• Depending on the type of proximity sensor, sound,
light, infrared radiation (IR), or electromagnetic fields
may be utilized by the sensor to detect a target.
• Proximity sensors are used in phones, recycling
plants, self-driving cars, anti-aircraft systems, and
assembly lines. There are many types of proximity
sensors, and they each sense targets in distinct
ways.
• The two most commonly used proximity sensors are
the inductive proximity sensor and the capacitive
proximity sensor.
• An inductive proximity sensor can only detect
metal targets. This is because the sensor
utilizes an electromagnetic field.
• Capacitive proximity sensors, on the other
hand, are not limited to metallic targets. These
proximity sensors are capable of detecting
anything that can carry an electrical charge.
Capacitive sensors are commonly used in
liquid level [Link]
• nly edinliquid leveldetection.
•
Eddy current proximity sensors

Schematic of Inductive Proximity Sensor

• Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic
but conductive materials. They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a
detector and a triggering circuit. Figure 10 shows the
construction of eddy current proximity switch. When an
alternating current is passed thru this coil, an alternative
magnetic field is generated.
• If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then
eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic field.
These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
• As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude
of alternating current. This can be used to trigger a switch at
some pre-determined level of change in current.
• Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in
small in size, highly reliable and have high sensitivity for small
displacements.
•
• Applications of eddy current proximity sensors
• Automation requiring precise location
• Machine tool monitoring
• Final assembly of precision equipment such as
disk drives
• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously
moving target, such as a vibrating element,
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements
Ultrasonic sensor
• An ultrasonic sensor is an electronic device that
measures the distance of a target object by
emitting ultrasonic sound waves and converts the
reflected sound into an electrical signal.
• Ultrasonic waves travel faster than the speed of
audible sound (i.e. the sound that humans can
hear).
Ultrasonic sensor
T- Transmitter
R- Receiver
Vcc , Trigger, Echo, Gnd(Ground)
• Ultrasonic sensors have two main components:
the transmitter (which emits the sound using
piezoelectric crystals) and the receiver (which
encounters the sound after it has traveled to and
from the target).

• To calculate the distance between the sensor and

the object, the sensor measures the time it takes
between the emission of the sound by the
transmitter to its contact with the receiver. The
formula for this calculation is D = ½ T x C (where D
is the distance, T is the time, and C is the speed of
sound ~ 343 meters/second).
 Laser Interferometer
• Interferometry is nothing but the use of optical interference to carrying
out precise measurements of very small linear dimensions.
• Laser Interferometer is one of the interferometers which uses laser
means and electronic controls to carry out the inspection of machine
parts for straightness, parallelism, and flatness, and measurement of
very small diameters, among others, and also to Calibrate slip gauges.

• Applications
• Laser interferometers are used to calibrate machine tables, slides, and
axis movements of coordinate measuring machines. The equipment is
portable and provides a very high degree of accuracy and precision.
Hall effect sensor

Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

• Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge
particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles
and the current beam is deflected from its straight line path. Thus one
side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side will
be of positive charge.
• This charge separation generates a potential difference which is the
measure of distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying current.
The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid
level in a container.

• The container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached

at it [Link] circuit with a current carrying disc is mounted in
the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come close
to the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a
switch to stop the fluid to come inside the container. These sensors are
used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of
position of an object.
• Hall effect sensors need necessary signal conditioning circuitry. They
can be operated at 100 kHz. Their non-contact nature of operation,
good immunity to environment contaminants and ability to sustain in
severe conditions make them quite popular in industrial automation.
 Inductive proximityswitch

Schematic of Inductive Proximity Switch

Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection

of metallic objects.
• Figure shows the construction of inductive proximity switch. An
inductive proximity sensor has four components; the coil,
oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit.
• An alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a
magnetic field. When, a metal object comes closer to the end of
the coil, inductance o f the coil changes.
• This is continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch
when a preset value of inductance change is occurred.

• Applications of inductive proximity switches

• Industrial automation: counting of products during
production ortransfer.
• Security: detection of metal objects, arms, landmines.
•

•
 • PROXIMITY SWITCHES

Configurations of contact type proximity switch

• Contact-type proximity switches being used in

manufacturing automation.
• These are small electrical switches which require physical
contact and a small operating force to close the contacts.
• They are basically employed on conveyor systems to
detect the presence of an item on the conveyorbelt.
 Reed Switch

• Magnet based Reed switches are used as proximity switches.

• When a magnet attached to an object brought close to the
switch,
• The magnetic reeds attract to each other and close the switch
contacts.
• A schematic is shown in Figure
.
 – LIGHT SENSORS
•
• A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There
are different types of light sensors such as
photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in
manufacturing and other industrial applications.
•
• Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR).
It has a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing
incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance
semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The
resistance of a CdSphotoresistor varies
inversely to the amount oflight incident upon [Link]
follows the principle of p hotoconductivity which results from
the generation of mobile carriers when photons are absorbed
by the semiconductor material.
• Figure shows the construction of a photo
resistor. The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a
ceramic substrate. This assembly is
encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive
coil electrodes are connected to the control
system though lead wires. On incidence of
high intensity light on the electrodes, the
resistance of resistor coil decreases which will
be used further to generate the appropriate
signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.
 Construction of a photo resistor

Photo resistors are used in science and in almost any branch of

industry for control, safety, amusement, sound reproduction,
inspection and measurement.
• Applications of photo resistor
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient
light sensors to automatically control the brightness of a
screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light
sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of
vehicles and robots. The light sensor enables a robot to
detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific
reaction if a certain amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera.
• Industrial process control.
•
• Photo diodes
• Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts
incident light into an electric current. It is made of
Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction,
normally a p-on-n configuration.
• When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the
bandgap of silicon) fall on the device, they are absorbed
and electron-hole pairs are created.
• The depth at which the photons are absorbed depends
upon their energy. The lower the energy of the photons,
the deeper they are absorbed.
• Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When the
minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept
across by the electric field and an electric current
establishes.
 Photodiode
Figure shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is
constructed from single crystal silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction
device. The upper layer is p layer. It is very thin and formed by
thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping material such as
boron. Depletion region is narrow and is sandwiched between p layer
and bulk n type layer of silicon. Light irradiates at front surface,
anode, while the back surface is cathode. The incidence of light on
anode generates a flow of electron across the p-n junction which is
the measure of light intensity.
• Applications of photo diodes
• Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-
focus, Photographic Flash Control Medical: CAT Scanners - X
ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers
Industry
• Bar CodeScanners
• LightPens
• BrightnessControls
• Encoders
• PositionSensors
• SurveyingInstruments
• Copiers - Density of Toner.
 Tactile sensors

• A tactile sensor is a device also called touch

sensor. It measures the coming information in
response to the physical interaction with the
environment.
• Tactile sensors appear in everyday life such as
elevator buttons and lamps which dim or
brighten by touching the base. There are also
innumerable other applications for tactile sensors
of which most people are never aware.
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) tactilesensor
PVDF Tactile sensor
Flow sensor

• A flow sensor (more commonly referred to as a “flow

meter”) is an electronic device that measures or
regulates the flow rate of liquids and gasses within
pipes and tubes.
• Flow sensors are generally connected to gauges to
render their measurements, but they can also be
connected to computers and digital interfaces.
• They are commonly used in HVAC systems, medical
devices, chemical factories, and septic systems. Flow
sensors are able to detect leaks, blockages, pipe bursts,
and changes in liquid concentration due to
contamination or pollution.
• An ultrasonic flow meter is a type of flow
meter that measures the velocity of a fluid
with ultrasound to calculate volume flow.
• Using ultrasonic transducers, the flow meter can
measure the average velocity along the path of
an emitted beam of ultrasound, by averaging the
difference in measured transit time between the
pulses of ultrasound propagating into and against
the direction of the flow or by measuring the
frequency shift from the Doppler effect.
 Laser Doppler Anemometer

• Doppler Effect is a method for measuring linear

velocity. When a narrow laser beam ( or radio
beam or ultrasonic beam) is focused on an abject,
the beam will be reflected back to the source.
• But if the object is moving, the frequency of the
signal received back will differ from that of the
transmitted signal. This difference in frequency
(Doppler shift) becomes a measure of the velocity
of the object .
 Vision sensors
• Vision sensors use images captured by a
camera to determine presence, orientation,
and accuracy of parts. These sensors differ
from image inspection “systems” in that the
camera, light, and controller are contained in
a single unit, which makes the unit’s
construction and operation simple. There are
differences between these sensors and other
general-purpose sensors.